education.

Paisiy Ligarid Yuri Krizhanich

(Archpriest Avvakum); Byzantine-Russian Latinophile Slavic-Greek-Latin Westerners And Slavophiles

Fedor Alekseevich

fraternities fraternal schoolsGrammar of the Slovenian language Melenty Smotrytsky

School

Fedor Rtishchev Typographical school

brothers Likhud, Ioannikiy(1639-1717) and Sophrony(1652-1730). They selected teachers and taught logic and rhetoric themselves. Soon the Old Russian clergy achieved their removal and deportation to a provincial monastery. Only five years later the brothers were allowed to settle in Novgorod, where they immediately opened a Slavic-Greek-Latin school, modeled on the Moscow one.

printingPrimer» Vasily Burtsev Grammar» M. Smotritsky, in 1687 - " Reading for training

Semyon Dezhnev And Fedota Popova

Questions and tasks

Date of publication: 2014-10-25; Read: 5939 | Page copyright infringement

Education

Education in the 17th century in Russia underwent major changes. Transformations took place both in the education system and in the life of ordinary people, literature, and painting. If before this knowledge was mainly available to the children of noble people from individual tutors, now education is given in educational institutions. Education becomes available to everyone, regardless of class.

Creation of private schools in Rus'

From a modern perspective, the institutions being created could not be fully called a school. Education in the 17th century in Russia can be briefly described as primary. In addition, spiritual people with their own rules worked as teachers. For their work they received compensation in the form of food.

Some “ABC books” are interesting to study. These are preserved handwritten and printed books for reading by children who already have basic reading skills.

In addition to the reading texts themselves, the alphabet books provided recommendations for teachers - how to teach reading, rules of conduct at school, church and even at home.

Education in the 17th century in Rusyn presupposed the permanent residence of children at the school. Students, as now, went to classes in the morning and returned home in the afternoon. Knowledge was available to everyone without exception, rich, poor, and wretched.

Printed manuals are a good help for learning

The advent of the ability to produce printed books had the best impact on education in the 17th century. At each lesson, the prefects at the school handed out books to the students to study.

In Moscow, they began printing primers that even the poorest segments of the population could buy. Such books, costing only 1 kopeck, were very popular.

It is noteworthy that the alphabet written by Deacon V.

Burtsev, was sold out within one day in the amount of 2400 pieces.

A little later, an alphabet with pictures appears, published by Karion Istomin. This book is built on a principle familiar to all of us. Each letter corresponds to a picture whose name begins with a given sound.

Video on the topic

Schools instead of individual tutors

In the mid-17th century, 30 monastic scientists were invited from Kyiv. They were supposed to open an educational institution at the St. Andrew's Monastery in Moscow. The school began to teach philosophy, rhetoric, Greek and Latin to young nobles.

But still, many noble people were distrustful of such an education system. They believed that such a technique leads to heresy and departure from God.

But, despite the sidelong glances, schools at monasteries began to appear everywhere. Ivan Fomin, priest of the Church of the Presentation, opened a school with his own funds. Semyon Polotsky headed the school at the Zaikonospassky Monastery.

In the newly opened educational institutions, in addition to Russian grammar, Latin and Greek were taught.

Prefects were always elected in the classes. They had great weight in the team and could even replace the teacher. Their main duties were distributing books, appointing guards, and overseeing discipline.

For those educated in the 17th century, strict discipline was at the core of learning. Careful handling of books and, in general, all property located in the school was especially valued and required.

In addition to the obligatory observance of order and ideal cleanliness, it was forbidden to slander a comrade and call them offensive names. This is how a kind of corporate solidarity was born.

Teaching methods in the 17th century

If we consider education in the 17th century, its uniform methodology completely coincides with the norms in force in schools in Western Europe and Greece. The main subjects were writing, reading, counting, and singing.

In addition to secular education, lessons on the basics of religion were mandatory. In addition, basic knowledge in the field of liberal sciences was given. These included: grammar, astronomy, music, dialectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, astronomy.

The alphabet books contained various poems, which children learned and recited by heart. Students were also taught the basics of poetry and taught to write letters to high-ranking officials.

The rules written in the alphabet books were followed in all schools, so we can confidently say that education in the 17th century was a unified teaching method, which later formed the basis of all education.

The nuances of studying in Rus' in the 17th century

Despite the development of science, school classes began and ended with the word of God. Yes, this is understandable, because the teachers were clergy.

But it was the priests who spread the idea of general education and universal literacy. It was believed that people needed knowledge to understand the significance of faith and concepts of morality. It is necessary to be able to read mainly in order to independently study the Holy Scriptures and understand the entire secret meaning of what is written.

The main goal of education in the 17th century in Russia was to educate a moral person who knew the basics of Christianity and had reading and writing skills.

The works of ancient thinkers are interesting for studying. Many works were translated into Russian, and one formed one’s own opinion about them. Thus, the ideas of Aristotle and “Dialectics” of Damascus were studied in schools. Various notes were often written in the margins, as evidenced by careful study of the books of philosophers.

A new level of education gave impetus to the development of art

With the widespread teaching of literacy, new genres in literature began to appear. Poetry and stylistic stories received especially great development. They wrote many plays that were staged at the court theater.

Painting has also undergone changes. A genre such as secular portrait appeared, completely similar to the original. The most famous artist at that time was Ushakov, who painted many famous people of that time.

With the development of mathematics, physics and chemistry, new technologies in weapons craft appeared, and the knowledge gained contributed to the spread of expeditions. As a result, more and more new territories of vast Russia were being developed.

In general, education in the 17th century in Russia satisfied the interests primarily of the church and the state itself. Until the mid-18th century, students received knowledge according to approved methods. But in the end, the conditions of historical development required further modifications.

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Education is one of the most important factors in the cultural development of a nation. By the second half of the 17th century. Muscovy had some conditions for primary education, but there were no secondary schools or higher educational institutions.

The two most educated groups were the clergy and employees of the administration - clerks and clerks. As for the boyars and nobles, in the first half of the 17th century. not all of them could even read and write, but by the end of the century the literacy rate had increased significantly. At the expense of the townspeople. Based on signatures in the protocols of several Moscow townsman communities, it is calculated that in 1677 there were 36 percent of those signing, and in 1690 between 36 and 52 percent.) Among the peasants, literacy was minimal throughout the 17th century. (slightly higher among state peasants in northern Rus').

Regarding higher education, the Orthodox Church objected to seeking European help because they feared influence from Catholic and Protestant teachers. Two other potential sources were Greek and Western Russian Orthodox scholars. Back in 1632, Patriarch Filaret turned to an educated Greek priest with a request to organize a theological school in Moscow, but after Filaret’s death the project was abandoned (see Chapter 3).

In 1640, Kiev Metropolitan Peter Mogila proposed to Tsar Michael to send Kyiv scientists to Moscow to organize a school to teach Latin and Greek. Nothing came of this plan, but several years later, at the beginning of the reign of Tsar Alexei, F.M. Rtishchev opened such a school on his own initiative.

In 1665, an ambassador was created in Moscow for teaching the Latin language and Russian grammar, for which a special building was built in the Spassky Monastery “behind the row of icons” (Zaikono-Spasskaya school). It was headed by the outstanding scientist and poet Simeon of Polotsk. The purpose of the school was to train clerks and clerks, administrative bodies. Simeon of Polotsk himself taught there for at least two years.)

Grecophile circles in Moscow suspected Polotsky, a graduate of the Kyiv Academy, of a penchant for Roman Catholicism, and were generally against teaching Latin. In 1680, a school based on teaching the Greek language was organized at the Moscow Printing Yard, mainly to train its own employees.

The Moscow elite so urgently needed knowledge of Latin - at that time an important means of mastering Western science - that in 1682 the charter of an educational institution combining the teaching of Greek and Latin - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy - was developed.)

The academy's curriculum included the study of grammar, poetics, rhetoric, dialectics, philosophy, jurisprudence and theology. The rector and teachers had to be "pious and from a devout family, raised in the Eastern Orthodox faith of Russians or Greeks." The school “must be open to people [of the Orthodox faith] of any rank, position and age without distinction.” The main goal of the academy was to strengthen and protect the Orthodox faith. The rector and teachers became the custodians of the National Library. Heretical books discovered in the possession of private individuals were subject to confiscation or transfer to custodians.

It was proposed that all foreign scientists, before entering Russian service, would be checked by the leadership of the academy: in case of disapproval, they would be expelled from Russia. People accused of heretical teaching or blasphemy against the Orthodox Church are interrogated by the rector and, if guilty, are subject to burning at the stake. An Orthodox Christian who converts to Catholicism, Lutheranism or Calvinism is subject to the same punishment.

This was an attempt to establish strict church supervision over the education of all Russians and to suppress by force any opposition to such control.

Tsar Feodor and Patriarch Joachim approved the academy's charter, but it was only during the regency of Princess Sophia that suitable Greek scholars, the brothers Ioannikis and Sophronius Likhud, were invited and brought to Moscow. The academy was officially opened in 1687. Two years later, the young Tsar Peter overthrew and imprisoned Princess Sophia, and in 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian (Joachim's successor), Peter began his reforms aimed at destroying the church monopoly on education and enlightenment . The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy became the core of the Moscow Theological Academy, and secular education and science developed independently of it.

In the second half of the 17th century. The two important institutions through which Western ideas and lifestyles penetrated the upper stratum of Moscow society were the Tsar's Palace and the Ambassadorial Prikaz.)

Western Russian scientists (Ukrainian and Belarusian), students of the Kyiv Academy, were conductors of Western humanities. Kyiv scholars invited to Russia in the late 1640s and 1650s were specialists in the Greek language. Education at the Kyiv Academy, however, was based on Latin.

The most influential Western Russian scientist in the last part of the reign of Alexei and the first four years of the reign of Fyodor was the versatile Simeon of Polotsk (1629-1680). Latin was the language of his scientific research. He also knew Polish well, but was not familiar with Greek. Polotsk was called to Moscow by Tsar Alexei in 1663. Three years later, he took part in the Church Councils of 1666 and 1667, which stigmatized the Old Believers. Polotsky translated some materials into Latin for Paisius Ligarid and wrote a treatise against the teachings of the Old Believers.

Simeon of Polotsk was an active preacher (after his death, two volumes of his sermons were published) and a poet (he wrote in Russian, Polish and Latin). He introduced into Russian literature the syllabic system of versification of the Poles, which would occupy a dominant position in Russian poetry for the next eighty years. Polotsky also played a role in the development of Russian theater. He aroused Tsar Alexei's interest in theatrical performances by teaching him about Ukrainian and Polish dramas. Polotsky wrote two works in this genre - “The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son” and “Three Young Men in a Fiery Crucible.”)

However, Tsar Alexei turned for help in organizing the first theater in Moscow not to Western Russians or Poles, but to the Germans. In June 1672, on the advice of Artamon Matveev, the tsar commissioned pastor Johann Gottfried Gregory from Nemetskaya Sloboda to stage plays based on biblical subjects in a new building specially built for this purpose in the royal village of Preobrazhenskoye. The first performance (“Esther” took place on October 17. Later they presented an adaptation of the last acts of “Tamerlane the Great” by Marlowe and a comedy about Bacchus and Venus.

At first the performances were performed in German, but soon the plays were translated into Russian, and Gregory trained Russian actors. In some productions, a special place belonged to instrumental music and singing. After the death of Tsar Alexei and the resignation of Matveyev, the performances stopped.)

In 1667, Tsar Alexei appointed Simeon of Polotsk as the mentor of his eldest son, Tsarevich Alexei, and when he died, as the mentor of Fyodor, the next prince in seniority. Polotsk also supervised the education of Princess Sophia. Fyodor mastered the Polish language, was fond of Polish books, loved Polish dress and music.

Polonophilia spread at the royal court and among the boyars. Vasily Golitsyn and other boyars knew Polish and had Polish books in their libraries. Golitsyn's house was built and furnished in Western style.

The Polish cultural influence was rivaled by German culture, coming from the countries of central and northern Europe (German states, Holland, Denmark and Sweden) either directly or through the German Settlement. Its influence was felt in the theater, in the visual arts, in music, and in technology. The last aspect turned out to be the most important for the near future.

The accumulation of technical knowledge, facilitated by German craftsmen and industrialists who settled in Muscovy, continued throughout the 17th century. By 1682, the Russian elite had developed various types of crafts of high quality.

In order to develop and release potential creative abilities, it was necessary to give Muscovites the opportunity to master the basics of science and technology, either by opening appropriate schools in Rus', or by sending Russians abroad to study in Western schools. Tsar Boris Godunov understood this at the beginning of the 17th century, but his premature death disrupted his plans.

Only in the second half of the 17th century, with the help of Kyiv scientists, schools appeared in Moscow where they taught the humanities, but no schools teaching natural and technical sciences were ever opened.

Rus' needed technical modernization. This process could go faster or slower, take on a wider or narrower scale. The decisive impetus was given by Peter the Great.

Agriculture in Rus' in the 17th century

In the disagreements and internal contradictions of that period of Russian history, the creative forces of the national economy worked persistently, leading to the steady accumulation of technical and, at a lesser speed, humanitarian knowledge.)

The productivity of Russian agriculture in the 17th century, with the exception of western Siberia, was low. It was calculated that for every quarter of rye sown, only 2-5 quarters of grain were received. In western Siberia, the proportion was higher - 8-10 quarters.) On the other hand, there was a constant increase in the gross product, as the area of arable land increased along with the spread of agriculture to the fertile lands of the south and west. A favorable factor was the change in the taxation system, in which the main unit became the yard. This served as an incentive for the farmer, since the cultivation of additional land no longer entailed an increase in taxes.

In addition to agriculture, the owners of large estates were engaged in fishing and trade. Many, including Tsar Alexei, organized iron-making, salt, potash, distilleries and other industries in their estates. They usually sold surplus goods, as well as grain, at markets, sometimes delivering them to the most remote areas, for example, to Arkhangelsk.)

In the second half of the 17th century. In Muscovy, larger industrial enterprises, called manufactories by modern scientists, became widespread. Some of them, such as the Cannon Yard, which produced cannons, and the Armory, which produced handguns, were controlled by the state. Licenses were issued for other manufactories, mainly to Europeans. However, some manufactories were also owned by Russian merchants and industrialists, for example, the Stroganovs, Sveteshnikovs, Nikitins and others. Some of the masters were foreigners, some were Russian. The former received significantly higher salaries. Unskilled work was performed by Russians: either hired workers or peasants “assigned” to manufactories.)

Taking into account the increase in agricultural and industrial production, as well as the development of trade, one could partially believe the memoirs of Prince Boris Ivanovich Kurakin (born in 1676). He says that by the end of Princess Sophia's regency, in 1689, Russia had become a land of plenty.)

Moscow kingdom. Table of contents.

AZBUKOVNIKI, Russian handwritten lexicographical monuments of the 13th-18th centuries, collections of educational, moralizing and reference articles without attribution. More than 200 lists of alphabet books have been preserved. The oldest list of interpreted words such as alphabet books is placed in the Novgorod helmsman's book of 1282. In the 13th-16th centuries, alphabet books served mainly as dictionaries for the interpretation of obscure words found in the books of Holy Scripture. Since the 17th century, alphabet books have largely become educational books; they were widely used by foreigners when studying the Russian language.

The educational alphabet books consisted of two parts. The first (lexicographic) included the alphabet, syllables, writing in alphabetical order, and sometimes information on grammar; the second (cognitive) - articles on philosophy, Russian and world history, selective information on the natural sciences. Moral alphabet books contained rules for children's behavior at school.

Reference alphabet books are explanatory dictionaries of terms, which indicate their origin, translation into Russian and meanings. They also provide information on various branches of knowledge. All alphabet books are an important source for the study of lexicography, lexicology, history of pedagogy, culture and social thought of Russia in the 13th-18th centuries.

"The Book of the Verb Alphabet." Manuscript 17th century. Sample alphabet dictionary.

Lit.: Batalin N.I. Old Russian alphabet books // Philological notes. 1873. Issue. 3-5; Karpov A.P. Azbukovniki, or Alphabets of foreign speeches according to the lists of the Solovetsky Library. Kazan, 1877; Vasmer M. Ein russisch-byzantinisches Gesprachbuch: Beitrage zur Erforschung der alteren russischen Lexikographie. Lpz., 1922; KovtunL. S. Russian lexicography of the Middle Ages. M.; L., 1963; she is the same. Azbukovniki XVIXVII centuries: Older variety, Leningrad, 1989; Shovgenova L. M. Azbukovniki // Russian speech. 1967. No. 5.

L. N. Pushkarev.

Serious changes took place in the 17th century. in the education system. Moreover, these changes are not only quantitative, but, very importantly, qualitative in nature: traditional ancient Russian apprenticeship (individual training from mentors) is being replaced by real educational institutions. Typically, children and teenagers learned to read and write from clergy, clerks or parents, and women, as a rule, even in the families of the nobility remained illiterate. The possibility of printing textbooks significantly improved the conditions for teaching literacy. It is characteristic that the cheap (1 kopeck) primers printed in Moscow were in great demand. 2,400 copies of the ABC by Patriarchal Deacon Vasily Burtsev, published in 1651, were sold out in one day. At the end of the century (1692), an illustrated primer by Karion Istomin, also known for his poetic works that continued the panegyric tradition of Simeon of Polotsk, appeared. The primer was equipped with pictures, selected according to a principle well known to modern people: the image of a letter was explained by images of objects whose names began with it. In the 40s of the 17th century. one of the prominent government figures, F. M. Rtishchev, invited about 30 learned monks from Kyiv to organize schools in the St. Andrew’s Monastery. Young nobles and Rtishchev himself began to study Greek and Latin, rhetoric, and philosophy. Many members of the nobility looked askance at Rtishchev’s school. It was believed that the Latin letter itself contained “heresy.” Nevertheless, private schools still existed and re-emerged. Epiphanius Slavinetsky founded the Greco-Latin school in the Chudov Monastery. In the 60s, priest Ivan Fomin, at his own expense, built a school in Barashi at the Church of the Presentation. In 1665, a school was opened in the Zaikonospassky Monastery, headed by Semyon of Polotsk. This school taught clerks Russian grammar and Latin. Two years later, a “gymnasion” (parish school) was opened at the Church of St. John the Evangelist in Kitai-gorod.

In 1680, a school was founded at the Printing Yard. Monk Timothy taught Greek at this school to 30 students recruited at its opening. The first private schools in Moscow prepared the foundation in 1687 of the Slavic-Greek-Latin school (academy) headed by the Greek scientists Ioaniy and Sophrony Likhud. It was the first educational institution whose goal was broad education. The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened for people of “every rank, dignity and age” and was intended to train the highest clergy and civil service officials. Studying at the Academy included courses in Greek grammar, poetics, rhetoric, and philosophy. The Academy played a major role in the development of Russian education at the end of the 17th century. and the first half of the 18th century. In the 17th century in Russia, among the landowners there were 65% literate, merchants 96%, townspeople - about 40%, peasants - 15%, archers, gunners, Cossacks - 1%. The spread of literacy and education in Russia undermined the centuries-old dominance of religion and the church , secular literature and foreign works were increasingly sold out. XVII century took an important place in the history of Russian education.

During the 17th century, significant changes took place in the area education.

For many centuries, wary hostility towards Catholicism, which Rus' initially adopted from Byzantium, spread to European “Latin learning”. Even in 1600-1611. the Frenchman Margeret, who lived in Moscow at that time, testified that “the people hated foreign sciences, especially Latin” (“The State of the Russian State”). Nevertheless, the objective need to assimilate European culture and education took its toll. In just a few decades, they not only stopped being proud of ignorance, but it was precisely in it that they began to see the source of the unrest that shook Russia. This is what he wrote in 1660. Paisiy Ligarid: “I was looking for the root... of the spiritual illness that struck the Russian kingdom of Christ... and finally I came up with and found that all the evil came from the fact that there are no public schools and libraries.” Enlightener Yuri Krizhanich in his “Political Thoughts” he saw ignorance as the main reason for Russia’s economic lag.

In the second half of the 17th century, four main approaches to education emerged: Old Believer-teacher(Archpriest Avvakum); Byzantine-Russian(Epiphany Slavinetsky, Fyodor Rtishchev, Karion Istomin); Latinophile(Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev); Slavic-Greek-Latin(Likhud brothers). Supporters of Greek saw in it a source of strengthening Orthodoxy in the fight against the Latin heresy, while their opponents saw in Latin the basis of secular culture. The listed approaches largely formed the content of the later (19th century) dispute Westerners And Slavophiles, which has not stopped today.

Already Tsar Alexei the Quiet, not satisfied with the elementary primary education received by his sons, ordered them to be taught Latin and Polish and even called Simeon of Polotsk to be their tutor. Tsar Fedor Alekseevich(1661-1682) sent students to the “German school” to study pharmacy.

During the 17th century, schools and other educational institutions became widespread not only in Russia, but also in Ukraine and Belarus, which were under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian state. In the struggle for liberation, they established fraternities from representatives of the most diverse classes, and on their basis - fraternal schools. Even the charters of Lviv and Lutsk schools have been preserved. " Grammar of the Slovenian language", published in 1618 by the teacher of the Kyiv fraternal school Melenty Smotrytsky(c. 1578-1633), in 1648 it was published in Moscow.

School Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood, which opened in 1615, turned in 1645 into the first higher educational institution in Russia - the Kyiv Fraternal College, which later (under Peter I) received the status of an academy. From its walls came Epiphany Slavinetsky and Simeon of Polotsk, who organized Greek-Latin schools in Moscow, most of the rectors and prefects of the famous Slavic-Greco-Latin Academy were its students, Peter I relied on the Kyiv Academy in his reform activities.

In Russia itself, one of the first Greco-Latin schools was opened in 1649 at the Chudov Monastery, although not for long, since its leader was exiled to Solovki on charges of unbelief. In the same 1649, the okolnichy, teacher of Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich Fedor Rtishchev(1626-1673) founded at his own expense a school at St. Andrew's Monastery, headed by Epiphany Slavinetsky. Rtishchev himself became his listener. In the 60s The school of the Spassky Monastery opened, where the government sent young clerks to study Greek and Latin. The first public school of advanced education, Typographical school, opened in 1681 by decree of Fyodor Alekseevich.

In 1687, somewhat delayed due to the death of the Tsar and the unrest of the Streltsy, it was founded in Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. According to S. Polotsky’s plan, only Orthodox Christians and Russians were to be accepted into it. It taught both spiritual and secular sciences (physics, logic, jurisprudence, philosophy, languages). The main teachers of the academy were Greek monks, doctors of the University of Padua, brothers Likhud, Ioannikiy(1639-1717) and Sophrony(1652-1730). They selected teachers and taught logic and rhetoric themselves. Soon the Old Russian clergy achieved their removal and deportation to a provincial monastery.

Only five years later the brothers were allowed to settle in Novgorod, where they immediately opened a Slavic-Greek-Latin school, modeled on the Moscow one.

Despite everything, the development of education became irreversible by the end of the 17th century. As historian S. Smirnov writes, thanks to the academy, “Russians came to terms with the idea of the benefits of science.”

The spread of education was greatly facilitated by the growth printing. In 1634 the first " Primer» Vasily Burtsev(costing only 1 kopeck, it quickly sold out), in 1648 “ Grammar» M. Smotritsky, in 1687 - " Reading for training" - multiplication table. During the 17th century, the Printing Yard in Moscow (which employed about 200 people in the middle of the century) published 300 thousand primers and 150 thousand religious books (483 titles in total), books of a secular and scientific nature were published, and the publication of handwritten books did not stop. In the 60s In the 17th century, a bookstore opened in Moscow, where one could buy “Merry Polish Stories”, and “The Chronicle of Pseudodorotheus”, and “Books of Military Formation” and “Chronograph”, and bestiaries based on European models, and “Disgrace (that is, a review - V.T.) of the entire universe, or a new atlas,” and new maps of Russia, which greatly expanded during the 17th century.

Historical thought developed, the geography of not only aggressive but also exploratory campaigns expanded. The Yana and Indigirka rivers were discovered, expeditions reached Kolyma and Baikal. In 1648 the expedition Semyon Dezhnev And Fedota Popova passed through the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific, discovering that Asia was separated from America by a strait, in 1647-1651. Erofei Khabarov sailed along the Amur up to the mouth, in 1697-99. Cossack Pentecostal V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka.

Questions and tasks

1. What features of the 17th century made it transitional in the history of Russian culture?

2. Is it possible to say that the sociocultural conditions of Russia contributed to belief in the “good tsar” and imposture?

3. What was the essence of the church schism of the 17th century and what were its consequences?

4. How was “secularization” expressed in the artistic culture of the 17th century, which of its monuments, in your opinion, are most characteristic?

5. What approaches to education existed in Russia in the 17th century, which one prevailed?

6. What can be said about the science of the 17th century, what factors contributed to it?

Berezovaya L. G., Berlyakova I. P. Introduction to the history of Russian culture. M., 2002.

Culturology. History of culture / Ed. A. N. Markova. M., 2001.

Panchenko A. M. Russian history and culture. St. Petersburg, 2002.

Panchenko A. M. Russian culture on the eve of Peter’s reforms. L., 1984.

Torosyan V. G. History of education and pedagogical thought. M., 2003. pp. 143-145.

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The two most educated groups were the clergy and employees of the administration - clerks and clerks. As for the boyars and nobles, in the first half of the 17th century. not all of them could even read and write, but by the end of the century the literacy rate had increased significantly. At the expense of the townspeople. Based on the signatures in the protocols of several Moscow townsman communities, it is calculated that in 1677 there were 36 percent of those signing, and in 1690 - between 36 and 52 percent.) Among the peasants, literacy was minimal throughout the 17th century. (slightly higher among state peasants in northern Rus').

Rus' needed technical modernization. This process could go faster or slower, take on a wider or narrower scale. The decisive impetus was given by Peter the Great.

Agriculture in Rus' in the 17th century

Literacy and enlightenment in Ancient Rus' (IX-XVII centuries)

Writing among the Eastern Slavs existed even before the adoption of Christianity. Many sources reported on a kind of pictographic writing - “Russian writings”. The creators of the Slavic alphabet (“Glagolitic” and “Cyrillic”) are considered to be the Byzantine missionary monks Cyril and Methodius, who lived in the 10th and 20th centuries.

The adoption of Christianity in 988, which became the official religion of Kievan Rus, contributed to the rapid spread of writing and written culture. A large amount of translated literature of religious and secular content appeared in Rus', and the first libraries appeared at cathedrals and monasteries. Original Russian literature began to be created - religious and secular (chronicles, words, teachings, lives, etc.)

The introduction of Christianity was also associated with the beginning of school education in Ancient Rus'. The first schools in the Kiev state were created by Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. “He sent to collect children from the best people and send them to book education,” the chronicle reported. Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who went down in history as the Wise, expanded the circle of people who learned to read and write, ordering priests “in cities and other places” to teach people, because “the benefits of book learning are great.” In Novgorod, he created a school in which 300 children of the clergy and church elders studied. Education there was conducted in the native language, they taught reading, writing, the basics of Christian doctrine and counting. In Ancient Rus' there were schools of a higher type that prepared for state and church activities. In such schools, along with theology, they studied philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, and became acquainted with historical, geographical and natural science works. Special schools existed for teaching literacy and foreign languages; in 1086 the first women's school was opened in Kyiv. Following the model of the Kyiv and Novgorod ones, other schools were opened at the courts of Russian princes - for example, in Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Suzdal, schools were created at monasteries.

Schools were not only educational institutions, but also cultural centers; translations of ancient and Byzantine authors were made there, and manuscripts were copied.

Education in the Kyiv period was highly valued. The high level of professional skill with which the oldest Russian books that have come down to us were executed (primarily the oldest - “Ostromir Gospel”, 1057) testifies to the well-established production of handwritten books already in the 10th century. Well-educated people were called “bookish men” in the chronicles.

The wide spread of literacy among the population is evidenced by birch bark letters found by archaeologists in large quantities. They are private letters, business records, receipts and school notebooks. In addition, wooden tablets with letters carved on them were found. Probably, such alphabets served as textbooks when teaching children. Written evidence has also been preserved about the existence of schools for children in the 13th-15th centuries and about teachers - “scribes”. Schools existed not only in cities, but also in rural areas. They taught reading, writing, church singing and counting, i.e. provided primary education.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion had catastrophic consequences for Russian culture. The death of the population, the destruction of cities - centers of literacy and culture, the severance of ties with Byzantium and Western countries, the destruction of books led to a decrease in the general cultural level of Ancient Rus'. Although the traditions of writing and books were preserved, the spread of literacy during this period was concentrated mainly in the hands of the church. Schools were created in monasteries and churches, where children were taught by representatives of the clergy. At the same time, the literacy level of the population of Ancient Rus' was very low, even among the clergy, for whom literacy was a craft. Therefore, in 1551, at the Council of the Stoglavy, a decision was made: “In the reigning city of Moscow and in all cities ... establish schools in the houses of priests, deacons and sextons, so that priests and deacons and all Orthodox Christians in each city hand over their children to them for teaching literacy and teaching book writing.” The decision of the Stoglavy Council was not implemented. There were few schools, and education in them was limited to the acquisition of elementary literacy. Individual home-based learning continued to predominate. Teaching aids were liturgical books.

In the second half of the 16th century. special grammars appeared (“A conversation about teaching literacy, what literacy is and what its structure is, and why such a teaching is glad to have been compiled, and what is gained from it, and what is appropriate to learn first”) and arithmetic (“Book, recoma in Greek Arithmetic , and in German Algorizma, and in Russian digital counting wisdom").

In the middle of the 16th century, a major event took place in the history of Russian culture, which played a crucial role in the development of literacy and book literacy - the emergence of book printing. On March 1, 1564, the Apostle, the first Russian dated printed book, came out of the Moscow printing house. The state printing house, created on the initiative of Ivan IV and Metropolitan Macarius, was headed by the deacon of the Kremlin church Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets.v. further increased the need for literacy and education. The development of urban life, the revival of commercial and industrial activities, the complication of the state apparatus system, and the growth of ties with foreign countries required a large number of educated people.

The distribution of books acquired a much wider scale during this period. Extensive libraries of Russian and translated literature began to be compiled. The Printing House worked more intensively, producing not only religious works, but also books of secular content. The first printed textbooks appeared. In 1634, the first Russian primer by Vasily Burtsev was published, which was reprinted several times. In the second half of the 17th century. More than 300 thousand primers, about 150 thousand educational “Psalters” and “Books of Hours” were printed. In 1648, the printed “Grammar” of Meletius Smotrytsky was published, in 1682 - the multiplication table. In 1678, Innocent Gisel’s book “Synopsis” was published in Moscow, which became the first printed textbook on Russian history. In 1672, the first bookstore opened in Moscow.

From the middle of the 17th century. Schools began to open in Moscow, modeled after European grammar schools and providing both secular and theological education. In 1687, the first higher educational institution was opened in Russia - the Slavic-Greek-Latin school (academy), intended for training higher clergy and civil service officials. People of “every rank, dignity and age” were accepted into the academy. The academy was headed by the Greeks, brothers Sophronius and Ioannikis Likhud. The program of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was modeled on Western European educational institutions. The academy's charter provided for the teaching of civil and spiritual sciences: grammar, rhetoric, logic and physics, dialectics, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, Latin and Greek, and other secular sciences.

At this time, important changes occurred in the methods of primary education. The literal method of teaching literacy was replaced by the sound method. Instead of the alphabetic designation of numbers (letters of the Cyrillic alphabet), Arabic numbers began to be used. The primers included coherent reading texts, for example, psalms. “ABC books” appeared, i.e. explanatory dictionaries for students. The teaching of mathematics was the weakest. Only in the 17th century did textbooks with Arabic numerals begin to appear. Of the four rules of arithmetic, only addition and subtraction were used in practice; operations with fractions were almost never used. Geometry, or rather, practical land surveying, was more or less developed. Astronomy was also a purely applied field (compiling calendars, etc.). In the 12th century, astrology spread. Natural science knowledge was random and unsystematic. Practical medicine (mainly borrowed from the East) and especially pharmaceuticals developed.

education education literacy pedagogical

One of the most striking indicators of the level of development of society is public education. It seems that there is no such difference of opinion on any issue in our history as on the issue of the role of school and the spread of literacy among the population in Ancient Rus'. Some consider the existence of schools before Peter I to be a rare exception, others talk about numerous parochial schools. Some are about widespread illiteracy, others are the opposite.

It is difficult to agree with both points of view; most likely the truth lies somewhere in the middle. In Russia there was a layer of people for whom literacy was a necessity - this, of course, was the clergy, but among them there were many ignorant people, they only memorized the texts of basic services, bypassing the cunning science of literacy. It was believed that literacy could be achieved without schools, you just need to find yourself a “master” (teacher). But, having learned to read, the Russian lover of education found himself in the world of manuscripts and printed books. Then it became clear that literacy alone was not enough; there was a need for grammar, followed by a need for other knowledge.

One thing remains undoubted: the century in question in the field of education has stepped much further than the 16th century thanks to the spread of mass printing. Along with traditional spiritual literature, a number of textbooks are published. Thus, in 1634, V. Burtsev’s primer was published, becoming the first textbook for many generations of Russian people. It was reprinted several times during the 17th century. M. Smotritsky's grammar and a practical guide to counting - the multiplication table - are also published.

Despite the fact that the entire worldview of the Russian people at this time is determined by the Russian Orthodox Church, a rather conservative social institution, the people’s interest in everything foreign is growing. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, passion for Western culture increased; a German settlement appeared in Moscow, where foreigners lived, many of whom were specialists in various fields of science. But in fairness, it must be noted that along with knowledgeable and educated people, all sorts of adventurers, swindlers, seekers of easy money and simply illiterate people also sought to come to Russia.

At the invitation of the Tsar, the outstanding Belarusian scientist and poet Simeon Emelyanovich Petrovsky-Sitnianovich comes to Moscow. In Russia he became widely known under the name of Simeon of Polotsk. He was favored at court, and he was entrusted with teaching the royal children, since he was considered a model of a home teacher of that time.

Having the most extensive and versatile scientific knowledge, he tried to teach it in an entertaining way, forcing them to teach it jokingly. Knowing the Latin and Polish languages, he collects various kinds of sayings, definitions, anecdotes, and conveys all this in verses and verses (“for this reason, because of the inherent sweetness in the hearts of readers, the essence is most pleasant, if need will drive me to frequent reading and can be supported more conveniently by memory”).

The successes of S. Polotsk at court could not help but offend the old teachers. There were rumors about him that his teaching was not entirely correct, and this was a terrible accusation given the suspicion of new teachers at that time.

Nevertheless, Polotsky, thanks to his dexterity, resisted, but could not help but express his indignation at the unfair accusations. He, as a zealot for enlightenment, in his sermons attacked old teachers and priests, denouncing them of ignorance. In 1664, Simeon of Polotsk became the head of one of the first Zaikonospassky Greek-Latin schools in Russia. Four clerks were appointed students to this school. They had to master Latin and grammar. In fact, Polotsky, in addition to the indicated subjects, taught his students a full course at Kyiv University.

In 1668, this course was completed, and the students were sent to complete their studies in Courland and secretly observe the actions of the Russian ambassadors. The Polotsk school, apparently, ceased to exist at this first graduation. But one of the students, Semyon Medvedev, having become a monk, returned to Moscow and became a zealous propagandist of both the views of his teacher and the very idea of the Latin theological school. The fact is that all scientific publications of that time were published in Europe exclusively in Latin.

Naturally, when they got to Russia, they demanded either a translation or a deep scientific knowledge of this language, as well as the traditions of Western theology. However, his ideas encounter obstacles from the highest Moscow clergy. And this is understandable: for purely Orthodox people, the Latin language meant all Latinism, that is, Catholicism, which is in many ways hostile to the Russian religious tradition.

Despite this, schools were opened much earlier, for example, the first Greek-Latin school was organized in 1649 in Moscow at the St. Andrew's Monastery. Its founder was one of the most cultured people of that time, boyar F.M., close to the tsar. Rtishchev. The second Greek-Latin school at the Chudov Monastery was headed by the famous church writer Epiphanius Slavinetsky, who was one of the first Russian philologists.

In the 70s, Polotsky developed a project to create the first academy in Russia, where people of different classes could study. The choice of teachers for her was entrusted to the Patriarch of Constantinople.

And in 1685, on his recommendation, teachers, doctors of science, brothers Ioannikis and Sophronius Likhud, who received higher education in Padua and Venice, came to Moscow. In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was established, which accepted people “of every rank, dignity and age,” but always of the Orthodox faith. The Academy was supposed to become a stronghold of Orthodoxy and at the same time a center for the spread of “Latin culture.” Here they taught Latin and Greek, grammar, literature, rhetoric, logic, psychology, physics, morality and theology, the study of which was supposed to provide students with “seeds of wisdom.” The Academy was endowed with money and various benefits, and received its own library. The Likhud brothers compiled textbooks on grammar, literature, rhetoric, psychology, physics and other subjects. They themselves taught these subjects. The training went well. Within three years, the best students could translate books from Latin and Greek themselves.

But in 1694, Ioannikios and Sophronius were accused of spreading heresy and expelled from the academy.

Patriarch Dosifei, an opponent of secular education, contributed to this. However, the work of enlightenment bore fruit. It partly spread to Pomorie and the Volga region. But education, like many other things, was the privilege of feudal lords, clergy and wealthy merchants. The lot of the majority of peasants and townspeople remained illiterate.

The brothers' students continued to teach at the academy, and many famous figures of Russian culture became its graduates.

Introduction

Chapter 2. Folklore and literature

Chapter 3. Scientific knowledge

Chapter 4. The influence of Western European powers on education in Russia

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

From the period from the adoption of Christianity to the 12th century. a new ideology of the Russian state was established, and, accordingly, Russian upbringing and education. The “Sermon on Law and Grace” lays the spiritual foundations for the development of Russian statehood and education. Thanks to the activities of government and Orthodox leaders, in a short time a “complete system” of education was created in Rus' from primary school to “academy”, which existed in the form of state and church-monastic schools.

Relevance of the topic:

In Rus', in a short period of time, an educational system with a rather complex content was formed, which is explained by both political and religious reasons: the state and the church required not only educated, but also highly educated people. Education served primarily the purposes of spiritual upbringing, which included Orthodoxy, “secular” arts - grammar, rhetoric, elements of folk, national culture, especially literature. The fundamentals of the content of education, developed at the beginning of the 11th century, existed in the Russian school almost until the end of the 17th century.

The purpose of my work is to find out what level of education Russian society was at by the end of the 17th century, to trace how Western European powers influenced the education of Russian people.

The goal is achieved through the following tasks:

1. Find out what knowledge the inhabitants of Russia had in the 17th century.

2. Analyze whether the West had an influence on the level of education in Russia in the 17th century.

3. To trace and find out whether it is possible to consider this process as a dialogue between Western European and Russian culture.

In my work I used several sources: Krizhanich Yu.Politics, Literary monuments of Ancient Rus': XVII century, Detailed description of the trip of the Holstein embassy to Muscovy and Persia in 1633, 1636 and 1638, compiled by the embassy secretary Adam Olearius // Readings in the Imperial Society of History and Russian Antiquities and others.

Some studies were also used:

1. Klyuchevsky V.O. He believed that “Western influence, penetrating into Russia, met here with another influence that had hitherto dominated in it - the Eastern, Greek.”

2. Ulanova V.Ya., which thus defined the main “conductors of Western influence”: trade, military and diplomatic relations with the West, the development of colonies of foreigners in Moscow and other Russian centers, the educational activities of southern Russian immigrants, the dissemination of foreign and translated literature. At the same time, he emphasized that some “of these ways of spreading Western culture to Russia have their origins on the other side of troubled times and thus attract attention as long-term conductors of Western culture.”

A lively discussion arose among pre-revolutionary researchers on the issue of schools of this period. Some scientists, in particular L.N. Maikov (in his study about Simeon of Polotsk) and G. Sokolov (in an article about Sylvester Medvedev), elevated the Chudovskaya, Spasskaya and Andreevskaya schools to the rank of higher schools. G. Sokolov, for example, claims that at the Spasskaya school they taught not only “poetry and rhetoric, but also theology, history, philosophy and dialectics.” On the other hand, N. Kapterev, explaining the scarcity of materials in the field of education in Russia in the pre-Petrine era, argues that “information about what, how and whom. taught in Moscow Greco-Latin schools, which supposedly existed from the middle of the 17th century, did not reach us solely because these very schools did not exist in Moscow at that time.”

It seems to us that on this issue both sides are right and wrong. There is no reason to deny the fact of the existence of the Chudovskaya, Spasskaya and Andreevskaya schools, if we consider them as a continuation and development of the traditional form of education in Rus', which previously existed in our monasteries, where the learning process did not have a strict system, was closely connected with liturgical practice, work on translation and correction of books and devoted a large place to individual study of the works of the Church Fathers. Therefore, it is hardly possible to consider these schools a prototype of the “correct” higher school, which arose in Russia only with the establishment of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.

Interest in pedagogy, teaching methods, and issues of home education is noticeably increasing in Russia. Now pedagogical ideas are being distinguished from the previous syncretism of theological and moral works, special treatises are being developed, and entire collections of pedagogical works are being compiled. Tracts on home education of children are becoming especially popular.

My work consists of 4 chapters:

1. Formation and basic principles of education in Russia in the 17th century. (this chapter talks about how, who and what could be learned)

2. Folklore and literature (the state of literature in the 17th century)

3. Scientific knowledge (level of development of scientific knowledge by the 17th century)

4. The influence of Western European powers on education in Russia (did the West have influence on Russian education)

Introductions and conclusions.

Chapter 1. Formation and basic principles of education in Russia in the 17th century.

In the times of Vasily III, Ivan the Terrible, Fyodor Ivanovich, literate people could be found mainly among people of the clergy or administrative class; in the 17th century There are already quite a few of them among the nobles and townspeople. Even among the black-growing peasants, partly among the serfs, and even among the slaves, there were literate people - elders and kissers, clerks and scribes. But, of course, the overwhelming majority of peasants are illiterate people.

Overall, the percentage of literate people in the country was increasing, albeit slowly. Even in the first half of the century, many city governors, due to illiteracy or low literacy, could not take a step without clerks and clerks, their subordinates in the governor’s hut - the center of the district government. The same can be said about many nobles who were sent from Moscow to describe and survey lands, to “search” for fugitives, someone’s omissions, crimes, etc. In the second half of the century, the voivodships were occupied by people who, as a rule, were literate; These are primarily representatives of the Duma and Moscow officials. Among the district nobles there were few literate people.

There were many literate people in the suburbs. Crafts and trade, traveling on business required knowledge of writing and counting. Literate people came from both rich and poor strata. Quite often, it was precisely low income that stimulated the desire for knowledge and literacy. “We have,” said, for example, residents of the Pomeranian Yarensk, “who are the best and subsistence people, and those who do not know how to read and write. And those people who can read and write are also dumb people.” In Vologda, for many impoverished people, the ability to write is a way to get their daily bread: “And in Vologda, in a writer’s hut, the impoverished people of Posatsk feed on writing in a commonplace.” In Ustyug the Great, 53 area clerks from the local townspeople obtained their livelihood in this way. Tens and hundreds of the same literate people worked in the squares of other cities.

Townspeople and peasants learned to read and write from “masters” consisting of priests and deacons, sextons and clerks, and other literate people. Often, literacy training was built on the principles of ordinary craft apprenticeship, according to an “apprenticeship”, and was combined with training in trade or some craft. For example, K. Burkov, a boy from the villages of Ustyug the Great, was given by his mother (at the end of the century) to D. Shulgin, a draftsman of the capital’s Semenovskaya Sloboda, to be taught literacy and lace making.

Men were trained. There were very few literate women; they are from the royal house and the upper class, like Princess Sophia and some others. First of all, they taught the elementary alphabet using alphabet books, printed and handwritten. In 1634, V. Burtsev’s primer was published and reprinted several times over the course of a century. In the middle of the century, there were about 11 thousand copies of Burtsev’s primer in the book warehouse of the Moscow Printing Yard. It cost one kopeck, or two money, very cheap at the prices of that time. At the same time, the grammar of Meletiy Smotritsky, a Ukrainian scientist, was published (Mikhail Lomonosov later studied from it). At the end of the century, an ABC book by Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin, was published, as well as a practical guide for counting - a multiplication table - “Convenient calculation, with which every person buying or selling can very conveniently find the number of any thing.” Over the second half of the century, the Printing House printed 300 thousand primers, 150 thousand educational psalters and books of hours. It happened that thousands of copies of such manuals were sold out in a few days.

Many people learned from handwritten alphabets, copybooks and arithmetic; the latter sometimes had very exotic names: “This book, the verb in Hellenic or Greek, is arithmetic, and in German is algorism, and in Russian is digital counting wisdom” (algorism is a name coming from the name of Al-Khorezmi, the great scientist of medieval Central Asia, originally from Khorezm).

My reading circle has expanded significantly. From the 17th century A lot of books, printed and especially handwritten, have been preserved. Among them, along with church ones, there are more and more secular ones: chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends, all kinds of collections of liturgical, historical, literary, geographical, astronomical, medical and other content. Many had various manuals on measuring land, making paint, constructing all sorts of structures, etc. Tsars and noble boyars had libraries with hundreds of books in different languages.