The heyday of social and political thought in Ancient China dates back to the 6th – 3rd centuries. V. BC e. During this period, the country experienced profound economic and political changes caused by the emergence of private ownership of land. The growth of property differentiation within communities led to the rise of the wealthy strata; weakening of patriarchal clan ties; deepening social contradictions.
There is a struggle between the property and hereditary aristocracy. The country is in a protracted political crisis.
In search of a way out of the crisis, various schools and directions are emerging in socio-political thought. The most influential political teachings in Ancient China were Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism.
1. China V-III centuries. BC e. Characteristic features of the social system.
In the history of Ancient China in the 5th century. BC. was a turning point in many respects. At this time, the action of those factors began that led to the unification of the kingdoms into a single empire, where Confucianism became the dominant political ideology. Thanks to the introduction of iron tools, there was a sharp rise in the economy.
The development of new lands, the improvement of irrigation structures, the growth of agricultural and handicraft production contribute to the development of commodity-money relations, the formation of a market, and the emergence of merchants. Under these conditions, there is an intensive decomposition of communal and establishment of private ownership of land, and the creation of large private land ownership.
All this leads to the fact that in the last centuries BC. In China, there is a confrontation between two trends in the development of society. On the one hand, large-scale private ownership of land is developing, based on the exploitation of peasant tenants, hired workers, and slaves; on the other hand, a wide layer of tax-paying peasantry is being formed, directly subordinate to the state.
These were two possible development paths:
1) through the victory of large private ownership of land - the path of fragmentation and civil strife;
2) through strengthening state ownership of land and creating a single centralized state. The second path is being established, the carrier of which is the kingdom of Qin. In 221 BC. it victoriously ended the struggle for the unification of the country.
The foundations of social order and the state machine created in Qin China turned out to be so adapted to the needs of the empire that they were transferred to Han without any changes. Having become traditional, they were actually preserved in imperial China until the bourgeois revolution of 1911-1913.
11. Political system of states of Ancient India.
Organization of the Mauryan Empire (317 - 180 BC)
The state administration was strictly organized. The emperor and the council of dignitaries surrounding him - the parishad - acted as the central executive body responsible for making important decisions and implementing them. In addition to the parishad, the emperor also had a secret council from a narrow circle of trusted persons, and in necessary cases, an advisory representative body, the Rajasabha, was assembled, which apparently included both dignitaries and aristocrats from among the previously independent rulers, but possibly also elected from citizens and communities, at least some. Judging by the organization of individual departments, in particular the military, there was a specialized staff of officials to manage them, groups of which were responsible for their field of activity. Data on the administrative management of cities. Some cities were governed by central officials, others by provincial administrators. The management principle was the same: the department was divided into groups of specialized officials, each of which was responsible for its own area of work - be it control over artisans, collection of taxes and duties, supervision of prices and markets, the safety of public buildings, population registration, etc.
The provincial ones were subordinate to the central apparatus, and their nature varied depending on the degree of importance, level of development or remoteness of a particular region. There were four or five main governorships in the empire, which were administered both by governors from the center (they were mainly princes) and by the local administration that previously existed there, sometimes headed by local rulers-rajas. Likewise, i.e. in the form of a combination of a centralized system of administration with a local one, up to community bodies of self-government, the situation was in the provinces and regions, including in those areas where local autonomy was preserved, such as, for example, in the ghanas and sanghas with non-hereditary elected power of rulers. The maintenance of the cumbersome and ramified administration apparatus, as well as all the aristocrats, warriors and, in general, the entire complex state structure, fell on the shoulders of the working people, primarily communal peasants, who paid a sixth share of the harvest to the treasury as rent-tax and performed various duties. In addition to communal land ownership, as has already been discussed, there was official land ownership, including temple-priestly land (the lands of Brahmans and Buddhist temples, as well as other religious organizations and sects), royal and military.
Varnova-caste social hierarchy
The varna system, developed over centuries, had already changed in many ways at the turn of our era. Changes came in a number of directions. One of them - the rapprochement of the status of the two lower varnas and their opposition to the two upper ones - has already been discussed. But the matter did not stop there. First of all, there was a noticeable differentiation, both property and social, in the upper varnas, especially in the brahmana varna. The number of brahmanas grew, and not all of them were required for ritual and cult priestly needs. And not everyone was inclined or capable of this type of activity. It is not surprising, therefore, that a considerable number of brahmanas, while remaining exactly brahmanas according to varna, began to engage in other activities that were not characteristic of the keepers of wisdom and priests, even very unprestigious ones (healers, actors, shepherds, etc.). As for the Kshatriyas, serious changes also took place here, but of a different kind. The original hereditary kshatriyas, primarily warriors, decreased in number, in no small part due to battles and mutual extermination, court intrigues and dramatic episodes during periods of change of power and dynasties. This also applied to many ancient ruling aristocratic families. At the same time, the rulers, officials and warriors from other varnas who replaced them (remember that a number of dynasties were headed by people from Shudras, and brahmanas often became their advisers) did not have the right to easily penetrate the Kshatriya varna - the law of Indian varna stated that it depends on birth, and not on the property or social status of a person. Of course, there could be exceptions to the general rule, but on the whole the law remained the law and its consequence was a gradual decrease in the number and importance of the Kshatriya varna.
Individual representatives of both lower varnas, Vaishyas and Shudras, greatly increased and strengthened their positions. Among them were many wealthy urban residents. At least some of them penetrated into the upper strata of society, among the rulers, officials, and warriors. A certain paradox emerged: the usual norm still followed the traditional gradation of varnas with corresponding privileges and sanctions in case of offenses for members of each of them, while real life largely shifted the emphasis. In practice, the distances between the varnas turned out to be different than they were before. An adjustment was needed, some other scale of social accounting.
But changes in the traditional varna system did not stop there. Firstly, the Indianization of the southern regions of Hindustan constantly introduced new contingents into Indian culture and Indian society, including the varna system. Of course, the majority of the population of the southern regions, newly introduced to Indian civilization, almost automatically became among the Shudras. But among the converts there were also priests, rulers, officials, warriors
Secondly, within the framework of each of the ancient Indian varnas that existed since ancient times, there was its own process of internal differentiation and specialization. Those who remained within the varna, but specialized in some part of those broad functions that had previously been common to all members of a given varna, began to differ markedly from the rest. This caused a natural fragmentation of the previous four varnas into smaller divisions within them, into a kind of subvarnas, each of which united people of a similar specialty, similar occupation and qualifications and, moreover, had a tendency to subsequent even narrower specialization.
Ancient China- a legendary ancient empire on the territory of modern China, allegedly formed around 3000 BC. According to ON THE. Morozov, the history of this empire is borrowed from the Byzantine; According to the new chronological reconstruction, the Chinese Empire was a fragment of the Russian-Horde state, namely its Amur part, the Piebald Horde. The mythological ancient history of China is partly taken from the history of Rus'-Scythia-China, and contains repeatedly duplicated fragments of the Manchu period of the Chinese empire (from the 17th to the 19th centuries)
“Here is the Grand Duke of China, named Andrei Yuryevich in holy baptism...” from the charter of the book. Bogolyubsky Kiev-Pechersk Monastery
origin of name
Word "China", for the name of an Asian state, is used only among the Slavs and Turks, and supposedly comes from the Tungusic people of the Khitans (Khitans), who conquered this country in the 10th century AD, but this use did not arise earlier than the 17th century. Before this, modern China in Rus' was called the “Bogdoy Khanate.”
In Latin the country is called "China" or "Sinae", and the peoples inhabiting it - Seri or Sini. There is a hypothesis that the name China arose in honor of the ancient dynasty Qin(supposedly 3rd century BC). The New Chronology suggests that this word is a distorted name for the “Blue Horde,” the Far Eastern part of the Russian Horde state, with its capital in Beijing (named after the Piebald Horde).
The Chinese themselves never called their country either China or China, but based the name on a template “Great-such-and-such a dynasty-state”: Dai-qing-guo, Give-min-go, Dai-yuan-guo. Or they used a geographical description of their country:
- Tian-xia(Celestial Empire)
- Sy-hai(Four Seas)
- Zhong-hua-guo(Middle flourishing state)
- Zhong-yuan(Middle Plain)
- Zhong-guo(Middle State)
Nickname "China" was widespread in Rus' in the pre-Romanov era. According to the “Kyiv Synopsis” of the year, China the name of the holy prince of Vladimir Andrey Bogolyubsky, son of the Grand Duke Yuri Dolgoruky. The boyar had the same nickname Ivan III Vasily Ivanovich (Feodorovich) Shuisky. China-city also called the middle part of Russian cities, adjacent to Detinets, the citadel, the Kremlin, which served as its second defensive fence. One of the meanings of the Russian word "China" is "fortress".
Mythical story
«... Fusi ... with good reason deserves, in my opinion, to be considered the king of all philosophers - both because he lived in such great antiquity, and for the sake of the clarity, simplicity, strength and universality of his system, and I can say this without putting The Chinese are superior in the field of science to all other peoples of the world. God forbid that I allow such a terrible injustice to be done to Europe, my dear homeland, which, as far as high sciences are concerned, is as superior to China as China is geographically removed from Europe! For although this people honor this great man as their first ruler and founder of the state, there are serious arguments, recognized by very able scientists (I am talking about the predominant number of them), proving that Fusi never set foot on Chinese soil. But on the contrary, most of what is reported about such a distant time when he lived, and about what he did, is such that it is not difficult to judge by the almost complete coincidence of all this with what our ancient writers tell us, and also Middle Eastern Zoroaster , Mercury Trismegistus and even Enoch , What Fusi was none other than one of these great characters; ..."(letter from a Jesuit missionary Joachim Bouvet Leibniz from Beijing, November 4)The historical dynasties on which Chinese historians rely, and which are most likely the figment of the literary imagination of writers of the 17th century AD, are as follows:
- Fairytale Xia Dynasty, 2953–1523 BC: Fu Xi- creator of trigrams, Shen–Nun- creator of agriculture and tea drinking, Huang Di- creator of writing, Great Yu- flood tamer
- Shan, 1523–1028 BC: the “Book of Changes” was written ( I Ching)
- Zhou, 1027–256 BC: Lao Ji And Confucius, invention of crossbows and chopsticks, beginning of serfdom
- Qin, 221–207 BC: Shihuang-Di, burning of all books, murder of philosophers, beginning of construction of the Great Wall of China, unification of China, unification of writing
- Early Han, 202 BC – 25 AD: end of serfdom, canonization of Confucianism, conquest of Central Asia, eunuch historiographer Sima Qian writes "Historical Chronicle", the introduction of metallic money, in 122 BC. philosopher Huainanzi invented equal-tempered musical scale
- Syn, 9–23 AD: usurper Wang Ming
- Later Han, 25–220 AD: conquest of Mongolia, opening of the Great Silk Road, emergence of Buddhism, invention of paper and compass
- Three Kingdoms, 220–265 AD: Troubles
- Northern and Southern Empires, 265–589 AD: invasion of barbarians, birth of Chan Buddhism
- Sui, 590–618 AD: unification of China, construction of the Grand Canal
- Tang, 618–906 AD: conquest of Manchuria and Central Asia, creation of a professional army, great era of poetry and science, invention of porcelain, printing and the tea ceremony
- Five Dynasties, 907–960 AD: Troubles, attack of the Mongols, invention of gunpowder and foot binding for women
- Northern Song, 960–1126 AD: unification of China, economic reform, Mongol invasion, flourishing of painting and navigation, invention of locks and printing, state banks
- Southern Song, 1127–1279 AD: invasion Genghis Khan, birth of Neo-Confucianism
- Mongol Yuan Dynasty (John), 1260–1368 AD: Chinese journey Marco Polo, the rise of Chinese drama, the invasion of Japan
- Min (Clear), 1368– AD: reconstruction of Beijing, naval expeditions to India and Africa, arrival of the Portuguese and Jesuit missionaries, invention of the novel genre, export of porcelain
- Manchu Qing Dynasty, – gg. AD: transfer of the capital to Beijing (and its real foundation), reformer emperor Kangxi(–), relations with Russia, completion of the Great Wall of China, emergence of organized crime ("Triads" - about a year), Opium War, modernization, construction of the railway and the opening of Peking University in the year, revolution of the year
Hieroglyphic writing and Chinese language
“Of all nations, the Chinese have written the most to report the least.” F.–M. Voltaire “Until the 17th century, China was ahead of Europe in terms of technical development. China had more developed mathematics and more advanced technology in general. This technical superiority of China was negated in Europe only after the start of the scientific revolution...”Having learned Chinese dialects, in a year J. Needham came to China as an emissary of the British Royal Society and began to serve as a scientific adviser to the British Embassy in Chongqing. Traveling around the country, he collected legends about ancient Chinese science. In Chinese texts J. Needham I looked for all sorts of vague references to technical devices of antiquity, and figured out the scientific discoveries behind these inventions for the ancient Chinese. The result of his search was the book Chinese Science and Civilization, published by the University of Cambridge. Its first volume was published in the year, and over the next 30 years 14 more volumes were published. It is here that it is stated that almost every outstanding discovery or invention in the fields of science, medicine, agriculture and engineering was first made in China, starting in 1400 BC.
Mythical chronology of ancient Chinese inventions:
- a guiding cart with a compass, according to a German sinologist Julius Klaproth, 2364 BC
- spyglass, XXIII century. BC.
- noodles, XX century BC.
- manuscripts, XII century. BC.
- vaccination against smallpox, 11th century. BC.
- silk, 11th century BC.
- philosophy, VI century BC.
- pasta, 490 BC
- crossbows, stirrups, 4th century. BC.
- chopsticks, 4th century. BC.
- opening of the Taoist Academy of Sciences (Jixia, from Chinese: “Scientific Courtyard at the Western Gate”) in the city of Linzi, 318 BC.
- channels, paper, thimble, 3rd century. BC.
- opening of the imperial university, 124 BC.
- toilet, 50-100 BC
- metal money, crossbow trigger, 1st century. BC.
- paper, 100 AD
- compass, 2nd century AD (for fortune telling Feng Shui, Chinese geomancy)
- seismoscope Zhang Heng, 132 AD
- matrices for solving systems of linear equations using the method K.F. Gauss, III century AD
- steel and steel weapons, 5th century. AD
- Unified State Exam, VII century. AD
- collar, 7th century AD
- ships with wheeled engines powered by human power, 9th century. AD
- printing with wooden boards, 868 AD.
- porcelain kilns, 1004 AD.
- printed paper money, 1024 AD
- typesetting printing desk Bi Shena with clay type, 1045 AD.
- porcelain, 8th century AD
- tea ceremony, 8th century AD
- gunpowder, 10th century AD (to scare away evil spirits with fireworks)
- land reclamation, 11th century AD
- gateways, 11th century AD
- toothbrush, 1498 AD
- novel, 16th century AD
Critics of his theory noted that many ideas Needham borrowed from Marxism, many provisions of its socio-cultural theory contain Maoist rhetoric. However, the time of writing the first volumes of his fundamental work coincided with the growing interest and sympathy for the Chinese revolution among European intellectuals, and his critics had to come to terms with the victory of fantastic hypotheses.
Quotes about Chinese inventions and their promoter J. Needham
“I know nothing about China, but I know that the work of Marxists on the history of science in the West is unreliable, which follows from the very nature of Marxist historiography. Needham is a Marxist, and his work is a Marxist history of Chinese science, shaped by Marxism from beginning to end. Therefore, Needham’s concept of the history of Chinese science is unreliable.”(C. Gillispie) “It is significant that the most important inventions - the horse collar, the clock, the compass, the sternpost rudder, gunpowder, paper and printing - did not originate in feudal Europe. All of them, apparently , came from the East, and most of them ultimately from China. As we learn more about the history of science in China (the great research of Dr. Joseph Needham about the origins and history of Chinese technology and science), we we begin to understand the significance of Chinese technological achievements for the whole world. What we know alone is enough to show that the entire concept of the superiority of Western Christian civilization is based on an arrogant disregard for the rest of the globe. It is always difficult to prove the transfer of cultural achievements, but the fact remains that many inventions that appeared in Europe only in the 10th century or later , were described in detail in China at the very beginning of our era. What still needs to be explained , is why, after such a promising beginning, this early technological progress in China and to a lesser extent in India and Muslim countries completely ceased by the 15th century and why it resulted in the formation of eastern civilizations with a high but stagnant technical level. The reason for this, especially in relation to China, Dr. Needham sees in the growth of a literary educated bureaucracy - mandarins who were not interested in improving technology and were concerned with preventing the development of the merchant class, which alone could move technology forward, opening new markets. This is exactly what was supposed to happen in Europe. ... Of all the inventions introduced into the West during the Middle Ages, the most destructive - gunpowder - was to have the greatest impact politically, economically and scientifically. The original invention of gunpowder is attributed to both the Arabs and the Byzantine Greeks, but, Most likely , it was invented in China. The secret to making it is to add<к углю и сере>saltpeter, prepare a substance that burns without air. Saltpeter occurs naturally in some deposits, as well as in over-fertilized soil. May be , it was first accidentally used in the manufacture of rockets for fireworks, or it was observed that using it instead of soda (sodium carbonate) in the form of a flux with charcoal caused a bright flash and a slight explosion. In China for several centuries it was used only for fireworks and rockets. Gunpowder began to play a role in military affairs when it was first used in a cannon, which, Maybe , originated from the fire pipe of the Byzantines, but quicker - from a Chinese bamboo cracker. ... Even in the late Middle Ages, few people felt the need for a large number of paper books. Indeed, printing probably , would not have been created primarily for literary purposes only. The full value of printing is felt only when a large number of cheap copies of one text are needed. That's why not surprising that it first arose in the East for the reproduction of Taoist and Buddhist prayers, where quantity is a decisive spiritual advantage, and later for the printing of paper money, of which large quantities were also required. ... Printing using movable wooden type was originally a Chinese invention of the 11th century. Movable metal type was first used by the Koreans in the 14th century. It appeared in Europe in the middle of the 15th century and spread extremely quickly...” ()Ancient Chinese science
“There is only one way to reliably learn something from ancient history - to examine several indisputable monuments, if they have survived. There are only three of these in written form... The second monument is a total eclipse of the Sun, calculated in China in 2155BC and accepted as correct by all our astronomers. The same must be said about the Chinese as about the peoples of Babylonia; they undoubtedly already lived in a large, enlightened empire. What sets the Chinese above all the peoples of the Earth is that neither the laws, nor their customs, nor the language spoken by scientists there have changed for about 4thousands of years."(Voltaire "Encyclopedia Diderot And D'Alembert»)The astronomical and geographical ideas of Ancient China are expressed in ideas about their state that persisted until very recently, as Middle Empire, Celestial Empire, occupying the main and central part of the land. The outskirts of the Earth and the islands in the Ocean belong to barbarians, who in their savagery do not obey the Chinese emperor. The beard growing on barbarians makes them look like monkeys.
“The sky is like an umbrella, and the Earth is like an inverted plate. Both the Sky and the Earth in the center are stretched upward, and towards the edges they become smooth. The point below the North Pole is the center of both Earth and Heaven. This is the highest point of the Earth, from here the edges of the Earth descend like a falling stream of water. The sun, moon and stars alternately shine and then hide, and from this there is day and night. The highest point in the center of the Sky, where the Sun is located during the winter solstice, reaches 60,000 li, if counted from the horizontal line indicating the level of the edge of the Sky. The height of the Earth at its highest point below the North Pole is also 60,000 li. The highest point of the Earth is separated from the horizontal line of the level of the edges of the Sky by 20,000 li. Since the highest points of Heaven and Earth coincide, the Sun is constantly at the same distance from the Earth - 80,000 li.” (Zhang Heng, allegedly 78–139 AD )Chinese opinions about their own ancient science come from the New Age, and were most likely instilled by European missionaries. Their fallacy is fully confirmed by the absence of anything new and unexpected from the Chinese for Europeans, except for chopsticks, but the Chinese, according to their statements, invented the same thing as the Europeans, but much earlier. This idea was born under the second Manchu Emperor Kangxi, aka Shen Zu And Xuan Ye ( –):
“Although the Chinese generally recognize the superiority of Western sciences, discoveries and inventions of modern times, they sometimes justify such recognition with a very unexpected argument. Thus, many of the scientists and educated Chinese are ready to claim that they owe some of the inventions that Europeans boast so much to Chinese scientists, who came up with them even when Western peoples were in a primitive state. Inventions and discoveries, as well as many sciences, were created in China and then only transferred to the West. Here they developed, became isolated and formed the so-called sciences and arts. The first to proclaim such an original theory was a certain Mei Wuan, who lived during the reign of the Bogdykhan Kangxi. ... Defenders of the above theory support it with curious examples from ancient chronicles, for example, they prove that the European science called optics was known to the Chinese 500 years before the birth of Christ, for in the historical monuments of that time reflection through mirrors is mentioned. Foreigners, they say, claim that the earth is spherical - the same thing was proved by the Chinese scientist Chu Yuan , who lived long before this discovery in the West.” (Korostovets I.Ya., )Europeans became acquainted with the beginnings of Chinese astronomy thanks to the Augustinian theologian, director of the Abbey Observatory. St. Genevieve in Paris Alexandru Guy Paingré (A.G. Pingré, –), who published in – years the two-volume “Cometrography” ( Cométographie ou Traité historique et théorique des Comètes), in which he included comet lists collected in the 18th century by Jesuit missionaries in China Joseph de Mailla (J.A.M. de Moyria de Mailla, -) And Antoine Gobil (R.P.A. Gaubil, –). The published comet data was included in the “ancient Chinese” work “Tong Jian Kan Muh” ( All-reflective mirror) and apparently composed Maillia And Gobilem or their predecessors in China, the Jesuit missionaries of the 17th century. It is these works that contain the first legendary information about the origins of Chinese astronomy under the emperor Yao, allegedly in the 24th century. BC: the emperor commanded the scientists Heh And Ho (Plan And To the drawing) begin observing the stars, make a telescope and astrolabe, create a calendar and determine the dates of the equinoxes and solstices. With this task, scientists Heh And Ho did it successfully. Subsequently Heh And Ho were executed for neglecting their duties - they failed to predict the total solar eclipse that occurred on the first day of autumn in the head of Scorpio. Dutch astronomer and historian of science Antoni Pannekoek(–) reports the date of this event - supposedly it happened on October 22, 2137 BC. Modern calculations give the position of the Moon and the Sun at this time - 12° Libra with the sign system of the Zodiac, which, taking into account the precession at this time (57°), falls into the middle of the constellation Scorpio, so this solution does not fully satisfy the specified conditions, even if we accept that , that October 22 is the first day of autumn. However, I myself Pannekoek devalues his message with the words:
“However, it is clear that in such ancient times it was still impossible to talk about predicting solar eclipses; The accuracy of the details in the original narrative is also difficult to judge.” () “Wrestler about Struggle. Philosophy and practice of struggle of the Great Empire", - M.: Astrel, ACT, , 352 p. “The beginning of a reliable written history of China is the era of the Manchu dynasty coming to power in China. This happened in the seventeenth century AD." ()Outstanding ancient Chinese scientists are either phantoms of European scientists or are initially mythological. Since the reliably recorded beginning of Chinese science is associated with the mission of the Jesuits, ancient Chinese scientists must first be sought among them. Yes, a prototype Confucius (Kong Tzu, allegedly 551-470 BC), most likely served Matteo Ricci, and his latinized pseudonym comes from the Latin confusus- “chaotic, confused.” Likewise, the Latinized nickname Mencius(allegedly 372-288 BC), Mencius, comes from Latin mentior- “to lie, invent, fantasize.” These kinds of nicknames are obviously given by critics and competitors.
Ancient China News
- In the year Florian Cajora (Florian Cajori, -), a mathematical historian from Colorado Springs (USA), first voiced the idea of the invention of zero by the ancient Chinese (The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 10, February, p. 35). This idea was suggested to him in a private letter dated December 15 of the year by a little-known historian Mikami (Y. Mikami) from Tokyo, who came to this conclusion after studying unnamed Chinese historical works.
Ancient Chinese football players
- FIFA President J. Blatter This year, at the opening ceremony of the Asian Cup in Beijing, he recognized that China is the birthplace of football. He agreed with data presented by Chinese Football Federation officials that football was invented 2,300 years ago in the capital of the Kingdom of Qi, Linzi, in modern-day Shandong province. Vice President of the Chinese Football Federation Chang Zhilong said about this:
- In July) a modern wristwatch was discovered. Archaeologist Jiang Yanyu said:
Opinions about Ancient China
- Professor at the University of London Lucas Nickel, while studying ancient Chinese chronicles, I read a message that to the west of China in the twenty-sixth year of his reign Qin Shi Huangdi“Giant statues in foreign dress” were imported. The emperor was so impressed that he ordered them to be cast in bronze (for which part of the weapons were melted) and copies of them to be displayed in front of his palace. Neither the statues nor their copies have survived, but Nickel suggests that we are talking about ancient Greek sculptures that came to China from Asian possessions Alexander the Great. The professor sees Greek influence in the statues of warriors and especially in the elaboration of anatomical details on the sculptures of athletes and dancers. (“Science and Life”, No. 4, )
- German enlightener baron Friedrich Melchior von Grimm( -) in his “Literary, Philosophical and Critical Bulletin” ( La Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique, -) September 15, 1766 noted:
- Candidate of Historical Sciences Leonid Abramovich Yuzefovich(b.) wrote a book about the baron R.F. Ungern–Sternberg“Autocrat of the Desert”, in which he writes the following lines about Chinese culture:
- Academician IN AND. Arnold in the book “Ancient and Recent Stories” (M.: FAZIS, , 96 pp.), among other things, he wrote the following about Ancient China:
- Professor of the Department of Higher Algebra and Number Theory of Mathematical Mechanics of St. Petersburg State University Vavilov Nikolay Alexandrovich(g.r.) in the pretentious 325-page manual “Not quite naive set theory. MENGENLEHRE" says:
- Doctor of Law, Professor of the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, State Secretary of the Institute of State and Law of the Russian Academy of Sciences Vladimir Georgievich Grafsky, among other things, head of the department of theory and history of law and state of the Moscow Financial and Industrial Academy, in his textbook “General History of Law and State” () fantastically projected modern realities into the distant past:
- Secretary of the Union of Military Sinologists, Colonel of Intelligence (retired) Andrey Petrovich Devyatov sets out his geopolitical doctrine based on dubious opinions about Chinese history:
News
- BBC video: Archaeologists resume excavations of the Terracotta Army, 15 June
The country that we call China is called by the Chinese themselves either Zhong Guo (Middle Kingdom), or Zhong Hua (Middle Blooming), or by the name of certain dynasties (for example, Qin). This designation passed, with some changes, into Western European geographical nomenclature.
The state arose in China initially in the Yellow River basin.
The Yellow River is referred to in Chinese literature as “the river that breaks the heart.” It often changed its course, breaking through the loose soil of the banks and flooding entire areas. Only hard work was able to curb it and protect the fertile valley from floods by building dams and dams. The soil of northern China (mostly loess) is highly fertile.
In Ancient China there were significant forest areas (which have now disappeared and survived only on the outskirts). The wild flora and fauna, judging by the descriptions of ancient Chinese authors, confirmed by archaeological excavations, was rich and varied. In many areas, now densely populated, there were deer, wild boars, bears and such terrible predators as tigers. The oldest collection of Chinese songs (Shijing) describes the annual mass hunts of foxes, raccoons and wild cats. The abundance of ores and other minerals was of great importance for the development of China's economy.
The population of China in ancient times was very diverse in its ethnic composition. At the dawn of their history, the Chinese themselves inhabited only the basin of the middle reaches of the Yellow River and gradually spread to its source and mouth. Only in the 1st millennium BC. and at the beginning of the new era they spread widely beyond this main territory. During these movements, they entered into either hostile or peaceful relations in the northeast with the Manchu-Tungus tribes, in the northwest and west with the Turkic and Mongolian tribes, in the southwest with the Sino-Tibetan, etc.
The Chinese and neighboring peoples influenced each other in the process of long-term communication, mutually enriching themselves with cultural achievements.
Some ethnic groups living near the Chinese adopted the Chinese language and culture. However, even now in some areas of southern China and in a significant part of western China, the population speaks languages other than Chinese and preserves their local cultural traditions, despite repeated attempts at forced Sinicization.
In Europe, Ancient China was almost unknown for a long time. The ancient tradition has preserved a minimal amount of information about him.
Only from the 16th century. n. e. European missionaries and merchants begin to show more interest in East Asia's past.
At the beginning of the 20th century. French sinologist E. Chavannes undertakes the translation of Sima Qian’s “Historical Notes”.
Of the Russian researchers who played an outstanding role in the study of Chinese history, N.Ya. should be noted. Bichurin (monk Iakinthos). He lived in China for 14 years (1807-1821) as the head of the Beijing Spiritual Mission and became familiar with a huge number of original Chinese documents. Bichurin and other Russian scientists show sympathy for the Chinese people in their works and recognize the value of Chinese culture.
It must be taken into account that noble and bourgeois Sinology (Sinology), for all its merits and achievements, was not able to explain the course of development of China and identify its general pattern and undoubted local features and peculiarities.
There was a very common view of the Chinese (as well as the Indians) as a people supposedly incapable of progress. On the other hand, the opposite extreme is also noticeable. Some Chinese historians, in order to please the great power claims of the Maoists, exaggerate the historical role of their country.
The main periods in the history of Ancient China bear traditional names: Shang (Yin), Zhou Qin and Han (by the names of dynasties and kingdoms).
Judging by archaeological data, China was inhabited in the Old Stone Age. Many Paleolithic tools have been found here. In many places in China (especially in Henan), much later sites dating back to the Neolithic were also discovered.
Judging by the information preserved in ancient Chinese sources (in particular, from Sima Qian), matriarchy dominated in ancient China (like other peoples). Relationships were counted along the maternal line. The power of the tribal leader was passed not from father to son, but from the elder brother to the younger one.
2nd millennium BC was a time of gradual transition from maternal to paternal rights.
Of the ancient Chinese tribes, it especially intensified at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Shang tribe (in the Yellow River basin).
According to Chinese tradition, in the 17th century. BC. a certain Cheng Tang founded a state, which received the name Shan after the dominant tribe. Later it appears in historical texts under the name Yin (applied to it by its neighbors).
Researchers use two terms: Shang and Yin.
We can judge the economy of Shang (Yin) society in the second half of the 2nd millennium from numerous monuments of material culture and short inscriptions on the so-called Henan oracle bones.
Stone and bone were also used as the main material for the production of tools and weapons. However, copper and then bronze tools appeared (knives, shovels, axes, awls, etc.).
There is a transition from primitive forms of economy to cattle breeding and agriculture, and even the first attempts at irrigation. Millet and barley were cultivated. Wheat, kaoliang. Of particular importance was the cultivation of the mulberry tree, which was valued not so much for its fruits (as in Western Asia), but for its leaves, which served to feed silkworms.
Cattle breeding in that era reached greater development than in modern China, where, due to the significant population density, there is not enough pasture. Documents from the Shang (Yin) time mention hundreds of heads of bulls and sheep being sacrificed to the gods. Goats and pigs were also bred. There were few horses; they were harnessed to chariots and carts, and mainly bulls were used for field work.
Crafts reached a high level in the Shang kingdom. In the ruins of his capital (also called Shan) the remains of a bronze foundry were discovered.
Ceramics, in particular the processing of white clay (kaolin), reached great perfection. The potter's wheel was already known. Wood materials were widely used: houses and even palaces were built from wood.
The separation of crafts from agriculture led to the development of exchange. Special shells (cowries) served as a measure of value. Trade ties were established with various countries of East Asia, in particular copper and tin were delivered from the Yangtze basin. From the mountainous areas and steppe areas located in the north and west of the Yellow River basin, cattle, skins, furs and stone (jasper, jade, etc.) were exported, and Chinese handicrafts received in return reached the banks of the Yenisei.
The development of productive forces and the strengthening of internal and external exchange led to property inequality. Excavations reveal, along with rich houses and tombs, the remains of dwellings and burials of the poor. Some hieroglyphs represent slaves (captives with bound hands and domestic slaves). However, slavery was at a very early, primitive stage. The custom of sacrificing hundreds of slaves (during fortune telling, during the burial of rulers) suggests that the demand for forced labor was still small.
The state apparatus gradually takes shape and the Vans (rulers) turn from elected tribal leaders into hereditary kings. The strengthening of central power was apparently associated with the transformation of the Shang city into the capital of the country (14th century BC). a standing army, officials and prisons appear. The clan aristocracy is formed from the king's relatives and associates. Religion is used for the authority of royal power. Later the king is called “son of heaven.”
The kingdom of Shang (Yin) was fragile. The western Zhou tribe turned out to be his especially dangerous opponent. Tradition says that the leader of the Zhou tribe, Wu-wan, defeated the last Yin Wang, Shou Xin, in battle, and he committed suicide. On the ruins of the former state formation of Yin, a new one arose, which received (as well as the dominant tribe and ruling dynasty) the name Zhou. The Zhou Dynasty lasted until the 3rd century. BC.
This era was divided into the time of Western Zhou, when the capital was the city of Hao, and Eastern Zhou, when the capital was moved to the east and Luoyi (modern Luoyang, in Henan).
It must be taken into account that at this time the Zhou dynasty had only nominal power over virtually independent state entities, the number of which amounted to tens, if not hundreds, and Chinese chroniclers apply to the transitional time covering the end of the 5th and a significant part of the 3rd century. BC, the name Zhan-guo (“Warring Kingdoms”).
The Western Zhou period is characterized by a significant strengthening of the clan nobility, both court and provincial. Kings give their relatives and associates significant awards and privileges. The inscriptions on bronze vessels endlessly talk about the donation of significant plots of land taken from rural communities, as well as hundreds and sometimes thousands of slaves, to one or another honored dignitary. The scale of slavery increased due to the enslavement of the population of the conquered kingdom of Shang (Yin). It is no coincidence that King Wu-wan (the founder of the kingdom of Zhou) is credited with the following words addressed to his warriors: “In the Shang fields, do not attack those who run over to us - let them work in our western fields.” Wars with neighboring nomadic tribes lead to the theft of prisoners of war who are enslaved. The contingent of slaves is also replenished by convicted criminals.
Cultivated land was still at the disposal of the communities. There was a “well system”, which consisted in the fact that the territory belonging to the village was divided into nine parts (the pattern of this division resembled the outline of a hieroglyph meaning “well”). Of these plots, eight were given to various families, and the ninth (central) was cultivated by them jointly, and the harvest was brought to the headman for community needs (later it began to be appropriated by the king).
Chinese civilization (the ancestors of the state-forming ethnic group Han) - a group of cultures (Banpo 1, Shijia, Banpo 2, Miaodigou, Zhongshanzhai 2, Hougang 1, etc.) of the Middle Neolithic (ca. 4500-2500 BC) in the Yellow River basin, which are traditionally united under the common name Yangshao. Representatives of these crops grew grains (chumiza, etc.) and were engaged in breeding pigs. Later, the Longshan culture spread to the area: Middle Eastern types of cereals (wheat and barley) and livestock breeds (cows, sheep, goats) appeared.
Shang-Yin State
The Zhou period as a whole was characterized by the active development of new lands, settlement and ethnic mixing of people from various regions, fiefs (later kingdoms), which contributed to the creation of the foundation of the future Chinese community.
In the V-III centuries. BC. (Zhanguo period) China enters the Iron Age. Agricultural areas are expanding, irrigation systems are increasing, crafts are developing, and revolutionary changes are taking place in military affairs.
During the Zhanguo period, seven major kingdoms coexisted in China - Wei, Zhao and Han (previously all three were part of the kingdom of Jin), Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu. Gradually, as a result of fierce rivalry, the westernmost - Qin - began to gain the upper hand. Having annexed neighboring kingdoms one after another, in 221 BC. e. the ruler of Qin - the future emperor Qin Shi Huang - united all of China under his rule.
Qin Shi Huang, who built all his reforms on the foundations of legalism with barracks discipline and cruel punishments for the guilty, persecuted the Confucians, putting them to death (burying them alive) and burning their writings - because they dared to speak out against the severe oppression established in the country.
The Qin Empire ceased to exist shortly after the death of Qin Shi Huang.
Han Empire
The second empire in Chinese history, called Han (Chinese trad. 漢, simplified 汉, pinyin Han; 206 BC e. - n. BC) was founded by Liu Bang (Gaozu), a native of the middle bureaucracy, one of the military leaders of the revived kingdom of Chu who fought against Qin after the death of Emperor Qin Shihuang in 210 BC.
China at that time was experiencing an economic and social crisis caused by the loss of controllability and the wars of the military leaders of the Qin armies with the elites of the earlier destroyed kingdoms, who were trying to restore their statehood. Due to resettlement and wars, the rural population in the main agricultural areas has decreased significantly.
An important feature of the change of dynasties in China was that each new dynasty replaced the previous one in an environment of socio-economic crisis, weakening of the central government and wars between military leaders. The founder of the new state was the one who could capture the capital and forcibly remove the reigning emperor from power.
With the reign of Gaozu (206–195 BC), a new period of Chinese history began, which was called the Western Han.
In the period from 8 to 23 years. n. e. power is seized by Wang Mang, who proclaims himself emperor and founder of the state of Xin. A series of transformations begins, which are interrupted by an environmental disaster - the Yellow River changed its course. Due to a three-year famine, central power weakened. Under these conditions, the red-browed uprising and the movement of representatives of the Liu clan for the return of the throne began. Wang Mang was killed, the capital was taken, power returned to the Liu dynasty.
The new period was called Eastern Han, it lasted until AD. e.
State of Jin and Nan-bei Chao period (IV-VI centuries)
The Eastern Han was replaced by the Three Kingdoms period (Wei, Shu and Wu). During the struggle for power between the warlords, a new state was founded: Jin (Chinese: 晉, simplified: 晋, pinyin) jìn; -).
Tang State
The rulers of the Liu dynasty put an end to the performances of the nobility and carried out a number of successful reforms. The country is divided into 10 provinces, the “allotment system” has been restored, administrative legislation has been improved, the vertical of power has been strengthened, trade and city life have been revived. The size of many cities and the urban population have increased significantly.
Despite forced territorial concessions to neighbors, the Song period is considered the era of economic and cultural prosperity in China. The number of cities is growing, the urban population continues to grow, Chinese artisans are reaching heights in the manufacture of products from porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc. Gunpowder and the compass are invented, book printing is spreading, new high-yielding varieties of grain are being developed, and cotton plantings are increasing. One of the most impressive and effective of these innovations was the very conscious, systematic and well-organized introduction and dissemination of new varieties of early maturing rice from South Vietnam (Champa).
Yang Guifei, saddling horse, artist Xing Xuan (1235-1305 AD)
Genghis Khan created an organized and combat-ready army, which became a decisive factor in the subsequent successes of the relatively small Mongol ethnic group.
Having conquered the neighboring peoples of Southern Siberia, Genghis Khan went to war against the Jurchens and took Beijing.
Conquests in Southern China continued in the 1250s, after campaigns in Europe and the Near and Middle East. Initially, the Mongols captured the countries surrounding the Southern Song Empire - the state of Dali (-), Tibet (). Mongol troops under the leadership of Kublai Khan invaded Southern China from different directions, but the unexpected death of the Great Khan Möngke prevented the implementation of their plans. Kublai Khan, having seized the khan's throne, moved the capital from Karakorum to Chinese territory (first to Kaiping, and then to Zhongdu - modern Beijing). The Mongols managed to take the capital of the Southern Song state of Hangzhou only in . All of China was conquered, and the Song Empire was destroyed.
The heavy economic, political and national oppression imposed by the Mongol feudal lords held back the development of the country. Many Chinese were enslaved. Agriculture and trade were disrupted. The necessary work to maintain irrigation structures (dams and canals) was not carried out, which led to a terrible flood and the death of several hundred thousand people. The Great Canal of China was built during Mongol rule.
Popular discontent with the new rulers resulted in a powerful patriotic movement and uprisings, which were led by the leaders of the White Lotus secret society (Bailianjiao).
The Mongols, pushed to the north, began to actively develop the steppes of modern Mongolia. The Ming Empire subjugates part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), and part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.
The Chinese fleet under the command of Zheng He, consisting of several dozen multi-deck frigates, made several naval expeditions to Southeast Asia, India and the east coast of Africa over the period from to. Without bringing any economic benefit to China, the expeditions were stopped and the ships were dismantled.
The Manchu dynasty in the Qing state ruled from to year. The highest authorities and the leadership of the army were in the hands of the Manchu nobility. Mixed marriages were prohibited, and yet the Manchus quickly became sinicized, especially since, unlike the Mongols, they did not oppose themselves to Chinese culture.
In the first two centuries of the Qing dynasty, China, closed from everyday contact with the outside world, emerged as a strong independent state, expanding in all directions.
During the war, the superiority of the Japanese army and navy led to major defeats for China on land and at sea (at Asan, July 1894; at Pyongyang, September 1894; at Jiulian, October 1894).
Triple intervention
The terms imposed by Japan on China led to the so-called "triple intervention" of Russia, Germany and France - powers that by this time already maintained extensive contacts with China and therefore perceived the signed treaty as detrimental to their interests. On April 23, Russia, Germany and France simultaneously, but separately, appealed to the Japanese government to refuse the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to the establishment of Japanese control over Port Arthur, while Nicholas II, supported by the Western allies, had his own views of Port Arthur as an ice-free port for Russia. The German note was the harshest, even insulting, for Japan.
Japan had to give in. On May 10, 1895, the Japanese government announced the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, having achieved an increase in the amount of Chinese indemnity by 30 million taels.
Successes of Russian policy in China
In 1895, Russia provided China with a loan of 150 million rubles at 4% per annum. The treaty contained an obligation for China not to accept foreign control of its finances unless Russia participated in it. At the end of 1895, on the initiative of Witte, the Russian-Chinese Bank was founded. On June 3, 1896, a Russian-Chinese treaty on a defensive alliance against Japan was signed in Moscow. On September 8, 1896, a concession agreement for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway was signed between the Chinese government and the Russian-Chinese Bank. The CER Society received a strip of land along the road, which came under its jurisdiction. In March 1898, a Russian-Chinese agreement was signed on the Russian lease of Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula.
Capture of Jiaozhou by Germany
In August 1897, Wilhelm II visited Nicholas II in Peterhof and obtained consent to establish a German naval base in Jiaozhou (in the then transcription - “Kiao-Chao”), on the southern coast of Shandong. In early November, German missionaries were killed by the Chinese in Shandong. On November 14, 1897, the Germans landed troops on the coast of Jiaozhou and captured it. On March 6, 1898, a German-Chinese agreement was signed, under which China leased Jiaozhou to Germany for a period of 99 years. At the same time, the Chinese government granted Germany a concession to build two railways in Shandong and a number of mining concessions in this province.
One Hundred Days of Reform
A short period of reforms began on June 11, 1898, with the issuance of the decree “On Establishing the Basic Line of State Policy” by the Manchu Emperor Zaitian (the name of the years of his reign was Guangxu). Zaitian attracted a group of young reformers - students and like-minded people of Kang Yuwei - to develop a series of decrees on reforms. In total, over 60 decrees were issued that related to the education system, the construction of railways, plants and factories, the modernization of agriculture, the development of domestic and foreign trade, the reorganization of the armed forces, the cleaning of the state apparatus, etc. The period of radical reforms ended on September 21 of the same year, when Empress Dowager Cixi carried out a palace coup and canceled the reforms.
XX century
Map of China proper at the beginning of the 20th century from the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedia
Boxer Rebellion
Cixi, the emperor's widow (1900s).
In May 1900, a large uprising began in China, called the Boxer or Yihetuan Rebellion. On June 20, the German envoy Ketteler was killed in Beijing. Following this, the rebels besieged the diplomatic missions located in a special quarter of Beijing. The building of the Catholic Cathedral of Petang (Beitang) was also besieged. Mass killings of Christian Chinese began by the Yihetuans, including the murder of 222 Orthodox Chinese. On June 21, 1900, Empress Cixi (慈禧) declared war on Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, the United States, and Russia. The Great Powers agreed on joint action against the rebels. The German General Waldersee was appointed commander-in-chief of the expeditionary forces. However, when he arrived in China, Beijing had already been liberated by a small advance force under the command of the Russian general Linevich. The Russian army occupied Manchuria.
Railway map of China (1908)
Russo-Japanese War
After the fall of the monarchy, the ruler of Mongolia refused to obey the republic and separated from China. On November 3, he concluded an agreement with Russia. England took advantage of the internal struggle in China to turn Tibet into its zone of influence. Tibet rose up to fight and forced the Chinese garrison to leave the country. All subsequent attempts by the Chinese to restore their power there were thwarted by Britain. Russia agreed to consider Tibet a British sphere of influence, and England recognized Russian interests in independent (outer) Mongolia.
On March 22, 1916, the republic was restored. Yuan Shikai was forced to renounce the title.
The era of the militarists
After the death of Yuan Shikai, numerous military-feudal fiefdoms of various militaristic groups began to take shape in China. The largest was the Beiyang group, which subsequently split into the Fengtian group led by the former leader of the Honghuz gang Zhang Zuolin, the Zhili group led by General Feng Guozhang, and the Anhui group led by General Duan Qizhui. The province of Shanxi was dominated by the militarist Yan Xishan, who flirted with the Beiyang group, and in the province of Shaanxi it was dominated by General Chen Shufan. The camp of the southwestern militarists consisted of two large groups: the Yunnan one, led by General Tang Jiyao, and the Guangxi one, led by General Lu Rongting.
The provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Fengtian were under the control of the Fengtian group, and the provinces of Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and part of Zhili were under the control of the Zhili group. The Fengtian and Anhui cliques were financed by Japan, the Zhili clique - by England and the USA. Li Yuanhong was a protege of the southwestern militarists. Vice President General Feng Guozhang was oriented towards England and the USA, and Prime Minister General Duan Qirui was pro-Japanese. In 1917, Japan began to provide large loans to Duan Qizhui, receiving more and more concessions for them, including concessions in Manchuria.
Kuomintang victory
Even during the Weimar Republic, Chiang Kai-shek's government received military assistance from Germany. With Hitler's rise to power, aid was increased in order to fight the communists. Factories for the production of licensed German weapons were created in China, German advisers trained personnel, and M35 Stahlhelm, Gewehr 88, 98, C96 Broomhandle Mauser were exported to China. China also received Henschel, Junkers, Heinkel and Messerschmitt aircraft, Rheinmetall and Krupp howitzers, anti-tank and mountain guns, for example, PaK 37mm, and Panzer I tankettes.
On November 25, 1936, Japan and Germany concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the communist movement. On December 12, 1936, the Xi'an Incident took place, forcing Chiang Kai-shek to unite with the Communists.
March of Chinese Communists in Beijing (1949)
Cultural Revolution
In 1966, CPC Chairman Mao Zedong launched a massive campaign to maintain the revolutionary spirit among the masses. Its actual task was to establish Maoism as the only state ideology and destroy the political opposition. Mass mobilization of youth, called "
