This was not an isolated incident of massacres in the city. The actions of the fifty-year-old cornet Levin, who commanded fifty partisans and was at Wrangel’s disposal, received wide publicity. Kornet, a former state councilor, surrounded a company of Red Army soldiers in one of the city's quarters and killed everyone, with the exception of one, who, seriously wounded, managed to escape and tell his story to the public of Stavropol. There followed a complaint addressed to General Glasenap about the arbitrary actions of the cornet, but “from a military point of view, of course, there was nothing illegal in Levin’s act.” Later, 62 people would be shot by court martial.

November 3, 1918 The first mass execution occurs in Arkhangelsk. In the prison yard, members of the Pechora Soviet expeditionary detachment were shot: officer S. N. Larionov, commissar V. Sharygin, as well as M. Georgievsky, I. Komarov, Y. Yakobchak, I. Dyachkov. 11 Red Army soldiers were sentenced to indefinite hard labor.

The execution was carried out by a combined Anglo-American-French detachment on the orders of the English General E. Ironside. Later in 1941, upon Ironside's retirement, he was granted a baronial title: he became the first Baron Ironside of Arkhangelsk. According to rumors, before the Second World War he sympathized with the Nazis, while actively participating in the activities of the “Anglo-German Brotherhood”.

The same execution of Larionov and 5 Red Army soldiers of his detachment, who surrendered to the whites, is also mentioned by modern researcher A.L. Kubasov. S. N. Larionov’s brother, Alexey Nikolaevich Larionov, would later become a famous Soviet party leader, Hero of Socialist Labor, secretary of the party organization of the Ryazan region, who later became “famous” for the “Ryazan meat business.”

It should be noted that this was not the only case of American troops participating in punitive actions. Thus, one of the participants in the intervention in the North, American Ralph Albertson, later recalled: “I have repeatedly heard how officers ordered their soldiers not to take prisoners, but to kill enemy soldiers, even when they were unarmed... We used gas shells against the Bolsheviks, but this, in my opinion, was not yet the greatest cruelty... Once we shot more than 30 prisoners as a measure of punishment against three murderers. The sergeant told me that, having captured the commissar of the town of Borok, we left him naked in the street with sixteen bayonet wounds.”

November 5, 1918 the commander of the Votkinsk group of troops, the Menshevik G.N. Yuriev (formerly the chief of police of Yelets) stated that in the event of a breakthrough by the Red troops, all the premises with arrested Bolsheviks would be thrown with grenades.

November 7, 1918 Bolshevik-Cossack S. F. Shadrin, deputy chairman of the Amur Labor Socialist Republic, and then one of the leaders of the partisan movement in the region, was executed. His murder by the new authorities was explained by the fact that he “encroached on power, on the overthrow of the Cossack military administration.

November 9, 1918 With the defeat of the punitive detachment in the village of Dubenskoye, the peasant Minusinsk uprising in the Yenisei province began. Started in response to government measures against moonshine, it soon became widespread, and more than 10 thousand people were in the troops of the rebel peasants. After an unsuccessful assault by the rebels on Minusinsk on November 21–23, retaliatory punitive operations began. The uprising was suppressed by Kolchak's troops under the command of General I.F. Shilnikov. In November, 21 people will be shot in Upper Suetek, 13 in Nizhnyaya Bulanka, and 3 residents in the village of Abakanskoye. Of the 1,204 participants who surrendered at the end of November - beginning of December 1918, 770 were handed over to the military investigation commission. By February 12, 1919, a military court sentenced 87 of them to death, 50 people were exiled to hard labor, about 200 were sentenced to imprisonment, and up to 300 were sentenced to large fines. At the same time, Kulchitsky, one of the leaders of the uprising, was hanged at the gates of the Minusinsk prison.

6 participants of the Minusinsk uprising were shot by a white punitive detachment near the village. Udzhey, in the village of Nikolaevka.

November 10, 1918 From the order of the commandant of the Makeevsky district (Siberia): “I forbid arresting workers, but order them to be shot or hanged; I order all arrested workers to be hanged on the main street and not removed for three days.”

November 12, 1918 The commander of the 6th Infantry Division and the head of the garrison of Novonikolaevsk, Colonel A.P. Stepanov, by order No. 92, not only banned rallies, street performances, and demonstrations in the city and its environs, but also provided for execution for anti-government agitation and a court-martial for posting leaflets.

Two days later the order was published in the local newspaper Russkaya Rech. The Chairman of the Kolchak Council of Ministers, P.V. Vologodsky, made a statement that this order “fundamentally contradicts existing legislation, unnecessarily terrorizes the population and decisively undermines the current government,” appealing to Admiral A.V. Kolchak with a request to remove A.P. Stepanov from the post of garrison commander. However, the request of the head of government was ignored by the admiral.

November 14, 1918 The Japanese and White Guards in the city of Svobodny shot 17 members of the Dorprofsozh of the Amur Railway, including the chairman of the Dorprofsozh Lunev, deputy. chief inspector of the Amur railway Samotsvetov, telegraph operator Permyakov, mechanic Miller, weigher Sergeev, as well as Ponfatyev, Fominsky, Yuryev, Zelenin, Mosalov, Kondratenko, Perfilyev and others.

Later, in the spring of 1919, the Japanese broke into the local city hospital, where wounded partisans were secretly being treated, hacked and bayoneted 23 people. The corpses were dragged to the Zeya crossing, stacked, and then doused with kerosene and burned.

November 16, 1918 On the Olekma River, the White Guards shot the former chairman of Centrosibiria N.N. Yakovlev. Together with him, the Kolchak detachment under the leadership of I. Zakharenko and the Cossack podesaul N. Gabyshev shot a group of prominent Siberian Bolsheviks: F. M. Lytkin, I. Shevtsov, Nikitin.

On the night of November 17-18, 1918. The Kolchak coup took place in Omsk. Those arrested, members of the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the leadership of the Directory N.D. Avksentyev, V.M. Zenzinov, Avksentyev’s deputy A.A. Argunov and the head of police affairs of the Council of Ministers E.F. Rogovsky and their adjutants, were taken out of town - to Lysaya Gora, where the detachment of Ataman I.A. Krasilnikov was stationed. It is characteristic that immediately after the coup, political censorship was established in the coverage of the events that took place. The Minister of Internal Affairs A. N. Hattenberger already in the first hours after the coup on November 18 sent out a special circular to the provincial and volost commissars. In it, he demanded to prevent discussion in the press and at meetings of “what is happening,” expressing a recommendation not to stop, if necessary, before taking decisive measures, including the arrest of both individuals and boards and leaders of parties and organizations.

The direct perpetrators of the coup, in addition to I.A. Krasilnikov, were officers of the Siberian Cossack army, Colonel V.I. Volkov and military foreman A.V. Katanaev, already known previously as the leaders of punitive operations in Siberia.

All three of these figures subsequently, after a short formal investigation without any consequences, had the constant support of A.V. Kolchak and had a good career. In a secret order of the War Ministry dated November 19, 1918., signed by the temporary manager, Major General Surin, spoke of the promotion of the direct perpetrators of the coup for “outstanding military distinction”: in the army, Colonel V. I. Volkov was promoted to major general, and in the Cossack troops, the rank of colonel was awarded to military foreman A. V. Katanaev and I.A. Krasilnikov. However, these were their first new ranks and titles under A.V. Kolchak. Very soon Krasilnikov will also be promoted to major general. Being supporters of a hard line, they will consistently implement it in the future.

November 18, 1918 In Khabarovsk, Kalmykites carried out another execution. This time 11 people were shot.

November 19, 1918 A white punitive detachment entered the village of Marushkino, Biysk district. The punitive operation was carried out in response to the protests of peasants who were dissatisfied with the unfair arrest of a fellow villager, as well as the requisition policy - in particular, all front-line soldiers on the list were asked to give up their overcoats. On the first day, 14 people were shot or died as a result of torture (18-year-old V.V. Kuksin received more than 15 bayonet wounds to the head). The massacre did not stop there and soon, on November 21, 1918, another 12 Marushans were hanged. Five more residents were taken to Biysk, where they were shot. In the neighboring village of Verkh-Shubinka, 18 peasants were shot, in the village of Lozhkino-1. In total, about 500 people were punished in the volost as a result of the punitive action.

November 22, 1918 in Blagoveshchensk, a member of the RSDLP (b), chairman of the central committee of the Amur Railway, railway engineer V. I. Shimanovsky was shot.

November 22, 1918 After the withdrawal of German troops, the Don units of Ataman Krasnov, led by Colonel Zhirov, entered Mariupol. A counterintelligence service was formed in the city, which began identifying pro-Bolshevik forces.

November 23, 1918 Krasnov Cossack units captured Liski, Voronezh province (on November 29 they were reoccupied by the Reds). The settlements of Bobrov and Sredny Ikorets were previously occupied. Mass executions were carried out in these territories. During the same period, there was an uprising of settlements against mobilization into the Krasnov army. “During the clash, 15 people were killed on both sides. The punitive forces of centurion Ryabov burned 33 households from among the villagers who went to the Reds. Those who joined the Reds were sentenced to death in absentia. An indemnity of 15 thousand rubles was imposed on the settlement. After the White Cossacks shot an unarmed marching reinforcement of 300 17-18-year-old Penza boys on Grakov Yar, almost the entire male population of Korennaya and Uspenka went to the Reds. The killed Penza residents went and were buried for several days by the women and old people who remained in the villages.”

November 23, 1918 and collaboration with the Soviet authorities in the Amur region, 6 Cossacks of the Poyarkovsky stanitsa district were executed, including G.Z. Chernomorchenko, A.I. Kholoshenko.

November 25, 1918 During the retreat, the detachment of Lieutenant A.D. Danilov occupied the village of Muldovo in the vicinity of the city of Ostrov, Pskov province. In the village, the commissar of the Pokrovsk volost of the Ostrovsky district, who was at home, was arrested and shot the next day. A native of the village of Muldovo, military commissar Fyodor Egorovich Egorov was captured, taken to the Pytalovsky district and hanged there. S. Kuzmin, a member of the Sinenikolsky Volost Executive Committee, was also arrested; later he was taken into the forest and hanged.

November 26, 1918 The detachment of S.N. Bulak-Balakhovich, together with a detachment of the external guard of Pskov under the command of Captain L.I. Mikoshi, attacked the village of Ryabovo and captured the headquarters and convoy of the 10th Novgorod regiment. About 60 people were captured, of whom 40 were subsequently shot, and the rest, who carried out the execution, were enrolled in the detachment of S.N. Bulak-Balakhovich as having proven in practice that they were not Bolsheviks. Constant executions, and in the case of the time available to Bulak-Balakhovich, the gallows, are an integral part of the practice of executions of the famous chieftain. A participant in the white movement, A. Gershelman, gave him the following description: “a man of low morality, a dishonest opportunist in politics, he is cruel, loves to shoot with his own hands, not sparing his people in case of misconduct. He is very prone to robbery, but here they look at it condescendingly.”

November 26, 1918 The combined detachment of Lieutenant Colonel D.R. Vetrenko set out in the direction of the city of Izborsk, Pskov province. By 11 o'clock in the morning the detachment approached the village of Gnilino, and then to the village of Babyakovo, where it met fierce resistance from residents who sympathized with the Soviet regime. The detachment took three hostages from among the local residents so that he could be allowed to pass on without a fight. After shelling from the direction of the village, they were shot and the village was burned.

November 26, 1918 Order No. 22 was issued for the troops of the South-Western Army by the Orenburg Ataman, General A.I. Dutov, which stated: “Speculation in Orenburg is increasing. Conventional control measures have no effect. Entering into the interests of the poorest class of the population, I am forced to take harsh measures, which is why I declare all speculators, without distinction of class, condition and gender, outlawed, as traitors to the Motherland, who have forgotten honor, conscience and their duty to the Fatherland in its suffering days. All detained speculators are subject to execution without trial or investigation upon reporting to me all the circumstances of the case.”

Later, at the end of 1918, in another order, the ataman, trying to reduce the increase in desertion, issued an order according to which it was ordered to detain the able-bodied parents of deserters and send them to trench work in the front-line zone.

November 26, 1918 Poltava was taken under control by the Haidamaks of S. Petliura. A national regime is being established in the city. From the diary of the writer Korolenko: January 1 (14), 1919 “In the evening, some soldier, or, rather, a Petliura “Sich” asked me and... handed me a letter. I started asking questions, and the Sich leader seriously and sadly confirmed everything that was in the letter from the arrested Chizhevskaya: Grand-Hotel (Grand Hotel, Poltava hotel) is all busy with counterintelligence. They are arrested, taken to separate rooms, quickly tried and taken away to be shot, and sometimes they are shot right there in a separate room. When I talked to him a little, he said that he served in Balbachan’s cavalry division - “I went to fight for the truth and for Ukraine,” but when he was assigned to headquarters and counterintelligence, he saw such things that he was completely horrified. At the same time, the young man’s face twitched with a spasm, his voice trembled and tears appeared in his eyes. Chizhevskaya... will be shot. Moscow student Mashenzhinov is still sitting. He, too, will be shot, like the peasant.

- Why the peasant?

“They hate the peasants because they are Bolsheviks.”

He did not object a word when I asked and wrote down his last name, and only when I said that his superiors would not know from me, of course, that he had come with a note, he said with a seriousness that touched me:

“Yes, if they found out, they could shoot me.”

Korolenko managed to intervene in the process, the peasant was released even before him, Chizhevskaya was promised to be released.

November 1918 New Annenkov executions. “At the beginning of November 1918, Ataman Annenkov arrived with a small detachment in Ust-Kamenogorsk, where he was solemnly greeted by the “fathers” of the city. They gave him a magnificent banquet with music. And at this time, the “atamans” who arrived with Annenkov came to the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress, where the arrested were kept. They mocked and terrorized all the prisoners, some of them were shot right in the corridors of the prison. Finally, the bandits selected a group of arrested people - 30 people - workers of the Pavlodar Council and Soviet workers in other places. They were placed on the ship of Ataman Annenkov for delivery to Semipalatinsk. In Semipalatinsk, those arrested were placed in a “death wagon”. A few days later, Annenkov, without any trial or investigation, ordered the execution of all 30 people. The Annenkovites took them to the shore of the already ice-bound Irtysh, made an ice hole and ordered them to jump into the water. Those who did not want to jump were shot.”

November 1918 Not far from the village. New Bor on lower Pechora, the White Guards shot 6 Red Army soldiers from the detachment of P.F. Arteev. Between the villages of Srednee Bugaevo and Verkhnee Bugaevo, 4 more people were shot.

November 1918. Clearing the Kuban villages of supporters of Soviet power. Typical are the events in the village of Otradnaya, where the punitive operation was carried out by members of Pokrovsky’s detachment and local henchmen. In Otradnaya, punitive forces broke into the district hospital, where the wounded soldiers of Poputnaya, Kazminka, Otradnaya, Gusarovka and other villages and villages were lying. According to the memoirs of N. M. Mishchenko, 60 wounded Red Guards were executed on acacia trees right in the hospital courtyard, not counting other captured Red Army soldiers. In Poputnaya and near it, the head was killed. military commissar Teslenko, Ekaterina Nikolaenko and her son Yashka, the Shulgin brothers, Korebeinik, Evdokia Pryadkin, Matryona Nikitenko and others. “In the local prison, which was located on the territory of the state farm-factory of essential oils, throughout the autumn of 1918 the whites tortured and tormented captured Soviet people. Tatyana Solomakha, Pyotr Sheiko, Lozovaya, and many dozens of victims went through this massacre. In a drunken revelry, the punishers broke into the houses of the “unreliable,” dragged them into the yard and immediately killed them. This is how Marina Aleksenko, Sergei Konovalenko, Nikitenko and others were killed. Sometimes the whites “amused themselves” by robbing and raping the inhabitants of the village. So the Kozlikinites came to Irina Kotelgina, whose husband had left with the Red Army, and demanded money. She didn’t have any money, so they killed the woman. Another example: punitive forces broke into the house of Zhivotkova, whose family is listed as buried in a mass grave, raped her, and, together with her children, locked her in a hut and burned her. They killed Brakovaya, whose husband was in the Red Army, and threw her under a cliff. Marriage was pregnant and gave birth during the beating. Women - Mosienko, Stukolova and others - did not lag behind their husbands and brothers - the punishers. On the Mass Grave monument there is a list of 63 people who became victims of the bloody revelry of the whites. This is not a complete list of the dead. Many of the names of the victims remained forgotten, and the places of their death were also forgotten.”

Transcaucasia, German-Turkish nationalist troops. troops of the Eastern Front Vatsetis from 28. United with the Soviet troops of Turkestan. In Siberia and the Far East, the Entente troops never went on the offensive.

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Russian Civil War

(May 1918 - late 1920s)

4 stages:

1. May-November 1918 - the beginning of the civil war. Military intervention.
2. November 1918 - March 1919 - the rise and fall of direct intervention.
3. Spring 1919 - early 1920s - stage of decisive battles.
4. 1920 - the Soviet-Polish war and the defeat of Wrangel's troops.

1st stage. Military intervention.

Rear.

Rebuilding the country on a war footing.

January 1918 - creation of a voluntary Red Army.

May 1918 - start of mobilization. Workers, peasants. Red Army.

KA = largest army in the world (late 1920).

Officers (50 thousand), “military experts” (25 thousand).

At the insistence of Trotsky - the introduction of the death penalty in the army (abolished II Congress of Soviets).

September 1918 - Trotsky = head of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic (RVSR).

“it is impossible to lead masses of people to death without… the death penalty”;

"to straighten the spine into the loose body of the Red Army."

The use of the death penalty both in the rear and at the front.

Attempt on Lenin

September 1918 - "Red Terror"

November 1918 - official abolition of the Red Terror. He continued to operate in subsequent years.

The general leadership of the country is the Labor and Defense Council (SLO). Lenin.

Front

May 1918 - uprising of the White Czechs. The Entente took them into its ranks.

Eastern and Southern fronts.

The wealthy peasantry of the Urals, Siberia, and the Volga region - support = exhausted by the dictatorship.

By the end of the summer of 1918, Soviet power was surrounded on all sides.

Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine - Germans.

Don, Sev. Caucasus - Krasnov, Denikin.

Transcaucasia - German-Turkish troops, nationalists.

North, Ural, Siberia, Far East, Middle Volga region - White Guard + Entente.

Turkestan is cut off from the center of Russia. The British.

August 7, 1918 - White Czechs, Ural, Orenburg Cossacks, "People's Army" Komucha Kazan

 a direct road to Moscow is open.

August 12-25, 1918 - troops of the Eastern Front (Vatsetis, p. 28. IX - Kamenev) stopped the offensive.

They took Orenburg. They united with the Soviet troops of Turkestan.

The enemy captured the republic's gold reserves and left for the Urals.

There is a partisan movement there. The armies of I. Kozhevnikov and V. Blucher.

November 1918 - A.V. Kolchak removed the “Ufa Directory” (supporters of the Constituent Assembly) from power and established a military dictatorship in Siberia.

Kolchak = "supreme ruler of Russia." Preparing new forces for the march on Moscow.

October 1918 - Southern front = main.

South: Denikin in Kuban

Don region: Krasnov. Tried to take Tsaritsyn and cut the Volga.

January 1919 - The Red Army threw back and defeated Krasnov.

Early 1919 - the remnants of the troops joined Denikin's "Armed Forces of the South of Russia" (AFSR).

Milestone 1st stage - end of I- th world war.

Open intervention

At the second stage Sov. Rep. - in a dual position.

1. November Revolution in Germany the German occupiers left Soviet power was restored in Ukraine, Belarus, and most of the Baltic states;

February 1919 - Lithuania + Belarus = Litbel

1. Aggravation of the situation of the Soviet army. After the defeat Germany - liberation of forces from the Entente. They want to finish off Soviet Russia.

Entente : plan for simultaneous strikes from the North, South, East.

BUT England (Churchill): we can only hold Murmansk and Arkhangelsk; Batum and Baku - anti-war sentiments.

In Siberia and the Far East, the Entente troops never went on the offensive.

The American fight against the Japanese  fight against Far Eastern partisans.

Kolchak accumulates strength. Included in the army Belochekhov.

France: 2 of its divisions, 1.5 Greek, detachments of Serbs, Romanians, Poles - to the south of Ukraine ( January 1919 ). Kherson and Nikolaev were occupied. The forces of the Ukrainian Front were thrown back to the sea.

April 1919 - uprising in the French squadron under the red banner.

France is evacuating troops, carrying away the “bacillus of Bolshevism” from Russia.

1919

The fight against Kolchak, Denikin, Yudenich.

Cancellation of the provision to replace the standing army with the general arming of the people (militia).

We must have a regular, well-trained, strictly disciplined army.

"Military opposition": V.M. Smirnov, G.L. Pyatakov, A.S. Bubnov, K.E. Voroshilov

Against: personnel, disciplined army, against the death penalty, military experts

Behind: guerrilla methods of war, election of command personnel.

March 1919 - VIII Congress of Soviets. The opposition was defeated.

March 1919 - Kolchak deployed an army of thousands to Moscow.

April 1919 - Entente: Kolchak and Denikin should unite for a joint campaign against Moscow.

By the end of April, Kolchak’s troops cut off Turkestan and approached Samara, Simbirsk, and Kazan.

Eastern front = main (as in the summer of 1918).

To strengthen - party, Komsomol, trade union mobilization.

Communist subbotniks to help the front.

End of April 1919 - Kolchak’s first defeat from the southern front (M.V. Frunze). The Red Army is on the offensive.

June 1, 1919 - Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on the military alliance of Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia and Belarus (in Estonia the Soviet government was overthrown).

Military-Political Union of Republics.

June 1919 - general offensive of the Eastern Front troops.

The Urals and Western Siberia were liberated.

Summer 1919 - the final centralization of the administration of the Red Army of the RSFSR and the armed forces of the Soviet republics.

July 1919 - the main front is the South.

Denikinsky: Sev. The Caucasus, Ukraine, Southern Russia, cut the Volga, Tsaritsyn, BUT did not have time to unite with the Kolchakites.

July 3, 1919 - "Moscow Directive" by Denikin. The ultimate goal is the capture of Moscow.

The main attack is in the shortest direction: Kursk Orel  Tula.

Restoring a “united and indivisible Russia”

 potential allies - Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Petliura and Ukrainian nationalists do not provide support

There is an active partisan movement in the rear.

Denikin took Orel and stopped at the walls of Tula, the “gun forge” of the Soviets. Tula is a strategic point.

October 13, 1919 - counteroffensive of the Southern Front. Head. striking force - the cavalry corps of S.M. Budyonny (since November 1919 - the First Cavalry Army).

South-Eastern + Southern fronts vs Denikin.

Denikin's troops were divided into two groups and defeated.

Significant units went to Crimea.

Denikin entrusted the duties of commander-in-chief to General P.N. Wrangel and sailed on an English destroyer to Constantinople.

Autumn 1919 The Soviet state was on the verge of defeat.

At the same time as Denikin, N.N. Yudenich’s army marched on Petrograd.

Second trip to Pg. (first - May-June 1919).

October 17, 1919 - Lenin: the fate of Petrograd is “half the fate of Soviet power in Russia.”

October 21, 1919 - Soviet troops drove Yudenich back from the Pulkovo Heights to Estonia. There the Judenovites are disarmed.

End of 1919 - Kolchak flees Omsk. In the hands of the White Czechs.

The White Czechs handed them over to the Mensheviks, the Mensheviks to the Bolsheviks.

January 4, 1920 - Kolchak resigned as commander-in-chief in favor of Denikin.

February 1920 - By order of the Revolutionary Military Council, Kolchak was shot.

End of the Civil War

February 1920 - G.M. Krizhanovsky + the commission is developing the GOERLO plan.

Spring 1920 - the impression was that the war was over.

Plans for peaceful construction.

The peaceful respite is short.

April 1920 - Polish troops + Petura - on the offensive = the beginning of the fourth stage of the civil war.

Troops ex- national the outskirts, with the support of London and Paris, captured Belarus, part of Ukraine with Kiev, and reached the left bank of the Dnieper.

End of May 1920 - troops of the Western (M.N. Tukhachevsky) and South-West Front (A.I. Egorov) - on the offensive.

They wanted to push the “red bayonet” through Warsaw into the center of Europe, into Germany.

August 1920 - The troops of the Western Front were defeated near Warsaw.

Defeat of the Lvov operation.

The Poles are again in Ukraine and Belarus. 100,000 prisoners of war.

October 1920 - armistice agreement between Russia, Ukrainian SSR, Poland.

March 18, 1920 , Riga - peace treaty. Western Ukraine and Western Belarus go to Poland. "Second Brest".

Summer 1920 - Wrangel's troops left Crimea. Attack on Right Bank Ukraine (they wanted to unite with the White Poles).

September 1920 - against the “ruler of the South of Russia” the Western Front (M.V. Frunze) stands out from the South-West Front.

Red Army: superiority in strength and means.

Late October 1920 - The Red Army went on the offensive. Northern Tavria was liberated.

November 7-11, 1920 - Soviet troops + N. Makhno’s cavalry detachment broke through the fortifications on Perekop and crossed Sivash.

Almost 150,000 people were evacuated from Crimea to Turkey.

April 1920 - Soviet power in Azerbaijan.

April 1920 - The Khan of Khiva and the Emir of Bukhara were overthrown.

April 1920 - The Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was created.

October 1920 - Bukhara NSR was created.

November 1920 - Soviet power in Armenia.

February 1921 - Soviet power in Georgia.

April 1920 - Far Eastern Republic (FER).

A temporary democratic state, a buffer between Japan and the RSFSR.

Autumn 1922 - People's Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Far Eastern Republic (V.K. Blucher; I.P. Uborevich) liberated the region from Japanese and White Guard troops.

November 1922 - The "buffer" DDA has been abolished. Territory into the RSFSR.

December 1920 - VIII The All-Russian Congress of Soviets congratulated all workers on their victory over internal and external counter-revolution.

Victims: 12,000,000 people.

Military casualties: 800,000 people.

The rest: hunger, terror, disease.

Emigrants: several million people.

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337.		Civil defense. Emergency situations and protection against them	49.6 KB
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17263.		RUSSIA IN THE WORLD WAR 1914-1918	24.57 KB
	Mastering historical experience, knowledge and methods of thinking developed by previous generations allows us to direct all practical activities of the present on this basis. Our past is our intellectual property, which must be treated with the same care as material property.

Civil war and foreign intervention in Russia

The civil war, which unfolded on the territory of the former Russian Empire, was a fierce armed struggle for power between representatives of various social strata and groups of Russian society, led by various political parties standing on opposing platforms. The peculiarity of the Civil War in Russia was primarily large-scale participation of foreign powers in it, having both direct and indirect influence on the course of the struggle. The armed support of the Entente countries for the Russian White movement played a significant role in unleashing and prolonging the bloody events of this tragic period in the history of our Fatherland.

The periodization of the Civil War is still a controversial issue. In general, its scale and duration were determined by the structural socio-political cataclysm into which virtually all layers and groups of multinational Russian society were plunged. Based on this position, we can say that the course of the armed struggle between the “Reds” and the “Whites”, which actually defines the very concept of “war” as a way of resolving political contradictions, or rather, the confrontation between warring armies and the transfer of the country’s economy to a war footing, covers the period from the summer of 1918 to the end of 1920. Within this intense period, four main stages are clearly distinguished. The entire turbulent palette of events, starting with the collapse of the autocracy and the victory of Bolshevism during the October armed revolution of 1917 and until the summer of 1918, which included political crises and local military clashes (skirmishes, riots, uprisings) of the Bolsheviks and their opponents, is the period " "creeping" of the country into the Civil War, i.e. its prologue, and the time from 1921 until the formation of the USSR in December 1922 is its epilogue, when the armed struggle continued only in certain regions and on the outskirts of Russia, not being the defining leitmotif of state-political development.

The first stage of the Civil War (late May - November 1918)

In May - August 1918 there was an uprising of the "White Czechs". At the end of May 1918, the situation sharply worsened in the east of the country, where units of the Czechoslovak Corps were located, which, by agreement of the Entente countries with the government of the RSFSR, was declared part of the French army and was subject to evacuation to France through Vladivostok, subject to the surrender of weapons. However, violation of this agreement by the corps command and attempts by local Soviets to disarm the corps led to armed conflicts. On the night of May 26, 1918, Czechoslovak units launched an armed uprising and soon, together with White Guard formations, captured almost the entire Trans-Siberian Railway. Soviet power in the Volga region, Siberia and the Far East in areas occupied by Czechoslovak units was overthrown. The uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps forced the Council of People's Commissars of Soviet Russia on June 13, 1918 to create the Revolutionary Military Council of the Eastern Front to fight it. In August, an attempt by front troops to go on the offensive ended in failure. After a regrouping of forces, the troops of the Eastern Front began a new operation and within two autumn months captured the Middle Volga region and the Kama region.

In order to support the “White Czechs” and establish control over Siberia, the Supreme Council of the Entente on July 2, 1918 decided to begin a broad intervention in Russia. Representatives of the command of intervention troops in the Far East on July 6 published a declaration on the establishment of temporary power in Vladivostok and its environs. On the same day, in Murmansk, an agreement was signed between representatives of the Entente countries with the presidium of the Murmansk Regional Council on the joint defense of the region from the powers of the Quadruple Alliance. On July 17, the US State Department issued a memorandum on the admissibility of military actions in Russia. On August 2, 1918, the Socialist Revolutionaries and Cadets, with the help of British intelligence, carried out an anti-Bolshevik coup in Arkhangelsk. The Supreme Administration of the Northern Region was formed, headed by N.V. Tchaikovsky. Soon Arkhangelsk was occupied by 1 thousand British, French and American soldiers and sailors. At the same time, at the invitation of the Centro-Caspian Dictatorship, created after the fall of the Baku Commune, British troops were brought into Baku. At the same time, 26 Baku commissars were arrested and shot in September 1918. However, in the same month, Turkish troops captured Baku after short fighting. On the Southern Front, the Red Army fought heavy battles against the Don Army near Tsaritsyn and Voronezh, and the troops of the Northern Front defended themselves in the Vologda and Arkhangelsk directions. The Red Army of the North Caucasus, under the pressure of the Volunteer Army, abandoned its western part.

One of the important events of this period was the uprising of the Left Social Revolutionaries. Considering the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty as a betrayal of the interests of the world revolution, they decided to return to the tactics of individual terror, and then to “central” terror. The Central Committee of the Left Socialist Revolutionary Party planned to execute the most prominent representatives of German imperialism. At the Third Congress of the Left Socialist Revolutionary Party (late June 1918), the Central Committee issued a directive to facilitate the termination of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty in every possible way. The first victim of the Left Social Revolutionaries on July 6, 1918 was the German Ambassador to Moscow, Count Wilhelm von Mirbach. In an effort to prevent the rupture of the peace treaty with Germany, the Bolsheviks arrested the entire Left Socialist Revolutionary faction present at the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 4-10), and on July 7 they defeated the Cheka detachment, in which most of the leadership was represented by the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. However, this could not stop the rebellion that began throughout the country. Thus, in July 1918, members of Savinkov’s “Union for the Defense of the Motherland and Freedom” rebelled in Yaroslavl, and the commander of the Soviet troops of the Eastern Front, Socialist Revolutionary M.A. Muravyov, ordered to turn arms against the German troops. Anti-Bolshevik uprisings spread literally throughout the country. Under these conditions, under the pretext of the threat of the capture of Yekaterinburg by the White Guards, on July 18, 1918, on orders from Moscow, the imprisoned former Emperor Nicholas II and members of his family were shot and secretly buried.

In August 1918, the chairman of the Petrograd Cheka, M. S. Uritsky, was killed by the left Social Revolutionaries, and V. I. Lenin was seriously wounded in Moscow. The wave of terror that swept the Soviet Republic served as the basis for the adoption by the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR on September 5, 1918, of the resolution "On red terror." It required “to secure the rear through terror, to shoot all persons involved in White Guard organizations, conspiracies and rebellions, to isolate all class enemies in concentration camps.”

In the spring of 1918, the military-political situation in Russia worsened. Everywhere, Soviet power was losing its position, the territory of Soviet Russia was shrinking. A variety of forces opposed the Bolsheviks - from the Germans who violated the terms of the Brest Peace Treaty to the rebel Cossacks, from the Entente countries to the socialist parties. Needless to say, the White movement has strengthened significantly.

In violation of the terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, German troops invaded the Kursk and Voronezh provinces from the south, and in early May captured Taganrog and Rostov, landing on the Taman Peninsula and in Poti.

In March 1918, the landing of English and then French and American troops began in Murmansk.

At the beginning of April 1918, the Entente countries also landed troops in Vladivostok.

By the spring of 1918, the actions of the Bolsheviks on the Don (requisition of grain and “decossackization,” expressed in the equal distribution of land between the Cossacks and “nonresidents,” as the Cossacks called newcomers) led to the refusal of the Don Cossacks to support Soviet power. The entire region of the Don Army was swept by an uprising organized by the anti-Bolshevik Circle for the Salvation of the Don. As a result, on May 8, 1918, the Don Soviet Republic was destroyed, its leader F.G. Podtelkov was captured and hanged. On May 16, 1918, the Circle elected General P.N. as Don Ataman. Krasnov, who escaped from prison and arrived in Novocherkassk back in November 1917. However, Ataman Krasnov was wary of the White movement, cherishing the dream of creating an independent state of the All-Great Don Army.

The broad peasant masses were also dissatisfied with the “food dictatorship” of the RSDLP (b). The confiscation of grain, the outrages of the food detachments, dispossession, the creation of committees of the poor - all this turned the peasants from supporters of the Bolsheviks into their sworn enemies. In addition, the policy of “food dictatorship” and the conclusion of the Brest Peace Treaty put their only political ally, the Left Socialist Revolutionaries, in opposition to the RSDLP (b).

However, the catalyst for a new rise of resistance to the proletarian dictatorship was the rebellion of the Czechoslovak Corps, which began on May 25, 1918. The corps of Czechs and Slovaks who sought to fight on the side of the Entente, created by the Provisional Government, was supposed, according to an agreement with the Council of People's Commissars, to go to Vladivostok, and from there to France. The Bolsheviks and the National Council of the Corps concluded this agreement in March 1918, immediately after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany. However, in May 1918, the corps was still in Russia, stretching out in echelons from Penza to Lake Baikal. The reason for the uprising was the order of the Soviet authorities to disarm the corps. A rumor spread among soldiers and officers that they would not be released from Soviet Russia, but would be sent to concentration labor camps. On May 20, 1918, the corps leadership decided to force their way into Vladivostok. On May 25, 1918, the Czechoslovak corps took up arms against Soviet power along its entire route. By the end of May 1918, they captured Penza, Chelyabinsk, Tomsk and some other cities. In June 1918, Soviet power was overthrown in Samara, Omsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Vladivostok. Most of the country became uncontrollable by the Bolsheviks. On June 8, 1918, a government of people's socialists and right Socialist Revolutionaries was formed in Samara - the Committee of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch), which set the goal of overthrowing the proletarian dictatorship throughout Russia and carrying out democratic reforms. Komuch's power extended to Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan, Ufa and part of the Saratov province. On June 23, the Provisional Siberian Government was formed in Omsk, which included the right Socialist Revolutionaries, Cadets and monarchists. The Ural government was created in Yekaterinburg. At the same time, in the north in July 1918, British and White Guard units captured the Solovetsky Islands, Kem, Onega. On August 2, 1918, Soviet power was overthrown in Arkhangelsk. The Supreme Directorate of the Northern Region of People's Socialists, Socialist Revolutionaries and Cadets was formed there.

The loss of Siberia, the Volga region and the Urals created not only a military-political, but also an economic threat for the Bolsheviks. They were forced to take urgent measures to restore their power in the east. On June 13, 1918, the Eastern Front was created under the command of the left Socialist Revolutionary M.A. Muravyova. However, on July 10, 1918, he learned of the uprising of the left Socialist Revolutionaries in Moscow and refused to submit to the Bolsheviks, attempting to move troops west. Although M.A. Muravyov failed to turn the front (he was killed on July 11, his place was taken by I.I. Vatsetis), the actions of the commander disorganized the soldiers, giving the opportunity to the Czechoslovak Corps to occupy Simbirsk and Yekaterinburg at the end of July 1918 (on the night of July 17, 1918). in the center of Yekaterinburg, in the basement of Ipatiev’s house, Tsar Nicholas, the Tsarina, five of their children and six of their close associates were shot without trial or investigation by the retreating Bolsheviks).

In the rear of the Bolsheviks, peasant uprisings broke out every now and then (130 riots in six months), and in August 1918 the Izhevsk-Votkinsk anti-Bolshevik uprising of workers began, the main slogan of which was “Soviets without Bolsheviks!” On August 7, 1918, the Whites occupied Kazan, where they captured half of Russia's gold reserves. The Reds could not go on a counteroffensive, but they put up stubborn resistance, which destroyed the Whites' plans at the end of August 1918 - to capture Saratov on the southern flank and unite with Krasnov's Don Army, and on the northern flank - Perm and create a united front with the troops of the Supreme Administration of the Northern Region.

The Bolsheviks carried out a major reorganization of the armed forces. On August 6, 1918, the Revolutionary Military Council was created to replace the Air Force, headed by L.D. Trotsky. New reserves were sent to the Eastern Front. On August 10, 1918, the Bolsheviks took Kazan. By the beginning of October, the White front in the east had been broken through 450 km wide and 100–150 km deep. The Volga region was in the hands of the Reds. In October–November, the Red Army advanced on the Eastern Front 300 km east of the Volga, occupying Buguruslan, Belebey and Bugulma, defeating the Izhevsk-Votkinsk rebels and establishing control over the entire Middle Volga region and the Kama region.

In the summer of 1918, the problem of the Southern Front became acute for the Bolsheviks. In June 1918, the Don Army of Ataman Krasnov moved towards Tsaritsyn. The capture of Tsaritsyn by the Whites would have meant for the Soviet government the loss of contact with the North Caucasus and the Lower Volga region, the last grain-producing region. In addition, this would give the Don Army the opportunity to unite with the Ural Cossacks and Komuch forces. The defense of Tsaritsyn was entrusted to “military specialist” A.E. Snesarev. In June 1918, I.V. arrived to help Snesarev. Stalin. He solved the problem of strengthening the front by unleashing terror against the “military experts.” Stalin bombed V.I. Lenin denounced former officers, arrested most of them and executed many. He abandoned the plan for the defense of Tsaritsyn, developed by A.E. Snesarev. August 1, 1918 I.V. Stalin withdrew his troops from the defensive lines and gave the order to attack. As a result, the Red offensive failed, and Tsaritsyn was surrounded. By mid-August 1918, the Don Army reached the approaches to the city; it was possible to stop the White advance with huge losses only on September 7, 1918. The Don Army retreated beyond the Don, preparing for a new attack on Tsaritsyn.

On September 11, the Southern Front was formed. The Revolutionary Military Council of the front included “military expert” P.P. Sytin and members of the RVS I.V. Stalin and K.E. Voroshilov. Stalin and Voroshilov, loyal to him, removed P.P. Sytin from the command, ignored the orders of the Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic L.D. Trotsky. All these differences made it easier for White to advance. In mid-October 1918, the Don Army almost took Tsaritsyn. Only the unexpected appearance of reinforcements from the “Steel Division” D.P. helped the Reds defend the city. Rednecks. On October 25, the Whites retreated again beyond the Don, I.V. Stalin recalled from Tsaritsyn, A.E. Snesarev was released from prison.

During this period, fierce battles also took place in the North Caucasus. In mid-August 1918, the Volunteer Army A.I. Denikin, having received from P.N. Krasnov, reinforced with weapons and ammunition, captured Ekaterinodar. On November 11, the Red Army troops left Stavropol. Nothing stopped the volunteer army in the North Caucasus anymore.

Chronology

• 1918 Stage I of the civil war - “democratic”
• 1918, June Nationalization Decree
• 1919, January Introduction of surplus appropriation
• 1919 Fight against A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, Yudenich
• 1920 Soviet-Polish War
• 1920 Fight against P.N. Wrangel
• 1920, November End of the civil war on European territory
• 1922, October End of the civil war in the Far East

Civil war and military intervention

Civil War- “the armed struggle between different groups of the population, which was based on deep social, national and political contradictions, took place with the active intervention of foreign forces through various stages and stages...” (Academician Yu.A. Polyakov).

In modern historical science there is no single definition of the concept of “civil war”. In the encyclopedic dictionary we read: “Civil war is an organized armed struggle for power between classes, social groups, the most acute form of class struggle.” This definition actually repeats Lenin’s famous saying that civil war is the most acute form of class struggle.

Currently, various definitions are given, but their essence mainly boils down to the definition of the Civil War as a large-scale armed confrontation, in which, undoubtedly, the issue of power was decided. The seizure of state power in Russia by the Bolsheviks and the subsequent dispersal of the Constituent Assembly can be considered the beginning of armed confrontation in Russia. The first shots were heard in the south of Russia, in the Cossack regions, already in the autumn of 1917.

General Alekseev, the last chief of staff of the tsarist army, begins to form the Volunteer Army on the Don, but by the beginning of 1918 it amounted to no more than 3,000 officers and cadets.

As A.I. wrote Denikin in “Essays on Russian Troubles,” “the white movement grew spontaneously and inevitably.”

In the first months of the victory of Soviet power, armed clashes were local in nature; all opponents of the new government gradually determined their strategy and tactics.

This confrontation took on a truly front-line, large-scale character in the spring of 1918. Let us highlight three main stages in the development of armed confrontation in Russia, based primarily on taking into account the alignment of political forces and the peculiarities of the formation of fronts.

The first stage begins in the spring of 1918 when the military-political confrontation becomes global, large-scale military operations begin. The defining feature of this stage is its so-called “democratic” character, when representatives of the socialist parties emerged as an independent anti-Bolshevik camp with slogans of returning political power to the Constituent Assembly and restoring the gains of the February Revolution. It is this camp that is chronologically ahead of the White Guard camp in its organizational design.

At the end of 1918 the second stage begins- confrontation between whites and reds. Until the beginning of 1920, one of the main political opponents of the Bolsheviks was the white movement with the slogans of “non-decision of the state system” and the elimination of Soviet power. This direction threatened not only the October, but also the February conquests. Their main political force was the Cadets Party, and the army was formed by generals and officers of the former tsarist army. The Whites were united by hatred of the Soviet regime and the Bolsheviks, and the desire to preserve a united and indivisible Russia.

The final stage of the Civil War begins in 1920. events of the Soviet-Polish war and the fight against P. N. Wrangel. Wrangel's defeat at the end of 1920 marked the end of the Civil War, but anti-Soviet armed protests continued in many regions of Soviet Russia during the years of the New Economic Policy

Nationwide scale armed struggle has acquired from spring 1918 and turned into the greatest disaster, the tragedy of the entire Russian people. In this war there were no right and wrong, no winners and losers. 1918 - 1920 — in these years, the military issue was of decisive importance for the fate of the Soviet government and the bloc of anti-Bolshevik forces opposing it. This period ended with the liquidation in November 1920 of the last white front in the European part of Russia (in Crimea). In general, the country emerged from the state of civil war in the fall of 1922 after the remnants of white formations and foreign (Japanese) military units were expelled from the territory of the Russian Far East.

A feature of the civil war in Russia was its close intertwining with anti-Soviet military intervention Entente powers. It was the main factor in prolonging and aggravating the bloody “Russian Troubles.”

So, in the periodization of the civil war and intervention, three stages are quite clearly distinguished. The first of them covers the time from spring to autumn 1918; the second - from the autumn of 1918 to the end of 1919; and the third - from the spring of 1920 to the end of 1920.

The first stage of the civil war (spring - autumn 1918)

In the first months of the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, armed clashes were local in nature; all opponents of the new government gradually determined their strategy and tactics. The armed struggle acquired a nationwide scale in the spring of 1918. Back in January 1918, Romania, taking advantage of the weakness of the Soviet government, captured Bessarabia. In March - April 1918, the first contingents of troops from England, France, the USA and Japan appeared on Russian territory (in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk, in Vladivostok, in Central Asia). They were small and could not significantly influence the military and political situation in the country. “War communism”

At the same time, the enemy of the Entente - Germany - occupied the Baltic states, part of Belarus, Transcaucasia and the North Caucasus. The Germans actually dominated Ukraine: they overthrew the bourgeois-democratic Verkhovna Rada, whose help they used during the occupation of Ukrainian lands, and in April 1918 they put Hetman P.P. in power. Skoropadsky.

Under these conditions, the Supreme Council of the Entente decided to use the 45,000th Czechoslovak Corps, which was (in agreement with Moscow) under his subordination. It consisted of captured Slavic soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian army and followed the railway to Vladivostok for subsequent transfer to France.

According to the agreement concluded on March 26, 1918 with the Soviet government, the Czechoslovak legionnaires were to advance “not as a combat unit, but as a group of citizens equipped with weapons to repel armed attacks by counter-revolutionaries.” However, during their movement, their conflicts with local authorities became more frequent. Since the Czechs and Slovaks had more military weapons than provided for in the agreement, the authorities decided to confiscate them. On May 26 in Chelyabinsk, conflicts escalated into real battles, and legionnaires occupied the city. Their armed uprising was immediately supported by the military missions of the Entente in Russia and anti-Bolshevik forces. As a result, in the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia and the Far East - wherever there were trains with Czechoslovak legionnaires - Soviet power was overthrown. At the same time, in many provinces of Russia, peasants, dissatisfied with the food policy of the Bolsheviks, rebelled (according to official data, there were at least 130 large anti-Soviet peasant uprisings alone).

Socialist parties(mainly right-wing Social Revolutionaries), relying on interventionist landings, the Czechoslovak Corps and peasant rebel groups, formed a number of governments Komuch (Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly) in Samara, the Supreme Administration of the Northern Region in Arkhangelsk, the West Siberian Commissariat in Novonikolaevsk (now Novosibirsk), The Provisional Siberian Government in Tomsk, the Trans-Caspian Provisional Government in Ashgabat, etc. In their activities they tried to compose “ democratic alternative”both the Bolshevik dictatorship and the bourgeois-monarchist counter-revolution. Their programs included demands for the convening of the Constituent Assembly, the restoration of the political rights of all citizens without exception, freedom of trade and the abandonment of strict state regulation of the economic activities of peasants while maintaining a number of important provisions of the Soviet Decree on Land, the establishment of a “social partnership” of workers and capitalists during the denationalization of industrial enterprises and etc.

Thus, the performance of the Czechoslavak corps gave impetus to the formation of a front that bore the so-called “democratic coloring” and was mainly Socialist-Revolutionary. It was this front, and not the white movement, that was decisive at the initial stage of the Civil War.

In the summer of 1918, all opposition forces became a real threat to the Bolshevik government, which controlled only the territory of the center of Russia. The territory controlled by Komuch included the Volga region and part of the Urals. Bolshevik power was also overthrown in Siberia, where the regional government of the Siberian Duma was formed. The breakaway parts of the empire - Transcaucasia, Central Asia, the Baltic states - had their own national governments. Ukraine was captured by the Germans, Don and Kuban by Krasnov and Denikin.

On August 30, 1918, a terrorist group killed the chairman of the Petrograd Cheka, Uritsky, and the right-wing Socialist Revolutionary Kaplan seriously wounded Lenin. The threat of loss of political power from the ruling Bolshevik party became catastrophically real.

In September 1918, a meeting of representatives of a number of anti-Bolshevik governments of democratic and social orientation was held in Ufa. Under pressure from the Czechoslovaks, who threatened to open the front to the Bolsheviks, they established a unified All-Russian government - the Ufa Directory, headed by the leaders of the Socialist Revolutionaries N.D. Avksentiev and V.M. Zenzinov. Soon the directorate settled in Omsk, where the famous polar explorer and scientist, former commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Admiral A.V., was invited to the post of Minister of War. Kolchak.

The right, bourgeois-monarchist wing of the camp opposing the Bolsheviks as a whole had not yet recovered at that time from the defeat of its first post-October armed attack on them (which largely explained the “democratic coloring” of the initial stage of the civil war on the part of anti-Soviet forces). White Volunteer Army, which after the death of General L.G. Kornilov in April 1918 was headed by General A.I. Denikin, operated on a limited territory of the Don and Kuban. Only the Cossack army of Ataman P.N. Krasnov managed to advance to Tsaritsyn and cut off the grain-producing regions of the North Caucasus from the central regions of Russia, and Ataman A.I. Dutov - to capture Orenburg.

By the end of the summer of 1918, the position of Soviet power had become critical. Almost three-quarters of the territory of the former Russian Empire was under the control of various anti-Bolshevik forces, as well as the occupying Austro-German forces.

Soon, however, a turning point occurs on the main front (Eastern). Soviet troops under the command of I.I. Vatsetis and S.S. Kamenev went on the offensive there in September 1918. Kazan fell first, then Simbirsk, and Samara in October. By winter the Reds approached the Urals. The attempts of General P.N. were also repelled. Krasnov to take possession of Tsaritsyn, undertaken in July and September 1918.

From October 1918, the Southern front became the main front. In the South of Russia, the Volunteer Army of General A.I. Denikin captured Kuban, and the Don Cossack Army of Ataman P.N. Krasnova tried to take Tsaritsyn and cut the Volga.

The Soviet government launched active measures to protect its power. In 1918, a transition was made to universal conscription, widespread mobilization was launched. The Constitution adopted in July 1918 established discipline in the army and introduced the institution of military commissars.

Poster "You have signed up to volunteer"

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) was allocated as part of the Central Committee to quickly resolve problems of a military and political nature. It included: V.I. Lenin - Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars; L.B. Krestinsky - Secretary of the Party Central Committee; I.V. Stalin - People's Commissar for Nationalities; L.D. Trotsky - Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic, People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs. Candidates for membership were N.I. Bukharin - editor of the newspaper “Pravda”, G.E. Zinoviev - Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, M.I. Kalinin is the chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.

The Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic, headed by L.D., worked under the direct control of the Party Central Committee. Trotsky. The Institute of Military Commissars was introduced in the spring of 1918; one of its important tasks was to control the activities of military specialists - former officers. Already at the end of 1918, there were about 7 thousand commissars in the Soviet armed forces. About 30% of former generals and officers of the old army during the civil war took the side of the Red Army.

This was determined by two main factors:

• acting on the side of the Bolshevik government for ideological reasons;
• The policy of attracting “military specialists”—former tsarist officers—to the Red Army was carried out by L.D. Trotsky using repressive methods.

War communism

In 1918, the Bolsheviks introduced a system of emergency measures, economic and political, known as “ policy of war communism”. Main acts this policy became Decree of May 13, 1918 g., giving broad powers to the People's Commissariat for Food (People's Commissariat for Food), and Decree of June 28, 1918 on nationalization.

The main provisions of this policy:

• nationalization of all industry;
• centralization of economic management;
• ban on private trade;
• curtailment of commodity-money relations;
• food allocation;
• equalization system of remuneration for workers and employees;
• payment in kind for workers and employees;
• free utilities;
• universal labor conscription.

June 11, 1918 were created committees(committees of the poor), which were supposed to seize surplus agricultural products from wealthy peasants. Their actions were supported by units of the prodarmiya (food army), consisting of Bolsheviks and workers. From January 1919, the search for surpluses was replaced by a centralized and planned system of surplus appropriation (Chrestomathy T8 No. 5).

Each region and county had to hand over a set amount of grain and other products (potatoes, honey, butter, eggs, milk). When the delivery quota was met, the village residents received a receipt for the right to purchase industrial goods (fabric, sugar, salt, matches, kerosene).

June 28, 1918 the state has started nationalization of enterprises with capital over 500 rubles. Back in December 1917, when the VSNKh (Supreme Council of the National Economy) was created, he began nationalization. But the nationalization of labor was not widespread (by March 1918, no more than 80 enterprises were nationalized). This was primarily a repressive measure against entrepreneurs who resisted workers' control. It was now government policy. By November 1, 1919, 2,500 enterprises had been nationalized. In November 1920, a decree was issued that extended nationalization to all enterprises with more than 10 or 5 workers, but using a mechanical engine.

Decree of November 21, 1918 was installed monopoly on domestic trade. Soviet power replaced trade with state distribution. Citizens received products through the People's Commissariat for Food using cards, of which, for example, in Petrograd in 1919 there were 33 types: bread, dairy, shoe, etc. The population was divided into three categories:
workers and scientists and artists equated to them;
employees;
former exploiters.

Due to the lack of food, even the wealthiest received only ¼ of the prescribed ration.

In such conditions, the “black market” flourished. The government fought against bag smugglers, prohibiting them from traveling by train.

In the social sphere, the policy of “war communism” was based on the principle “he who does not work, neither shall he eat.” In 1918, labor conscription was introduced for representatives of the former exploiting classes, and in 1920, universal labor conscription.

In the political sphere“War communism” meant the undivided dictatorship of the RCP (b). The activities of other parties (cadets, mensheviks, right and left socialist revolutionaries) were prohibited.

The consequences of the policy of “war communism” were deepening economic devastation and a reduction in production in industry and agriculture. However, it was precisely this policy that largely allowed the Bolsheviks to mobilize all resources and win the Civil War.

The Bolsheviks assigned a special role to mass terror in the victory over the class enemy. On September 2, 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted a resolution proclaiming the beginning of “mass terror against the bourgeoisie and its agents.” Head of the Cheka F.E. Dzherzhinsky said: “We are terrorizing the enemies of Soviet power.” The policy of mass terror took on a state character. Execution on the spot became commonplace.

The second stage of the civil war (autumn 1918 - end of 1919)

From November 1918, the front-line war entered the stage of confrontation between the Reds and the Whites. The year 1919 was decisive for the Bolsheviks; a reliable and constantly growing Red Army was created. But their opponents, actively supported by their former allies, united among themselves. The international situation has also changed significantly. Germany and its allies in the world war laid down their arms before the Entente in November. Revolutions took place in Germany and Austria-Hungary. Leadership of the RSFSR November 13, 1918 canceled, and the new governments of these countries were forced to evacuate their troops from Russia. In Poland, the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine, bourgeois-national governments arose, which immediately took the side of the Entente.

The defeat of Germany freed up significant combat contingents of the Entente and at the same time opened up for it a convenient and short road to Moscow from the southern regions. Under these conditions, the Entente leadership prevailed in the intention to defeat Soviet Russia using its own armies.

In the spring of 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente developed a plan for the next military campaign. (Chrestomathy T8 No. 8) As noted in one of his secret documents, the intervention was to be “expressed in combined military actions of Russian anti-Bolshevik forces and the armies of neighboring allied states.” At the end of November 1918, a joint Anglo-French squadron of 32 pennants (12 battleships, 10 cruisers and 10 destroyers) appeared off the Black Sea coast of Russia. English troops landed in Batum and Novorossiysk, and French troops landed in Odessa and Sevastopol. The total number of interventionist combat forces concentrated in the south of Russia was increased by February 1919 to 130 thousand people. The Entente contingents in the Far East and Siberia (up to 150 thousand people), as well as in the North (up to 20 thousand people) increased significantly.

Beginning of foreign military intervention and civil war (February 1918 - March 1919)

In Siberia, on November 18, 1918, Admiral A.V. came to power. Kolchak. . He put an end to the chaotic actions of the anti-Bolshevik coalition.

Having dispersed the Directory, he proclaimed himself the Supreme Ruler of Russia (the rest of the leaders of the white movement soon declared their submission to him). Admiral Kolchak in March 1919 began to advance on a broad front from the Urals to the Volga. The main bases of his army were Siberia, the Urals, the Orenburg province and the Ural region. In the north, from January 1919, General E.K. began to play a leading role. Miller, in the north-west - General N.N. Yudenich. In the south, the dictatorship of the commander of the Volunteer Army A.I. is strengthening. Denikin, who in January 1919 subjugated the Don Army of General P.N. Krasnov and created the united Armed Forces of southern Russia.

The second stage of the civil war (autumn 1918 - end of 1919)

In March 1919, the well-armed 300,000-strong army of A.V. Kolchak launched an offensive from the east, intending to unite with Denikin’s forces for a joint attack on Moscow. Having captured Ufa, Kolchak’s troops fought their way to Simbirsk, Samara, Votkinsk, but were soon stopped by the Red Army. At the end of April, Soviet troops under the command of S.S. Kamenev and M.V. The Frunzes went on the offensive and advanced deep into Siberia in the summer. By the beginning of 1920, the Kolchakites were completely defeated, and the admiral himself was arrested and executed by verdict of the Irkutsk Revolutionary Committee.

In the summer of 1919, the center of the armed struggle moved to the Southern Front. (Reader T8 No. 7) July 3, General A.I. Denikin issued his famous “Moscow directive”, and his army of 150 thousand people began an offensive along the entire 700-km front from Kyiv to Tsaritsyn. The White Front included such important centers as Voronezh, Orel, Kyiv. In this space of 1 million square meters. km with a population of up to 50 million people there were 18 provinces and regions. By mid-autumn, Denikin's army captured Kursk and Orel. But by the end of October, the troops of the Southern Front (commander A.I. Egorov) defeated the white regiments, and then began to press them along the entire front line. The remnants of Denikin’s army, headed by General P.N. in April 1920. Wrangel, strengthened in Crimea.

The final stage of the civil war (spring - autumn 1920)

At the beginning of 1920, as a result of military operations, the outcome of the front-line Civil War was actually decided in favor of the Bolshevik government. At the final stage, the main military operations were associated with the Soviet-Polish war and the fight against Wrangel’s army.

Significantly aggravated the nature of the civil war Soviet-Polish war. Head of Polish State Marshal J. Pilsudski hatched a plan to create “ Greater Poland within the borders of 1772” from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, including a large part of Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands, including those never controlled by Warsaw. The Polish national government was supported by the Entente countries, who sought to create a “sanitary bloc” of Eastern European countries between Bolshevik Russia and Western countries. On April 17, Pilsudski gave the order to attack Kiev and signed an agreement with Ataman Petliura, Poland recognized the Directory headed by Petliura as the supreme authority of Ukraine. On May 7, Kyiv was captured. The victory was achieved unusually easily, because the Soviet troops withdrew without serious resistance.

But already on May 14, a successful counter-offensive began by the troops of the Western Front (commander M.N. Tukhachevsky), on May 26 - the Southwestern Front (commander A.I. Egorov). In mid-July they reached the borders of Poland. On June 12, Soviet troops occupied Kyiv. The speed of a victory can only be compared with the speed of a previously suffered defeat.

The war with bourgeois-landlord Poland and the defeat of Wrangel’s troops (IV-XI 1920)

On July 12, British Foreign Secretary Lord D. Curzon sent a note to the Soviet government - in fact, an ultimatum from the Entente demanding to stop the Red Army's advance on Poland. As a truce, the so-called “ Curzon line”, which passed mainly along the ethnic border of the settlement of Poles.

The Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), having clearly overestimated its own strengths and underestimated the enemy’s, set a new strategic task for the main command of the Red Army: to continue the revolutionary war. IN AND. Lenin believed that the victorious entry of the Red Army into Poland would cause uprisings of the Polish working class and revolutionary uprisings in Germany. For this purpose, the Soviet government of Poland was quickly formed - the Provisional Revolutionary Committee consisting of F.E. Dzerzhinsky, F.M. Kona, Yu.Yu. Markhlevsky and others.

This attempt ended in disaster. The troops of the Western Front were defeated near Warsaw in August 1920.

In October, the warring parties concluded a truce, and in March 1921, a peace treaty. Under its terms, a significant part of the lands in western Ukraine and Belarus went to Poland.

At the height of the Soviet-Polish war, General P.N. took active action in the south. Wrangel. Using harsh measures, including public executions of demoralized officers, and relying on the support of France, the general turned Denikin's scattered divisions into a disciplined and combat-ready Russian army. In June 1920, troops were landed from the Crimea on the Don and Kuban, and the main forces of the Wrangel troops were sent to the Donbass. On October 3, the Russian army began its offensive in the northwestern direction towards Kakhovka.

The offensive of Wrangel’s troops was repulsed, and during the operation of the army of the Southern Front under the command of M.V., which began on October 28. The Frunzes completely captured Crimea. On November 14 - 16, 1920, an armada of ships flying the St. Andrew's flag left the shores of the peninsula, taking broken white regiments and tens of thousands of civilian refugees to a foreign land. Thus P.N. Wrangel saved them from the merciless red terror that fell on Crimea immediately after the evacuation of the whites.

In the European part of Russia, after the capture of Crimea, it was liquidated last white front. The military issue ceased to be the main one for Moscow, but fighting on the outskirts of the country continued for many months.

The Red Army, having defeated Kolchak, reached Transbaikalia in the spring of 1920. The Far East was at this time in the hands of Japan. To avoid a collision with it, the government of Soviet Russia promoted the formation in April 1920 of a formally independent “buffer” state - the Far Eastern Republic (FER) with its capital in Chita. Soon, the army of the Far East began military operations against the White Guards, supported by the Japanese, and in October 1922 occupied Vladivostok, completely clearing the Far East of Whites and interventionists. After this, a decision was made to liquidate the Far Eastern Republic and incorporate it into the RSFSR.

The defeat of the interventionists and White Guards in Eastern Siberia and the Far East (1918-1922)

The Civil War became the biggest drama of the twentieth century and the greatest tragedy in Russia. The armed struggle that unfolded across the expanses of the country was carried out with extreme tension of the opponents' forces, was accompanied by mass terror (both white and red), and was distinguished by exceptional mutual bitterness. Here is an excerpt from the memoirs of a participant in the Civil War, talking about soldiers of the Caucasian Front: “Well, why, son, isn’t it scary for a Russian to beat a Russian?” - the comrades ask the recruit. “At first it’s really kind of awkward,” he answers, “and then, if your heart gets hot, then no, nothing.” These words contain the merciless truth about the fratricidal war, into which almost the entire population of the country was drawn.

The fighting parties clearly understood that the struggle could only have a fatal outcome for one of the parties. That is why the civil war in Russia became a great tragedy for all its political camps, movements and parties.

“Reds” (the Bolsheviks and their supporters) believed that they were defending not only Soviet power in Russia, but also “the world revolution and the ideas of socialism.”

In the political struggle against Soviet power, two political movements were consolidated:

• democratic counter-revolution with slogans of returning political power to the Constituent Assembly and restoring the gains of the February (1917) Revolution (many Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks advocated the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, but without the Bolsheviks (“For Soviets without Bolsheviks”));
• white movement with the slogans of “non-decision of the state system” and the elimination of Soviet power. This direction threatened not only the October, but also the February conquests. The counter-revolutionary white movement was not homogeneous. It included monarchists and liberal republicans, supporters of the Constituent Assembly and supporters of the military dictatorship. Among the “Whites” there were also differences in foreign policy guidelines: some hoped for the support of Germany (Ataman Krasnov), others hoped for the help of the Entente powers (Denikin, Kolchak, Yudenich). The “Whites” were united by hatred of the Soviet regime and the Bolsheviks, and the desire to preserve a united and indivisible Russia. They did not have a unified political program; the military in the leadership of the “white movement” relegated politicians to the background. There was also no clear coordination of actions between the main “white” groups. The leaders of the Russian counter-revolution competed and fought with each other.

In the anti-Soviet anti-Bolshevik camp, some of the political opponents of the Soviets acted under a single Socialist Revolutionary-White Guard flag, while others acted only under the White Guard.

Bolsheviks had a stronger social base than their opponents. They received strong support from urban workers and the rural poor. The position of the main peasant mass was not stable and unambiguous; only the poorest part of the peasants consistently followed the Bolsheviks. The peasants' hesitation had its reasons: the “Reds” gave the land, but then introduced surplus appropriation, which caused strong discontent in the village. However, the return of the previous order was also unacceptable for the peasantry: the victory of the “whites” threatened the return of the land to the landowners and severe punishments for the destruction of the landowners’ estates.

The Socialist Revolutionaries and anarchists rushed to take advantage of the hesitations of the peasants. They managed to involve a significant part of the peasantry in the armed struggle, both against the whites and against the reds.

For both warring sides, it was also important what position the Russian officers would take in the conditions of the civil war. Approximately 40% of the officers in the tsarist army joined the “white movement,” 30% sided with the Soviet regime, and 30% avoided participating in the civil war.

The Russian Civil War worsened armed intervention foreign powers. The interventionists carried out active military operations on the territory of the former Russian Empire, occupied some of its regions, helped incite the civil war in the country and contributed to its prolongation. The intervention turned out to be an important factor in the “revolutionary all-Russian unrest” and increased the number of victims.