Until a certain point, there were practically no serious conflicts or massacres on religious grounds in Rus'. While the infamous Holy Inquisition was spreading in the Catholic West, and countries like the Czech Republic and France were torn apart by religious wars between different sects of Latins and Protestants, Orthodoxy reigned supreme in Muscovite Rus'. The dogmas of the Orthodox Church seemed unshakable, but by the end of the 15th century, we too had a disagreement over a number of issues related to intra-church life, which soon turned into great bloodshed.
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Arguments of the parties
In the 15th-16th centuries, a conflict arose in the church environment over the property of monasteries, as a result of which the Orthodox were divided into two irreconcilable camps:
- non-possessors
- Josephites
Non-covetous monks are followers of the leader of the teachings of the holy elder Nilus of Sorsky. who opposed the Church owning any property. When taking monastic vows, a monk takes a vow of non-covetousness, which implies an absolute renunciation of property and a life of trust in God’s will, and therefore non-covetous people considered the presence of land in monasteries to be a violation of monastic vows.
The disciples of Nil Sorsky treated the prince with respect, considering him fair, wise and therefore worthy to personally dispose of church property. Therefore, the land and buildings that belonged to the Church should, in their opinion, be transferred into the hands of the state, so that it could strengthen its borders and pay the nobles money for their service.
In return, non-possessors wanted the government to have the opportunity to speak freely on various issues related to religion. The monks, being left without property, had to completely abandon all worldly affairs and engage only in “smart work,” i.e. prayer. They were allowed to earn their own food exclusively through their own labor or alms.. At the same time, the monks themselves had to give alms to anyone who asked them.
In turn, supporters of the founder of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery, St. Joseph of Volokolamsk, called Josephites after their leader, believed that the church must own all its property, including libraries, farms, church utensils. This was necessary so that the Church could subsequently lead next activity:
- carry out missionary tasks,
- give alms
- support poor people
- supply the people with food in lean years.
The Josephites treated the ruler as God’s deputy on earth and therefore believed that he should combine responsibility to the people with responsibility to the Church.
Another point on which the opinions of non-possessors and Josephites differed was the issue of correcting supporters of heretical teachings. In Rus' at that time the so-called “the heresy of the Judaizers,” and Orthodox pastors had to figure out how to ensure the reign of the canonical form of confession in the Christian world. Joseph Volotsky believed that it was necessary to fight heresy through physical influence on heretics up to and including being burned alive at the stake.
In turn, Nil Sorsky believed that God does not wait for the death of the sinner, but for his repentance, and therefore denied the possibility of using the death penalty against heretics, showing Christian mercy. Those who stubbornly did not want to leave heresy, the elder proposed to isolate them from society or deport them abroad, but not take their lives.
Development and worsening of the conflict
The role of princely power in the dispute
Considering the enormous influence of Christianity on the politics of European states, including Muscovite Rus' in the 15th-16th centuries, it is not surprising that these disputes began to occupy the minds of high statesmen. Moscow Rus', which was not large in area, could not provide all the nobles with decent land plots, and therefore the head of the principality, Ivan III, initially leaned towards the non-covetous people who were ready to provide church lands for this purpose. Wikipedia reports that as more and more officials and clerks committed to the heresy of the Judaizers were exposed, the prince’s sympathies towards the Josephites increased. Nevertheless, almost until the last days of his life, Vasily Ivanovich expressed a desire to receive church property into state ownership.
Formally, the struggle between the non-possessors and the Josephites did not have negative consequences for the Church. Both movements were in Eucharistic communion and unity; no facts of hostility were found between Joseph of Volotsky and Nil of Sorsky. The confrontation between two church groups became sharply evident at the council of 1503, where representatives of both movements strongly condemned the heresy of the Judaizers, but were unable to find consensus on the issue of applying punishment for heretics. The Josephites, who made up the majority at this council, were able to defend their position on the issue of the property of the Church.
When Prince Ivan III was struck down by a serious illness in 1500, Vasily Ivanovich, his son from his second wife Sophia, began to help him rule the principality. Joseph Volotsky had a colossal influence on the prince, and four years later, Vasily Ivanovich, Ivan III, together with the council of episcopates ruled against the heretics.
After this, in Rus', in fact, a home-grown analogue of the Catholic Holy Inquisition has appeared. The victims of the fires were both ordinary people and influential officials and merchants suspected of heresy. Some, instead of being burned, were sentenced to long prison sentences, which they, as a rule, did not survive. The consequence of this was that the Josephite party was in favor.
Another reason that non-covetous people were left out of work was a difficult period in the personal life of Prince Vasily III. He and his first wife, Solomonia Saburova, could not have children. This was the reason that the prince divorced his wife and married Elena Glinskaya (the future mother of Ivan the Terrible). Saburova, against her will, was imprisoned in a monastery, where she died on December 18, 1542 (canonized as a saint in 1984).
The head of the non-covetous people, a famous Orthodox figure, Prince Vasily Ivanovich Patrikeev (monastically Vassian), denounced Vasily III for this act, since Christian canons prohibit divorcing a wife if she has not committed treason. Vasily III was angry with the monk, but did not dare to go into open confrontation, believing that over time this whole story would be forgotten.
However, in the near future, the prince provoked another conflict, which increased the intensity of the struggle between the non-covetous people and the Josephites. Summoning to Moscow from Chernigov representatives of the princely family of Shemyachich, who had recently transferred to the service of the Moscow prince from King Sigismund I of Poland, Vasily Ivanovich greeted them warmly, but soon arrested them and sent them to prison. Such a low and vile act again did not go unnoticed by Vasily Patrikeev, and the monk again publicly condemned the betrayal of the prince. Vasily III refused to tolerate the accuser and the monk was forcibly imprisoned in the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery among the Josephites, where he died (according to some reports, he was poisoned).
As the official reason for Vassian’s arrest, it was announced that he had allegedly fallen into heresy and rejected the doctrine of the dual – divine and human – nature of Jesus Christ, recognizing only His divine essence. After this, the ideology of the Josephites established itself as dominant in the Russian Orthodox Church.
Final victory of the Josephites
In 1551, at the Council of the Stoglavy, priest Sylvester tried to make a proposal to limit the land plots of churches and monasteries, but the Josephites, who occupied leading positions at the council, did not accept this statement. Also Josephites became one of the ideologists of the introduction of oprichnina in the second half of the 16th century. Subsequently, this led to the fact that the repressions of Ivan the Terrible turned against the Church itself. Many priests and monks became its victims, including Metropolitan Philip (Kolychev), one of the most famous Josephites. Wikipedia reports about 4.5 thousand victims of the guardsmen.
It was the Josephites who shrouded the institution of princely power in Rus' with an aura of divine origin (which was then assigned to the royal family of the Romanovs). Reasoning that after the death of Byzantium and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Rus' remained the only stronghold of Orthodoxy in the world, the followers of Joseph Volotsky in 1589 managed to achieve the acquisition of the status of a patriarchate by the Moscow Metropolis. They also contributed to the emergence of the ideological concept of “Moscow – the Third Rome”. This was able to increase the authority of the state in the international arena.
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JOSEPHLANES, supporters of a special direction of Russian social thought (late 15-16 centuries), named after its main inspirer - Joseph of Volotsky. The term “Josephites” was used by Prince A.M. Kurbsky; it appeared in scientific literature in the 2nd half of the 19th century.
Initially, the Josephites supported the idea of the dominance of spiritual power over secular power. The ruler, according to Joseph Volotsky, is an earthly man and a simple executor of God’s will, therefore he should be given “royal honor, not divine honor.” If a tyrant was established on the throne, then he should not have been obeyed, for he was “not God’s servant, but the devil, and not a king, but a tormentor.” The rapprochement of Joseph of Volotsky with the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich led to a change in the views of the Josephites on the nature of the grand-ducal power. Recognizing its divine character, Joseph Volotsky declared the need to submit to the ruler all institutions of the state and the Church, while the “priesthood” was given a high mission - to fulfill the role of the spiritual mentor of the sovereign.
In the church polemics at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries about monastic land ownership, which developed against the backdrop of the decline of the internal discipline of cenobitic monasteries, the Josephites, in contrast to their ideological opponents - non-acquisitive people (see also Nil Sorsky), supporters of the hermitage form of monasticism, advocated the preservation of monasteries and their renovation internal life on the basis of the mandatory introduction of strict communal regulations. The establishment of a strict community life, according to the Josephites, made it possible to combine the growth of monastic possessions with the principles of personal monastic non-covetousness and renunciation of the world. The position of the Josephites on the issue of monastic land ownership prevailed at the council of 1503, and was later confirmed by the council of 1531. Josephite monasteries were characterized by attaching special importance to the institution of eldership: each young monk was under the supervision of an experienced monk, which strengthened the spiritual continuity between teacher and student (Joseph Volotsky - Cassian Barefoot - Photius Volotsky - Vassian Koshka). The Josephites were actively involved in monastery construction, erecting and decorating churches, collecting icons and books. Joseph Volotsky invited the best painters to paint the monastery's Assumption Cathedral (see Joseph-Volotsky Monastery) - Dionysius and his sons Theodosius and Vladimir; Icons by Andrei Rublev were kept in the monastery; there was a scriptorium and a literary school. The Josephites opposed the extremes of asceticism and saw the ideal of monasticism not in isolation from the outside world, but in active activity in all spheres of public life. Monasticism, in their opinion, was supposed to influence all state institutions, support grand-ducal power, educate future archpastors, conduct cultural, educational and missionary work, and resist heresies (thus, at the council of 1504, the Josephite position in relation to heretics prevailed - “the army and the knife ", executions and imprisonment).
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Josephites occupied Rostov (Vassian Sanin), Kolomna (Mitrofan), Suzdal (Simeon) and other departments. Under Metropolitan Daniel of Moscow, many hierarchs of the Russian Church adhered to pro-Josephite positions [bishops Akaki of Tver, Vassian of Kolomensky (Toporkov), Savva of Smolensk, Jonah of Ryazan, Macarius of Novgorod]. Metropolitan Daniel, former abbot of the Joseph-Volotsk Monastery, actively supported the policy of unification of Russian lands pursued by the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily III Ivanovich, justified from the church-canonical point of view the divorce of the Grand Duke from S. Yu. Saburova, married him to E.V. Glinskaya. Volotsk monks participated in the baptism of the future Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich, supervised the burial of Vasily III Ivanovich, and acted as the main prosecutors in the trials of Maxim the Greek and Vassian (Patrikeev), M. S. Bashkin and Theodosius Kosoy. In the 1540-50s, when Macarius, who was close to the Josephites, became Metropolitan of Moscow, all the most important church posts were occupied by his like-minded people. At the Council of the Stoglavy (1551), the Josephite majority (Archbishop Theodosius of Novgorod, Bishops Savva of Krutitsky, Gury of Smolensk, Tryphon of Suzdal, Akaki of Tver, Nikandr of Rostov, Theodosius of Kolomna, Cyprian of Perm) finally rejected the non-covetous program proposed by A. F. Adashev and Sylvester, and approved the principle of inalienability of church lands. Thanks to the activities of Metropolitan Macarius and his “squad”, the “Great Chetya Menaion” was compiled - a collection of “all the hagiographic and teaching works that were celebrated” in Rus', distributed by day of the year, the canonization of more than 30 Russian saints was carried out (at the councils of 1547-49), the creation of grandiose architectural monuments glorifying the power of the Russian state (for example, St. Basil's Cathedral). The monk of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery Philotheus was close to the Josephites, who formulated and substantiated in his writings the political concept “Moscow is the third Rome.”
In general, the union of the Josephite Church with the state remained until the 2nd half of the 16th century. Later, the practice of large monastic land ownership and the idea of the inalienability of church property came into conflict with the ideology of the emerging autocracy. An echo of the Josephite church-political doctrine in Russian history of the 17th century was the policy of Patriarch Nikon, which led him to conflict with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
Lit.: Budovnits I. U. Russian journalism of the 16th century. M.; L., 1947; Zimin A. A. I. S. Peresvetov and his contemporaries. M., 1958; aka. Large feudal estate and socio-political struggle in Russia (late 15th - 16th centuries). M., 1977; Klibanov A.I. Reformation movements in Russia in the 14th - first half of the 16th centuries. M., 1960; Lurie Y. S. Ideological struggle in Russian journalism at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. M.; L., 1960; Dmitrieva R.P. Volokolamsk chets collections of the 16th century. // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature. L., 1974. T. 28; Zamaleev A.F. Philosophical thought in medieval Rus' (XI-XVI centuries). L., 1987; Book centers of Ancient Rus': Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery as a book center. L., 1991; Olshevskaya L. A. History of the creation of the Volokolamsk patericon, description of its editions and lists // Old Russian patericon. M., 1999.
L. A. Olshevskaya, S. N. Travnikov.
Those who defended an extremely conservative position in relation to groups and movements that demanded reform of the official church. They defended the right of monasteries to own land and own property in order for the monasteries to carry out educational and charitable activities.
Joseph Volotsky is an exposer of the heresy of the Judaizers, the author of a “spiritually beneficial work” called “The Enlightener” and a number of messages in which he, arguing with another ascetic, Nil of Sorsky, proved the usefulness of monastic land ownership, defended the need to decorate churches with beautiful paintings, rich iconostases and images.
The main opponent of the Josephites in the church was the non-acquisitive movement, led by Neil Sorsky, which demanded a return to the collectivism and asceticism of early Christianity and a corresponding renunciation of church property in general and feudal land ownership of monasteries in particular. At the council of 1503, the Josephites sharply condemned the non-covetous people and Prince Ivan III Vasilyevich, who temporarily supported them, defending monastic land ownership. As a result, Ivan III switched to the position of Joseph Volotsky and convened a council, at which the “Judaizers” were condemned as heretics and anathematized.
The Josephites also dominated the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, at which they again rejected the program of limiting church and monastic land ownership put forward by Archpriest Sylvester, who was close to Ivan IV the Terrible. Subsequently, the Josephites initiated the condemnation of Matvey Bashkin and Theodosius Kosoy and the persecution of their followers, and also supported the establishment of the oprichnina.
The Josephites acted as the official ideologists of the Orthodox Church and monarchical power. The Josephite doctrine was based on the theological justification for the emergence of the state and the “divine origin” of royal power, as well as on the establishment of the continuity of the Russian state, which remained the only stronghold of Orthodoxy after the fall of Constantinople in . On this basis, the Josephites demanded that the Moscow Metropolis be granted the status of a patriarchate (this happened only in).
The Josephites advocated the openness of monasteries. The main task of the monasteries was missionary activity and providing the population with food during crop failure.
The Pskov monk Philotheus, who popularized the concept of the Moscow Metropolitan Zosima “Moscow - the Third Rome”, on which the official ideology of the Russian tsars was built, belonged to the Josephites.
Links
- “Josephites” in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
See what “Josephites” are in other dictionaries:
- (or Osiphlans) – representatives of the church. political currents in the Russian state at the end of the 15th - mid. 16th centuries, opposed to the reformation. movements in Russia. The I. received their name from the name of the head of the movement, Joseph Volotsky. At first, I. expressed interests... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (Osiflanes), church-political movement in the Russian state of the late 15th mid-16th centuries. Ideologist Joseph Volotsky. In the fight against non-covetous people, they defended the inviolability of church dogmas, defended church-monastic land ownership... Modern encyclopedia
- (Osiflanes) church-political movement in the Russian state. 15 ser. 16th centuries, ideologist Joseph Volotsky. In the fight against non-covetous people, they defended the inviolability of church dogmas, defended church-monastic land ownership... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Osiphites), followers of Joseph Volotsky, who spoke at the end of the 15th mid-16th centuries. with criticism of non-possessors. They defended the inviolability of church dogmas and the need for ecclesiastical and monastic land ownership. They defended the thesis of God’s establishment... ...Russian history
Josephites- (Osiflanes), church-political movement in the Russian state of the late 15th mid-16th centuries. Ideologist Joseph Volotsky. In the fight against non-acquisitive people, they defended the inviolability of church dogmas and defended ecclesiastical and monastic land ownership. ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (Osiflane), church-political movement in the Russian state of the late 15th mid-16th centuries, ideologist Joseph Volotsky. In the fight against non-acquisitive people, they defended the inviolability of church dogmas and defended ecclesiastical and monastic land ownership. Initially there were... encyclopedic Dictionary
Osiflyans, representatives of the church-political movement in the Russian state at the end of the 15th and 16th centuries, expressing the interests of the militant church. They got their name as followers of Joseph Volotsky (See Joseph Volotsky). The economic basis... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Osiphlans, representatives of the church. political currents in Rus. state ve in con. 15th and 16th centuries, expressing the interests of the militant church. Its name received as followers of Joseph Volotsky. Economical the basis of I.’s influence was a large monastery... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia
Josephites- (15-16 centuries) followers of Joseph of Volotsky, supporters of church land ownership and ownership of other property by the Church. Their opponents were non-acquisitive followers of Nile of Sora. Having canonized both Joseph of Volotsky and Nil of Sorsky... Orthodox encyclopedic dictionary
Josephites- josifl yane, yang, unit. h. Yanin, and ... Russian spelling dictionary
Since the time of two spiritual movements - the “Josephites” and the “non-possessors” at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, it has been the apogee of intra-church contradictions of this period, which coincided with a number of vitally important events in the history of our Fatherland. At the same time, many aspects of the spiritual quest of those years remain relevant, since, on the one hand, they left a deep mark on our mentality, and on the other, the Russian Orthodox Church is still guided by them in its daily life.
First of all, it is necessary to characterize the historical situation in the Russian land at this stage, since the Church has never separated itself from the destinies of the country. Moreover, it was with the blessing and with the direct participation of Church leaders that many of the main events took place.
The 15th century was in many ways a landmark for the Moscow state. First of all, these are the foreign policy successes of Rus', revived after the Mongol-Tatar devastation. A century has passed since the bloody battle on the Kulikovo field, and the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III in 1480 managed to bring to its logical conclusion what Dmitry Donskoy began - to finally legally consolidate complete independence from the Golden Horde, which was inevitably disintegrating into a number of khanates. “The people were having fun; and the Metropolitan instituted a special annual feast of Our Lady and a religious procession on June 23 in memory of the liberation of Russia from the yoke of the Mongols: for here is the end of our slavery.”
At the same time as achieving this goal, Moscow succeeded in the historical mission of gathering Russian lands into a single centralized state, surpassing its competitors in the process. Despite the fact that in the second quarter of the 15th century North-Eastern Rus' was struck by a brutal internecine feudal war, the Moscow princes managed to subjugate Tver, Novgorod and a number of other appanage territories to their influence, and also recapture a vast part of the western Russian lands from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
In addition, another event occurred on the world stage that greatly influenced the worldview of the Russian people, the spiritual and political situation in Rus'. In 1453, the Byzantine Empire fell under the blows of the Ottoman Turks, or rather, the fragment that remained of it in the form of Constantinople and its suburbs. Muscovite Rus' remained virtually the only independent Orthodox state in the world, feeling like an island in an alien sea. Together with the Byzantine princess Sophia Palaeologus and the double-headed eagle, as a state emblem, the idea of the succession of power of the Russian prince from the Emperor of Constantinople and of Moscow as the last and true custodian of the Orthodox faith gradually penetrated into the consciousness of its society.
This idea was formulated in Church circles. Monk Philotheus was not the first to express it, but in his messages to Vasily III and Ivan IV it sounded most loudly and confidently: “The now united Catholic Apostolic Church of the East shines brighter than the sun throughout the sky, and there is only one Orthodox and great Russian Tsar in everything in the heavens, like Noah in the ark, who was saved from the flood, governs and directs the Church of Christ and affirms the Orthodox faith.” The concept of “Moscow - the third Rome” for a long time determined the spiritual priorities of Russia in the world, and during that period it strengthened the foreign policy position of our country in Europe and the East. Even in official titles in relation to the great princes, the Byzantine term “tsar,” i.e., emperor, began to be increasingly used, although the Russian monarchs did not adopt all the traditions of Byzantium, but mainly only the Christian faith and the institution of the Orthodox Church. Thus, the idea of Byzantine universality became isolated within “all Rus'”, and many elements of ancient Greek philosophy, language and Roman antiquity were completely rejected.
The religious situation in North-Eastern Rus' in the 15th - early 16th centuries. remained extremely complex and ambiguous. Several problems made themselves known loudly at once. The attempt of the Patriarchate of Constantinople to attract and prepare the Russian Church for the Ferraro-Florentine Union with Catholics led to the deposition of Metropolitan Isidore of Kiev and All Rus' (Greek by origin) and opened up the possibility for the Russian Church, from 1448, to independently elect metropolitans from among their own compatriots. Fearing the prospects of subordination to the Latin faith, “Moscow became determined to violate the imaginary rights of the Uniate Patriarch over the Russian Church.” De facto The Russian Orthodox Church became independent from Constantinople, and the Moscow princes gained even more influence on its politics.
At the same time, ten years later, from 1458, a long period of administrative division of the united Russian Orthodox Church began into the Moscow and Kyiv metropolises, respectively, into the spheres of influence of the Russian state and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (which included the southern and western regions of the former Kievan Rus).
This is how things stood in external church relations. In the 15th century, the Church, with renewed vigor, waged the most decisive struggle against the remnants of ancient Russian paganism, as well as against the influential heresies that appeared in Rus'. Subsequently, the “non-covetous” and “Josephites” will diverge sharply in terms of methods for resolving these issues.
Paganism and its remnants still continued to pose a serious problem for the Church. The influence of pagan remnants on the Russian people at the beginning of the 15th century is evidenced by a document of that period, “The Word of a Certain Lover of Christ...”, which indicates a high level of dual faith, and even inveterate paganism within Rus'. In particular, the unknown author notes the predilection for pagan rituals and superstitions of even educated Christians: “And not only the ignorant do this, but also the enlightened ones - priests and scribes.” In addition, a number of northern Finno-Ugric peoples, included in the orbit of the Russian state, remained in paganism, and in the XIV-XVI centuries there was active missionary activity of the Church to convert them to Christianity.
During the same period of time, dangerous religious doctrines penetrated into Rus', which were, in fact, not just heresies, but sometimes even apostasy. The so-called heresies of Strigolniks and Judaizers acquired especially strong influence. The teaching of the former had its roots in the highly modified Manichaeism of the Bogomils, which came to Rus' from Bulgaria back in the pre-Mongol period, based on ancient Eastern dualism.
Another teaching came to Novgorod from the west in the second half of the 15th century, along with the free-thinking Polish-Lithuanian Jews who found refuge there. Their dogma contained a call to return to the true faith of the times of the Savior, or rather, to the religious experience of the first sects of Judeo-Christians with a large share of the Jewish religion itself, mixed with the rationalistic ideas of the Western forerunners of Protestantism. Since all this was presented from the standpoint of criticism of a fairly large part of the Orthodox clergy, who did not meet the requirements for them and were mired in bribery, drunkenness and debauchery, these heresies found a response in the hearts of not only ordinary people, but even the secular and spiritual aristocracy. Moreover, even Ivan III himself, after the conquest of Novgorod in 1479, “was fascinated by the talents and courtesy of the cunning freethinking archpriests. He decided to transfer them to his capital." For some time, adherents of the sect were able to influence government and government affairs, but soon their activities were outlawed, and Metropolitan Zosima, who provided them with patronage, was removed from power, officially accused of “excessive drinking.”
In such a difficult situation, disputes emerged and began to grow more and more within the Church itself over spiritual and moral guidelines. At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, they formed into two groups - the “Josephites” and the “non-covetous”, who did not oppose each other and did not lead to a schism of the Church, but through polemics sought ways of further spiritual priorities in the new established reality. The terms “Josephites” and “non-covetous” themselves have a later origin than these events, and are associated with the names of two luminaries of Orthodox thought of this period, by whose works the Church largely lives and is guided today - these are the reverends and, surrounded by their outstanding followers.
What is the essence of the disagreement between them? There were many controversial issues, but the central questions remained about church land ownership and the structure of monastic life. Historian N. M. Nikolsky wrote in the late 1920s. in Soviet Russia there is a very critical work on the history of the Church (in the spirit of the times, as they say), but even with it one cannot but agree that the Church in this period was a very large landowner. For example, as the same M.N. Nikolsky reports, Ivan III, weakening the Novgorod freemen, subjected local church lands to secularization, taking away from the Church 10 lordly volosts and 3 out of 6 monastic landholdings only in 1478. Enormous wealth often led to great temptations for the unjust distribution of income from land and the personal enrichment of church leaders, which negatively affected the entire authority of the Church. As a result, the question of the need for land ownership and enrichment of the Church (especially monasteries) in general arose within the Church.
On this occasion, the “non-possessors”, led by Rev. Nil Sorsky (who also received the name “Trans-Volga elders”), who inherited the Byzantine tradition of hesychasm, had a strict opinion about the absence of any property not only from an individual monk, but also from the monastery as a whole. The idea of Christ-loving poverty forbade the members of the monasteries “to be the owners of villages and hamlets, to collect taxes and to conduct trade,” otherwise, a different way of life did not correspond to the gospel values. The Church itself was seen by the “non-covetous” as the spiritual shepherd of society with the right of independent opinion and criticism of princely policies, and for this it was necessary to depend as little as possible on the rich grants of secular power. The “non-possessors” saw the understanding of monastic life in ascetic silence, avoidance of worldly concerns and in the spiritual self-improvement of monks.
The Josephites looked at the problem of monastic land ownership somewhat differently. Having an extremely negative attitude towards personal enrichment, they supported the wealth of monasteries as a source of social charity and Orthodox education. The monasteries of the comrades-in-arms of St. Joseph spent enormous, at that time, funds on supporting the needy. The Assumption Volotsk Monastery alone, founded by him, annually spent up to 150 rubles on charity (a cow then cost 50 kopecks); over 7 thousand residents of surrounding villages received financial support; the monastery fed about 700 beggars and cripples, and the shelter housed up to 50 orphans. Such large expenses required a lot of money, which the Church, while maintaining its independence, could receive independently, without princely alms.
In relation to heretics, Joseph Volotsky was more severe than the “non-acquisitive” ones, who had the opinion that heretics should be discussed and re-educated. Nilus of Sorsky spoke out in favor of abandoning repression against heretics, and those who repented of errors should not have been subject to punishment at all, since only God has the right to judge people. In contrast to this point of view, relying on Russian and Byzantine sources of church law, Joseph decisively declares: “Where are they who say that neither a heretic nor an apostate can be condemned? After all, it is obvious that it is necessary not only to condemn, but to brutally execute, and not only heretics and apostates: those who know about heretics and apostates and did not report to the judges, even if they themselves turn out to be true believers, will accept the death penalty.” Such harsh statements by the monk and the obvious sympathies of the “Josephites” for the Catholic Inquisition in the 19th century gave reason to some liberals to reduce the role of Joseph only to the inspirer of future repressions of Ivan the Terrible. However, the inconsistency of such a judgment was proven not only by church historians, but even by researchers of the Soviet period. Vadim Kozhinov calls this “pure falsification,” citing, for example, the fact that “the main denouncer of the atrocities of Ivan IV, Metropolitan of All Rus' Saint Philip, was a faithful follower of St. Joseph.” In heresies, Joseph saw not only a threat to the Orthodox faith, but also to the state, which followed from the Byzantine tradition of “symphony,” i.e., parity of cooperation between secular and church authorities as two forces of one body. He was not afraid to speak out against heretics as ordinary criminals, even when they were favored by Ivan III and some erring church hierarchs.
The differences of opinion between the “non-possessors” and the “Josephites” on the issue of the role and responsibilities of the Orthodox monarch are of no small importance. The “non-covetous” saw the monarch as fair, taming his passions (anger, carnal lusts, etc.) and surrounding himself with good advisers. All this closely resonates with the concept of the “Trans-Volga elders” about personal spiritual growth. “According to Joseph of Volotsky, the main duty of the king, as God’s vicegerent on earth, is to care for the welfare of the flock of Christ,” the extensive powers of the head of state echo no lesser responsibilities to the Church. The sovereign was compared to God in his earthly life, since he had supreme power over people. Joseph Volotsky proposes to correlate the personality of the monarch with Divine laws, as the only criterion “allowing one to distinguish a legitimate king from a tyrant,” which essentially implies in a certain situation the disobedience of subjects to their sovereign, who does not correspond to such qualities.
It is clear that for such reasons, Ivan III, who needed lands for the serving nobility, initially sympathized with the “non-covetous people.” However, as the heresy of the Judaizers was exposed, he began to listen to the authority of the Monk Joseph, although the Grand Duke expressed his desire to seize church lands until his death. This desire was facilitated by the elimination or obsolescence of previously interfering external factors - “the dependence of the Russian Metropolis on the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the close alliance of metropolitans with the Moscow princes, the Horde policy of granting Tarkhanov to the possessions of the Church, and finally, the constant support of church institutions, which the Grand Duke enjoyed in the fight against appanages.” . In the end, the debate between the two spiritual movements, expressed in numerous letters and messages from opponents, found its way out at the church council of 1503.
The decisions of the council summed up, in a way, the first result of the dispute between two intra-church movements. Supporters of Nil Sorsky and Joseph Volotsky (they themselves were also present at the council) mutually condemned the heresy of the Judaizers and other apostasy from the Orthodox faith. At the same time, the “non-possessors” opposed the persecution of heretics, but their position was in the minority. As for church land ownership, the “Josephites” managed to defend it, motivating their right with the “Gift of Constantine” and other legal acts of Orthodox (and not only) monarchs, confirming the donations and inviolability of church lands from the time of the Byzantine emperor Constantine the Great (IV century AD .). Ivan III, who actively took part in the work of the council, tried to secularize the lands of the Church in exchange for monetary compensation and bread allowance (which would have led the Church to a decline in authority and would have made it highly dependent on the princely power), but a serious illness that suddenly struck him stopped this. an event that seemed quite real.
Thus, the “Josephites” won the struggle for inalienable church property, and the grand ducal government had to look for new ways of coexistence with the Church in the next twenty years. Meanwhile, the spiritual image of the monk and his personal non-covetousness, as well as many elements of the monastic community modeled on the Nile of Sorsky, were finally established by the council in monastic life.
The dispute between the “non-possessors” and the “Josephites” continued after the council and the death of Saints Nile and Joseph. Gradually, the “Josephites” gained the upper hand, especially after 1522, when their representatives began to invariably occupy the metropolitan throne. Oppression began against some prominent “non-possessors”, as a result of which the “peaceful” stage of disputes ended, and by the middle of the 16th century, many of the monasteries of the “Trans-Volga elders” were empty. And yet this cannot be called a confrontation, since the dispute itself had the character of true Christian humility. Thus, A.V. Kartashev emphasizes that “the quiet, silent victory of the Josephites is very significant. The quiet, passive retreat of “non-covetousness” is also indicative.” In Western Europe, for example, a somewhat similar spiritual dispute resulted in the Reformation with its 150 years of bloody religious wars.
The “Josephites” who gained the upper hand, without rejecting the best from non-covetousness, established the Church as an independent institution, independent of secular power, but at the same time outlined close cooperation with the state, bringing closer the subsequent “symphony” in their relations. At the same time, from a historical perspective, the constant strengthening of the absolute power of the monarchy led to its desire to subordinate the critical voice of the Church to its interests, which was realized in the 18th century by Peter I.
