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After all, it has long been no secret to any sane person that we live in a world that someone created not for people, or rather, not for all people; in which the overwhelming majority lives according to the rules of a tiny minority, and the world is extremely hostile, and the rules are aimed at destroying the majority. How could this happen? How did the frail David manage to perch himself on the neck of the huge Goliath and chase him, carefreely dangling his legs? By cunning and deception, mostly. One of the ways in which the majority has been forced to obey the minority is by falsifying the past. The very smart, but devilishly cruel Pope spoke openly about this:
“...Therefore, in order to subjugate peacefully, I use a very simple and reliable method - I destroy their past... For without a past a person is vulnerable... He loses his ancestral roots if he does not have a past. And just then, confused and unprotected, he becomes a “blank canvas” on which I can write any story!.. And would you believe it, dear Isidora, people are only happy about this... because, I repeat, they cannot live without the past (even if they don’t want to admit it to themselves). And when there is no such thing, they accept anything, so as not to “hang” in the unknown, which for them is much more terrible than any stranger’s, made-up “story” ... "
This method of “peaceful submission” turned out to be much more effective than submission by force. For it acts unnoticed by the subordinates, little by little plunging them into mental sleep, and the subordinates do not experience unnecessary inconvenience - they do not dirty their hands and do not wave their swords. Their main weapon is pen and ink. This is how they act, of course, after all the bearers of the truth, of whom there have always been few, were physically destroyed, information about them was distorted, sometimes to the contrary, and all their heritage was carefully collected and taken away to themselves, down to the last leaf. What they could not take away was destroyed without hesitation. Let us remember that the Etruscan library in Rome and the Alexandrian library were destroyed, and the library of Ivan the Terrible disappeared without a trace.
For example, at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. there was an emperor in Rome whose name was Claudius (10 BC - 54 AD). Most of the various historical biased sources present him as almost a drooling idiot, and the brightest spot in his biography is one of his notorious wives - Messalina. However, digging a little deeper, you can be surprised to find out that the “physically and mentally ill tyrant” Claudius, who never aspired to power, and ended up on the throne due to circumstances, ruled for 13 years, during which he built a couple of aqueducts with a total length of almost 100 miles (160 km) and repaired old ones, increased the area of irrigated land, built new ports, reformed the judicial and administrative system, and it worked much more efficiently and quickly, and the population of Rome increased by a third and reached almost 6 million. The speeches he made in the Senate demonstrated his broad education and common sense.
In addition, Claudius was an erudite from his youth, knew several languages and was seriously interested in history, writing the history of civil wars and the history of Carthage. His first wife was an Etruscan from a noble family, Plautia Urgulanilla. It is believed that it was she who inspired him to write the history of the Etruscans. He wrote 20 volumes of Tyrrenikà, and also compiled a dictionary of the Etruscan language, which by that time had already been practically squeezed out by Latin and thoroughly forgotten. None of his works have reached our time. Little information about them is contained only in the form of small quotations found in Pliny and Suetonius.
So why did Emperor Claudius not please the destroyers of the past?
Most likely, because he tried to preserve information about the talented and hardworking people - they themselves called themselves Rasena. The gang of exterminators was not satisfied with the Slavic origin of the people, the memory of which they purposefully erased from the annals of civilization. As a result, the so-called Romans were credited with everything that Rasen had created, from architectural achievements - aqueducts, villas, etc. - to cultural, scientific and religious ones, and the empire, instead of the Etruscan, or rather Rasen, began to be called Roman. As we see, history began to be distorted not a hundred or even four hundred years ago, but two thousand or more, as the Rus were squeezed out of the lands that they had nurtured, raising their development to a high level.
But another ancient historical character still receives all sorts of praise. His name is pronounced with aspiration and admiration, as an example of the incredible success of a purposeful and brilliant young man. Novels are written about him and epic, expensive films are shot. I'm talking about Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), who, we are told, conquered half the world by the age of 33. However, if you abandon official propaganda and look at his actions from the other side, the answer to the question: for what merits are fanfares still being played in his honor, disappears by itself.
If you look at the map of his campaigns, it becomes clear that his conquests took place precisely in those places where ancient Slavic knowledge was stored. He captured Sogdiana (remember that there were several Asgards on earth - cities of the Gods - one of which was Asgard of Sogd), Syria, Egypt, Persia and India. He dealt another serious blow to the Persian Empire created by the Rus, which 20 years before him was bled dry by the First Great “Persian” Revolution “Esther and Mordechai”, destroying 75,000 families of the best representatives of Persia (strong people).
At the end of the penultimate Night of Svarog, the Dark Forces organized a massive attack on the southern outposts of the Slavic-Aryan Empire and tried to establish a new world order there, to impose on the people a new cosmopolitan ideology of Aristotle and new universal values, for which it was necessary to destroy the ideological heritage of the East, laid down by our ancestors. Aristotle trained an excellent tool for such purposes - Alexander the Great. The particular cynicism of the situation is that Alexander was a Slav by blood, but raised by the “Greek” Aristotle, he furiously destroyed the heritage of his Race. It is at his instigation that the Macedonian destroys the ancient Slavic Harati A-vesta in Persia and the Vedas in India, transferred there by the Aryans. This is why he still enjoys the love and reverence of the destroyers of the past.
Let's leave the former provinces of the ancient Slavic-Aryan Empire and move along the time axis a little closer to ours. Let's look at the reputation in the world of the Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible, who did a lot to strengthen and prosper his country, expand its borders and protect it from external and internal enemies, which follows even from the information that the Romanovs left after thorough erasure.
There is a version expressed and substantiated by N. Fomenko and G. Nosovsky in the book “Ivan the Terrible and Peter I. Fictional Tsar and False Tsar”, that in fact, under the name of the Terrible Tsar, Romanov historians united the successive reign of 4 Russian tsars, trying to justify their right to the Moscow throne and absolve themselves of blame for the Time of Troubles and other crimes.
Everyone remembers the “bloody boys in the eyes” of Boris Godunov from the tragedy of the same name by A.S. Pushkin? But it was the Romanovs who hanged the 4-year-old prince - the legitimate contender for the Russian throne - on the Spassky Gate, and not Boris Godunov who killed him. However, for our article it is not so important how many kings were hiding under the name of Ivan the Terrible. It is important to us how the Russian Tsar of that time was presented then and how he is presented now.
By the time of Ivan IV, Muscovy - a province of the Slavic-Aryan Empire - had broken away completely. This began under his grandfather, Ivan III, who severed all ties with her, according to legend, by killing the ambassadors and refusing to pay tribute to the Metropolis. The Empire no longer had the opportunity to return Muscovy. She herself was constantly attacked from the southeast by the Dzungars and after the capture of her capital - Asgard of Iria in 1530 (just in the year of the birth of Ivan IV), she could no longer control her western territories as before. Having received independence, Muscovy had to independently organize its life and create its own state institutions.
During his reign, Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV) consistently carried out reforms aimed at centralizing government administration. He reformed the central and local government, the judicial system, streamlined the tax system, and introduced a single tax collection unit for the entire state - the “big plow”. Under Ivan the Terrible, book printing began in Moscow. The country's population growth was 50% (one and a half times). 155 new cities were built. The country's territory has doubled - from 2.8 million square meters. km to 5.4 million sq. km. The territory of Muscovy became larger than the territory of the rest of Europe.
Grozny organizes a state post office (about 300 postal stations were founded) and the Pharmacy Prikaz, develops international trade and creates an Ambassadorial Prikaz, and industry is created. Private underground prisons are prohibited and the state ransom of Russians from captivity is legalized. Emigration from Europe exceeded 30,000 families. The country receives regular troops - Streltsy. His army stopped the expansion of the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray, carried out with the support of the Ottoman Empire. In the Battle of Molodi on July 30 - August 2, 1572, under the command of the governor Prince Mikhail Vorotynsky, a 40,000-strong (according to other estimates 120,000) Crimean-Turkish army was destroyed. And numerous people who wanted it lost for a while the desire to bite off this piece of the former western province of the Slavic-Aryan Empire.
It was Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV) who was the first of the Moscow kings to make an attempt to make Muscovy a maritime power, fighting for Russia's access to the Baltic Sea (the earlier name was the Russian Sea) and creating a navy and its own port in the Baltic. Europe perceived this as a threat to its trade interests and did everything possible to prevent the Muscovites from reaching the sea. In 1565, Augustus of Saxony stated: “The Russians are quickly building a fleet, recruiting skippers from everywhere; when the Muscovites improve in maritime affairs, it will no longer be possible to cope with them...” So it is not Peter I who held the palm in the construction of the Muscovite fleet.
Nevertheless, to this day, the fables that Romanov historians and their Western colleagues composed about Ivan the Terrible are in circulation: the Jesuit Possevin, the Englishman Horsey and the domestic prince Andrei Kurbsky - a son-killer, tyrant and tyrant, flooded the entire country with blood. Here is an example of just one distortion of information. In 1569, Grozny came to Novgorod, whose population was then approximately 40 thousand people. An epidemic was raging there. Funeral lists note 2,800 dead, and Jerome Horsey, an English diplomat, in “Notes on Russia,” indicates that the guardsmen massacred 700 (seven hundred) thousand people in Novgorod, and it is this number that is accepted as historically accurate.
But during the 54 years of Ivan the Terrible’s reign, only 3 to 4 (according to other sources up to 15) thousand people were executed, and not a single one without trial. Each death sentence under Grozny was passed only in Moscow and approved personally by the tsar, and the sentence for princes and boyars was also approved by the boyar duma. Meanwhile, the “enlightened” Europeans staged the St. Bartholomew’s Massacre, when in one night, on the orders of the French king Charles IX, Catholics massacred 4 to 12 thousand Huguenots.
During the reign of Henry VIII (1509-1547), around the same time, 72 thousand people (about 2.5% of the country’s total population) were executed in England “for vagrancy and begging,” and under Queen Elizabeth I (1568-1603 ) - 89 thousand people. In 1525, more than 100 thousand people were executed in Germany during the suppression of a peasant uprising. On February 16, 1568, the Spanish Inquisition sentenced to death all residents of the Netherlands (not to mention all those executed by the Inquisition); during the suppression of uprisings in the Netherlands, the imperial king Philip II (1556-1598) executed more than 100 thousand in two years. On November 4, 1576, under In the suppression of the uprising in Antwerp, 8 thousand were executed; he executed representatives of dozens of aristocratic Aragonese families.
However, it is in the West that the Russian Tsar is nicknamed Terrible (this is how the expression the Terrible is translated from English), changing the opposite meaning of the Russian epithet Grozny, which reflects the idea of greatness, justice and order in the country, and not tyranny and bloody tyranny. Domestic “creators” do not lag behind them, carefully throwing mud at the Russian heritage. In 2009, the film “Tsar” by Lungin was released on Russian screens, where the “creative author” made fun of Grozny to his heart’s content, presenting him as a mentally abnormal freak - a madman, a maniac, a sadist and a paranoid in one bottle.
So why did Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible annoy them so much?
Perhaps because he banned Jewish merchants from entering Russian territory. And when in 1550 the Polish king Sigismund-August demanded that they be allowed free entry into Russia, Grozny refused with the following words: “Don’t tell the Jew to go to his states, we don’t want to see any evil in our states, but we want that So that God will give in my states my people will be in silence without any embarrassment. And you, our brother, would not have written to us about the Jews in advance,” since they “led the Russian people away from Christianity, and brought poisonous potions to our lands and did many dirty tricks to our people.”
And, perhaps, the fact that he did not stand on ceremony with the European monarchs of that time and wrote to them everything that he thought of them, addressing them as a suzerain to his vassals, or, at least, as a high-born person to people much lower than him. origin. Thus, to Queen Elizabeth I of England, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with her manner of conducting business and about herself: “...And we expected that you are the empress of your state and own it yourself. It’s just that people rule past you and not only people, but also trading men and about our sovereign heads, and about honors, and about lands, they are not looking for profit, but they are looking for their own trade profits. And you remain in your maiden rank, just like a vulgar girl...” And here is what he wrote to the Swedish King Johan III: “And if you want to bark, then find yourself a slave just like you are a slave, and bark with him. From now on, no matter how much you write barking, we will not give you any answer...” Or maybe he was pricking his eyes with the legitimacy of his power and the high birth of the noble Romanov.
But another Russian tsar received incredible honors and continuous hosannas. Films are made about him, novels and paintings are written, monuments are erected to him, ships and awards are named after him. This is Peter I, or rather the false Peter I. Evidence that the real Tsar Peter I was replaced during the Great Embassy - a diplomatic mission with which the Moscow Tsar went to Europe in 1697-98 - can be viewed on the website " The Great Impostor."
The one who returned to Russia began to energetically cut a window into Europe for Europe and at the expense of the Russians, “raising Russia on its hind legs” so that its population died out at a terrifying rate. He carried out a real genocide of the Russian people, soldering them, driving them into slavery by introducing serfdom and crushing them with additional taxes, while providing the foreigners who flooded the country with unprecedented benefits and privileges. There is a known figure named by P.N. Miliukov, a historian who devoted his master's thesis to the activities of Peter I, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Government in 1917, that by 1710 20% of the tax population of Muscovy had disappeared.
But there is another Russian tsar, who, in his Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy dated April 29, 1881, announced a departure from the liberal course of his father, who gave a free hand to the revolutionary movement, which developed with Jewish money, and highlighted “maintaining order and power, surveillance the strictest justice and economy. A return to the original Russian principles and ensuring Russian interests everywhere,” no one calls them Great and no one erects colossal monuments. Alexander III is generally extremely unpopular among Russian liberals, neither contemporary to him nor contemporary to us.
They gave him a reputation as slow-witted, a limited person with mediocre abilities and (oh, horror!) conservative views. Famous statesman and lawyer A.F. Kony, who acquitted terrorist Vera Zasulich in the case of the assassination attempt on the mayor of St. Petersburg, General F. Trepov, nicknamed him “a hippopotamus in epaulettes.” And the Minister of Railways of the Russian Empire, and later of Finance S.Yu. Witte gave him the following description: Emperor Alexander III was “below average intelligence, below average abilities and below average education; in appearance he resembled a big Russian peasant from the central provinces, and yet he undoubtedly impressed with his appearance, which reflected his enormous character, beautiful heart, complacency, justice and at the same time firmness.” And it is believed that he treated Alexander III with sympathy.
What did Alexander III do to deserve such an attitude?
It was during his reign that Russia made a giant leap forward, pulling itself out of the swamp of liberal reforms into which Alexander II led it, and he himself died from them. A member of the terrorist party "People's Will" threw a bomb at his feet. What was happening in the country at that time was approximately the same rapid impoverishment of the people, the same instability and lawlessness that Gorbachev and Yeltsin inflicted on us almost a century later.
Alexander III managed to create a miracle. A real technical revolution has begun in the country. Industrialization proceeded at a rapid pace. The emperor managed to achieve stabilization of state finances, which made it possible to begin preparations for the introduction of the gold ruble, which was carried out after his death. He fought fiercely against corruption and embezzlement. He tried to appoint business executives and patriots who defended the national interests of the country to government posts.
The country's budget became surplus. The same Witte was forced to admit “...Emperor Alexander III was a good owner not because of a sense of self-interest, but because of a sense of duty. Not only in the royal family, but also among dignitaries, I have never encountered that feeling of respect for the state ruble, for the state kopeck, which Emperor Alexander III possessed. He took care of every penny of the Russian people, the Russian state, like the best owner could not take care of it...” Tightening customs policy and simultaneous encouragement of domestic producers led to rapid growth in production. Customs taxes on foreign goods almost doubled, which led to a significant increase in government revenues.
The population of Russia grew from 71 million people in 1856 to 122 million people in 1894, including the urban population - from 6 million to 16 million people. From 1860 to 1895, iron smelting increased 4.5 times, coal production - 30 times, oil - 754 times. 28 thousand miles of railways were built in the country, connecting Moscow with the main industrial and agricultural areas and seaports (the railway network in 1881-92 grew by 47%). In 1891, construction began on the strategically important Trans-Siberian Railway, connecting Russia with the Far East. The government began to buy out private railways, up to 60% of which by the mid-90s ended up in the hands of the state.
The number of Russian river steamships increased from 399 in 1860 to 2539 in 1895, and sea ships - from 51 to 522. At this time, the industrial revolution ended in Russia, and the machine industry replaced the old manufactories. New industrial cities (Lodz, Yuzovka, Orekhovo-Zuevo, Izhevsk) and entire industrial regions (coal and metallurgical in Donbass, oil in Baku, textile in Ivanovo) grew up. The volume of foreign trade, which did not reach 200 million rubles in 1850, by 1900 exceeded 1.3 billion rubles. By 1895, domestic trade turnover increased 3.5 times compared to 1873 and reached 8.2 billion rubles (“History of Russia from antiquity to the present day” / edited by M.N. Zuev, Moscow, “Higher School”, 1998)
It was during the reign of Emperor Alexander III that Russia did not fight a single day (except for the conquest of Central Asia that ended with the capture of Kushka in 1885) - for this the king was called a “peacemaker.” Everything was settled exclusively by diplomatic methods, and without any regard for “Europe” or anyone else. He believed that Russia had no need to look for allies there and interfere in European affairs. His words, which have already become popular, are known: “In the whole world we have only two faithful allies - our army and navy. “Everyone else will take up arms against us at the first opportunity.” He did a lot to strengthen the army and the defense capability of the country and the inviolability of its borders. “Our Fatherland, undoubtedly, needs a strong and well-organized army, standing at the height of the modern development of military affairs, but not for aggressive purposes, but solely to protect the integrity and state honor of Russia.” That's what he said and that's what he did.
He did not interfere in the affairs of other countries, but he did not allow his own to be pushed around. Let me give you one example. A year after his accession to the throne, the Afghans, incited by English instructors, decided to bite off a piece of territory belonging to Russia. The king’s order was laconic: “Kick them out and teach them a lesson properly!”, which was done. The British Ambassador in St. Petersburg was ordered to protest and demand an apology. “We will not do this,” said the emperor, and on the dispatch of the English ambassador he wrote a resolution: “There is no need to talk to them.” After this, he awarded the head of the border detachment with the Order of St. George, 3rd degree. After this incident, Alexander III formulated his foreign policy very briefly: “I will not allow anyone to encroach on our territory!”
Another conflict began to brew with Austria-Hungary due to Russian intervention in Balkan problems. At a dinner in the Winter Palace, the Austrian ambassador began to discuss the Balkan issue in a rather harsh manner and, getting excited, even hinted at the possibility of Austria mobilizing two or three corps. Alexander III was calm and pretended not to notice the ambassador’s harsh tone. Then he calmly took the fork, bent it into a loop and threw it towards the Austrian diplomat's instrument and very calmly said: “This is what I will do with your two or three bodies.”
In his private life, he adhered to strict moral rules, was very pious, distinguished by frugality, modesty, undemanding to comfort, and spent his leisure time in a narrow circle of family and friends. I couldn't stand pomp and ostentatious luxury. He got up at 7 in the morning and went to bed at 3. He dressed very simply. For example, he could often be seen in soldier's boots with his trousers tucked into them, and at home he wore an embroidered Russian shirt. He loved to wear a military uniform, which he reformed, taking the Russian costume as a basis, making it simple, easy to wear and fit, cheaper to produce and more suitable for military operations. For example, buttons were replaced with hooks, which was convenient not only for adjusting the uniform, but also an extra shiny object was eliminated, which in sunny weather could attract the attention of the enemy and cause his fire. Based on these considerations, plumes, shiny helmets and lapels were abolished. Such pragmatism of the emperor certainly offended the “refined taste” of the creative elite.
This is how the artist A.N. Benois describes his meeting with Alexander III: “I was struck by his “cumbersomeness,” his heaviness and grandeur. The new military uniform introduced at the very beginning of the reign with claims to national character, its gloomy simplicity and, worst of all, these rough boots with trousers stuck in them outraged my artistic sense. But in reality, all this was forgotten, until then the very face of the sovereign was striking in its significance ... "
In addition to his importance, the emperor also had a sense of humor, and in situations that seemed not at all conducive to him. So, in some volost government some man did not care about his portrait. All sentences of insult to His Majesty were necessarily brought to his attention. The man was sentenced to six months in prison. Alexander III burst out laughing and exclaimed: “What! He didn’t give a damn about my portrait, and for this I will feed him for another six months? You are crazy, gentlemen. Send him to hell and tell him that I, in turn, didn’t give a damn about him. And that's the end of it. This is something unprecedented!”
The writer M. Tsebrikova, an ardent supporter of the democratization of Russia and women's emancipation, was arrested for an open letter to Alexander III, which she printed in Geneva and distributed in Russia, and in which, in her words, “inflicted a moral slap in the face of despotism.” The tsar’s resolution was terse: “Release the old fool!” She was deported from Moscow to the Vologda province.
He was one of the initiators of the creation of the Russian Historical Society and its first chairman and a passionate collector of Russian art. After his death, the extensive collection of paintings, graphics, objects of decorative and applied art, and sculptures he collected was transferred to the Russian Museum, which was founded by his son, Russian Emperor Nicholas II, in memory of his parent.
Alexander III had a strong dislike for liberalism and the intelligentsia. His words are well known: “Our ministers... would not indulge in unrealistic fantasies and lousy liberalism.” He dealt with the terrorist organization "People's Will". Under Alexander III, many newspapers and magazines promoting the liberal “ferment of minds” were closed, but all other periodicals that contributed to the prosperity of their fatherland enjoyed freedom and government support. By the end of the reign of Alexander III, about 400 periodicals were published in Russia, a quarter of which were newspapers. The number of scientific and specialized journals has increased significantly and amounted to 804 titles.
Alexander III steadily put into practice his conviction that Russians should dominate Russia. The policy of protecting the interests of the state was also actively pursued on the outskirts of the Russian Empire. For example, the autonomy of Finland was limited, which until that time had enjoyed all the advantages of neutrality under the protection of the Russian army and the benefits of the endless Russian market, but stubbornly denied the Russians equal rights with the Finns and Swedes. All correspondence between the Finnish authorities and the Russians was now to be conducted in Russian, Russian postage stamps and the ruble received circulation rights in Finland. It was also planned to force the Finns to pay for the maintenance of the army on an equal basis with the population of indigenous Russia and to expand the scope of use of the Russian language in the country.
The government of Alexander III took measures to limit the area of residence of Jews in the Pale of Settlement. In 1891, they were forbidden to settle in Moscow and the Moscow province, and about 17 thousand Jews who lived there were evicted from Moscow on the basis of the law of 1865, abolished for Moscow in 1891. Jews were prohibited from purchasing property in rural areas. In 1887, a special circular established the percentage rate for their admission to universities (no more than 10% in the Pale of Settlement and 2-3% in other provinces) and introduced restrictions on practicing law (their share in universities for legal specialties was 70%).
Alexander III patronized Russian science. Under him, the first university in Siberia was opened - in Tomsk, a project was prepared for the creation of the Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople, the famous Historical Museum was founded in Moscow, the Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine opened in St. Petersburg under the leadership of I.P. Pavlova, Technological Institute in Kharkov, Mining Institute in Yekaterinoslavl, Veterinary Institute in Warsaw, etc. In total, by 1894 there were 52 higher educational institutions in Russia.
Domestic science has rushed forward. THEM. Sechenov created the doctrine of brain reflexes, laying the foundations of Russian physiology, I.P. Pavlov developed a theory about conditioned reflexes. I.I. Mechnikov created a school of microbiology and organized the first bacteriological station in Russia. K.A. Timiryazev became the founder of Russian plant physiology. V.V. Dokuchaev laid the foundation for scientific soil science. The most prominent Russian mathematician and mechanic P.L. Chebyshev, invented a plantigrade machine and an adding machine.
Russian physicist A.G. Stoletov discovered the first law of the photoelectric effect. In 1881 A.F. Mozhaisky designed the world's first airplane. In 1888, self-taught mechanic F.A. Blinov invented the caterpillar tractor. In 1895 A.S. Popov demonstrated the world's first radio receiver, which he had invented, and soon achieved a transmission and reception range of 150 km. The founder of astronautics K.E. begins his research. Tsiolkovsky.
The only pity is that the takeoff lasted only 13 years. Oh, if only the reign of Alexander III would have lasted at least another 10-20 years! But he died before he even reached 50, as a result of kidney disease, which he developed after the terrible crash of the imperial train that happened in 1888. The roof of the dining car, where the royal family and entourage were located, collapsed, and the emperor held it on his shoulders until everyone got out from under the rubble.
Despite his impressive height (193 cm) and solid build, the king’s heroic body could not withstand such a load, and after 6 years the emperor died. According to one version (unofficial, but the official investigation was led by A.F. Koni), the train crash was caused by a bomb explosion planted by an assistant cook associated with revolutionary terrorist organizations. They could not forgive him for his desire to steadily “... Preserve the purity of the “faith of the fathers”, the inviolability of the principle of autocracy and develop the Russian people...”, spreading the lie that the emperor died from rampant drunkenness.
The death of the Russian Tsar shocked Europe, which is surprising against the backdrop of the usual European Russophobia. French Foreign Minister Flourens said: “Alexander III was a true Russian Tsar, such as Russia had not seen for a long time. Of course, all the Romanovs were devoted to the interests and greatness of their people. But driven by the desire to give their people Western European culture, they looked for ideals outside of Russia... Emperor Alexander III wanted Russia to be Russia, so that, above all, it would be Russian, and he himself set the best examples of this. He showed himself to be the ideal type of a truly Russian person.”
Even the Marquis of Salisbury, who was hostile to Russia, admitted: “Alexander III saved Europe many times from the horrors of war. From his deeds the rulers of Europe should learn how to govern their people.”
Elena Lyubimova
“Why they were called Great”
In Shelley’s famous poem “Ozymandias,” a fragment of a statue lies in the desert, on the pedestal of which are written the boastful words: “I am Ozymandias, I am the mighty king of kings! Look at my great deeds, Lords of all times, all countries and all seas!” But the name of this king was forgotten. And there are many similar examples.
1. Lugalzagesi
The civilization of ancient Sumer was located in the rich lands between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. But in 2330 B.C. the region faced massive destruction. The "culprit" was Lugalzagesi, the ruler of Umma. Before he inherited the throne, Lugalzagesi was a priest of the goddess Nisaba and (as historians believe) a fanatic obsessed with conquest and destruction. Soon after he inherited the throne of Umma, Lugalzagesi also became king of Uruk, probably through dynastic marriage. He then conquered the neighboring city-state of Lagash, after which he sacked and burned its palace and temples.
But Lugalzagesi did not stop at conquering Lagash, also conquering Ur, Zabala and Niipur and essentially becoming the ruler of all of Sumer. His troops carried out raids from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea:. Lugalzagesi's conquests soon brought him into conflict with Sargon the Ancient, king of Akkad. Sargon's well-trained troops defeated the primitive armies of Sumer. Lugalzagesi was put in chains and sent to Nippur. Soon everyone forgot about him, and Sargon eventually founded the first large empire in history, becoming the king of Akkad and Sumer.
2. Mode
Horses were first domesticated on the great Eurasian steppe, an endless ocean of grass stretching from Mongolia to Eastern Europe. The nomadic horsemen of this plain were repeatedly united by various great rulers, after which the horde went on to conquer the “civilized world”. Some of these conquerors became famous (Attila, Genghis Khan and Tamerlane), but Mode, who was one of the earliest conquerors, is almost completely forgotten today. Mode's father, Touman, was a shanyu (ruler) of the Xiongnu (or Huns), who at that time lived in the territory of modern Mongolia. Touman disliked Mode very much and planned to send his son on a hopeless raid against the Yuezhi so that Mode would be killed. As a result, Mode figured out his plan and killed his father, as well as his brothers and sisters, becoming the ruler of the Huns.
Mode immediately began a campaign of conquest against the Donghu and Yuezhi, eventually forming a huge empire that stretched across the entire eastern steppes. In 200 BC, he lured the troops of the Chinese Emperor Han Gao-Tzu into an ambush and forced him to sign a humiliating treaty. The Chinese had to pay tribute and Gao-Tzu agreed to give his daughter as a concubine to Mode. Mode died in 174 BC, the ruler of an empire that rivaled that of Alexander the Great in size.
3. Uvakhshatra
For many centuries, the mighty Assyrian Empire dominated the ancient Middle East. Its influence even spread to the lands of Media (modern Iran). Many Medes did not like this and eventually a nobleman named Phraortes led a revolt in 653 BC. The rebellion was crushed, Phraortes was executed, and his grieving son Uvakhshatra (also known as Cyaxares) vowed to finish what his father had started. This was not easy, since at the same time the Scythians invaded Media. But Uvakhshatra defeated them by cunning: he invited all the Scythian leaders to a banquet, got them drunk, and then executed them.
Left without command, the Scythians went home. Uvakhshatra then united Media into one kingdom under his command. He reformed the Median army, providing it with new weapons and emphasizing cavalry, of which the Assyrians had very little. In 614 BC. The Medes attacked the Assyrian fortress of Ashur. Over the next two years they took the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, which fell in 612 BC. Cyaxares avenged his father by destroying the largest empire at that time.
4. Nabopolassar
But Uvakhshatra and the Medes were not alone in the great war against Assyria. In order to overthrow such a powerful empire, they formed an alliance with Nabopolassar, a rebel who made himself king of the ancient city of Babylon. Babylon was a real jewel in the Assyrian Empire, but the Assyrians were cruel and greedy rulers, so it is not surprising that the city always sought to restore its former independence. The Babylonians rebelled in 705 BC, but the Assyrian king Sennacherib practically razed the city to the ground.
Another revolt was crushed in 651 BC, with almost equally disastrous consequences. The origins of Nabopolassar were not entirely clear: he himself was born into an unknown tribe of Chaldeans outside Babylon and surviving monuments describe him as “the son of no one.” But he became the leader of a celebrated resistance, waging a guerrilla campaign in the swampy Tigris-Euphrates delta. When the people of Babylon overthrew their ruler in 630 BC, they invited the famous veteran to become their king.
For 15 years, Nabopolassar tried to drive the Assyrians out of Babylonia. By 616 BC. he succeeded and decided to attack Assyria. In 612 BC. he signed a treaty with Cyaxares and their combined forces destroyed Nineveh. After this they divided the Assyrian Empire among themselves. Nabopolassar died in 605 BC, and the neo-Babylonian empire he founded collapsed.
5. Piankhi
In the eighth century BC, the ancient kingdom of Egypt fell into chaos. Insignificant kings seized power over individual cities, and in the north Libyan military leaders, who were not interested in the Egyptian gods, prevailed. At this time, Egyptian culture survived in the Kushite kingdom (in the territory of Nubia or modern Sudan). This powerful African kingdom was heavily influenced by Egypt (and to this day, there are more pyramids in Sudan than in Egypt).
Unlike most of the people on this list, the Kushite pharaoh Pianhi did not like conquest. Although his influence extended to the south of Egypt, he might have been happy to allow the north to develop in its own way. But Piankhi was a true believer and could not allow Amon to be disrespected. That is why he ordered the storming of Egypt, conquered it and became pharaoh.
6. Zu Nuwas
In the sixth century AD, the last Judean king of Arabia watched a bloody battle take place on a beach in modern-day Yemen. His name was Yusuf Al-As "ar, but because of his flowing hair he was usually known as Zu Nawasa ("Lord of the Pace"). Seeing that his enemies had already effectively won, he turned around and spurred his heavily armored horse, sending it towards The Red Sea, after which it was swallowed by the waves.For many decades before the advent of Islam, Yemen was the scene of struggle between Zoroastrian Persia and Christian Byzantium and Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia).
In fact, an Abyssinian governor ruled Yemen before Dhu Nawas seized power. It is possible that his conversion to Judaism was intended to assert independence from both Persia and Abyssinia. In any case, chroniclers agree that he launched a campaign against the Christian Abyssinians in Yemen, slaughtering them wherever possible. By about 525 AD, Dhu Nawas had gained complete control of Yemen. It is not surprising that this did not go unnoticed by Abyssinia and Byzantium, who sent their troops and inflicted a crushing defeat on Zu Nuwas.
7. Brenn
Thanks to Alexander the Great, the Greeks and Macedonians conquered most of the known world. But after Alexander's death in 323 BC, his successors began to quarrel with each other and eventually the great empire collapsed. Just over 40 years later, things had deteriorated to such an extent that an army of Celtic tribes that came from the north sacked his old Macedonian kingdom. The Gauls were led by the leader Brennus, who gathered a large army from different tribes. After the Macedonian kingdom was captured, Brennus (it is believed that this may actually be a title, not a name) offered to go south to even richer Greece.
Panicking, the Greeks formed an alliance and decided to put their combined forces on the pass at Thermopylae, where the notorious 300 Spartans defended themselves against the Persians many years ago. But Brenn was no fool and sent troops to raid Aetolia, which was left defenseless. After this, the Aetolians withdrew from Thermopylae to defend their lands, weakening the forces of the defenders. Brennus then paid the locals to show him the same path that Xerxes had once walked around 300 Spartans. The advance of the Gauls was delayed only by a miracle and the supposed omen of the Delphic oracle, which inspired the Greeks, who launched a counter-offensive.
8. Pachacutec
In the 15th century, the Peruvian people known as the Chancas vigorously expanded their territory. The Chanka had a large and experienced army, as well as talented commanders, and few dared to oppose them. In 1438, the Chanca decided to attack Cuzco, the capital of the Incas. The Inca ruler Viracocha Inca and his heir Urco fled the capital. But Viracocha's son Cusi Yupanqui refused to flee, led the Inca army and somehow managed to defeat the Chanca in battle. After this, he took on a new name, Pachacutec, which means “Earthbreaker.”
His cowardly father was overthrown and his brother was killed, and Pachacutec Yupanqui became ruler and began to transform the Inca state into an empire. He conquered the surrounding cities under the pretext that they had not helped the Incas during the Chanca attack. Having made a solid base for the future empire, he then conquered the vast and ancient provinces of Peru.
When his brother Capac Yupanqui conquered the northern provinces, subjugating the Huanca people, Pachacutec welcomed him with open arms, but then immediately executed him before Capac could become a threat. By Pachacutec's old age, the Incas were the dominant force in Peru. Earthshatter eventually handed over the army to his son and quietly retired to enjoy a quiet life in Cuzco.
9. Zenobia
Very few women ruled in the ancient world, but the few who did tend to be very cruel and unscrupulous. Consider only Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, who was so cruel that she herself led her troops during the attack, and after the victory she often “drank” the men. In the third century AD, Zenobia founded a short-lived empire that stretched from Egypt to Turkey and seemed a real threat to Rome. Her rise to power began when she married Lucius Odaenathus, the Roman governor of Syria.
After this, Zenobia refused to sleep with her husband, except when they conceived their only son. In 266 BC, Lucius was mysteriously murdered, along with his son from a previous marriage. Rather than wait for Rome to appoint a new governor, Zenobia placed her young son on the throne of Palmyra and appointed herself regent. At the time, Rome was ruled by a succession of very short-lived emperors who were too busy trying not to get killed to care about Zenobia. She then turned her attention to Egypt.
Not wanting to completely break with Rome, the queen sent an agent to Egypt, whose goal was to start a rebellion against Rome. Then the uprising began, her army invaded Egypt to “suppress the rebellion and return Egypt to Roman rule,” and in fact annex the country to Palmyra. Unfortunately for her, a Roman army found itself in Egypt, and Zenobia's intentions were revealed after she defeated this army. Soon the entire Roman east swore allegiance to Zenobia. But in Rome, a competent emperor eventually came to power - the old soldier Aurelian, who defeated Zenobia. The Queen of Palmyra was brought to Rome, where she was allowed to live into her old age in quiet obscurity.
10. Eighth Deer Nakuaa or Jaguar Claw
In the 11th century, the Mixtecs were a warring group of city-states on the Pacific coast of Mexico. They chronicled their history in so-called "Codes", which were similar to modern comic books. Many of these codices tell the story of the conqueror Eighth Stag of Nacuaa or Jaguar Claw, who was born into the royal family of Tilantongo, but he was put in line for the throne.
After meeting an oracle at age 18, he entered into a treaty with a group of Toltec merchants who were seeking to acquire coastal goods such as salt and cocoa. Having amassed a fortune, the Eighth Deer of Nakuaa began his conquests. He first captured small villages along the coast before moving on to larger cities inland. As his wealth and power grew, other members of the Tilantongo royal family began to die, eventually making the Eighth Deer the sole contender for the throne.
Throughout human history, many evil and notorious leaders have vied for power. While many politicians wanted to improve the lives of the people, others pursued only their own interests.
Their selfish goals led to gross abuses of power that resulted in the deaths of many people. We present to your attention the 25 most brutal dictators in human history.
1. Herod the Great
Herod the Great is the same Herod mentioned in the Bible. He slaughtered many male children when he learned that the messiah was born - Jesus Christ, who was named king. Herod could not tolerate competition, so he ordered the babies to be killed, but Jesus was not among them.
The ancient historian Josephus recorded his other sinful deeds, including the murder of three of his sons, his most beloved of 10 wives, the drowning of a priest, the murder of his legitimate mother and, as legend has it, many Jewish leaders.
When the Roman Emperor Nero came to power after the death of his stepfather, he gradually orchestrated a bloodbath. First, he killed his mother Agrippina the Younger, and then he killed his two wives. Finally, he decided to burn the entire Great Rome just to watch it burn and then rebuild it. After everything had calmed down, he blamed the fire on the Christians and they were persecuted, tortured and killed. Ultimately, he committed suicide.
3. Saddam Hussein
Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein ruled the country with an iron fist. During his reign, he deliberately invaded Iran and Kuwait. By the time Saddam became president, Iraq was a booming country with one of the highest standards of living in the Middle East. But two wars, which the new leader provoked, brought the Iraqi economy into a state of acute crisis and decline. By his order, all his friends, enemies and relatives were killed. He gave orders to kill and rape the children of his competitors. In 1982, he massacred 182 Shia civilians. On October 19, 2005, the trial of the former Iraqi president began. Especially for him, the death penalty was reinstated in the country.
4. Pope Alexander VI
The Vatican Papacy has long shown us that some Popes are very evil and cruel rulers, but the most evil of them was Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia). He was not a devout Catholic, but only a secular Pope who used power to achieve his goals.
In his youth, he did not constrain himself with vows of chastity and celibacy. He had many mistresses. And with one of them, the wealthy Roman Vanozza dei Cattanei, he was in a relationship for many years and had four children from her, the most famous of whom are Cesare Borgia and Lucrezia - ambitious, unprincipled, power-hungry and voluptuous young people. By the way, the Pope cohabited with his beautiful daughter Lucrezia and, according to rumors, it was he who was the father of her son.
He staged orgies and confiscated money from the rich to finance his lavish lifestyle. On August 18, 1503, the Pope died in terrible agony from poison.
5. Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Gaddafi did everything possible while he was the political leader of Libya. He eliminated all political opposition, declaring it illegal. Banned entrepreneurship and freedom of speech. All the books that did not suit him were burned. Despite Libya's enormous economic potential, many economic experts recognized the country's decline as Gaddafi squandered most of the funds. His reign is considered one of the most brutal and totalitarian eras in North African history.
Muammar Gaddafi was killed on October 20, 2011 in the vicinity of the city of Sirte. His convoy, while trying to leave the city, came under attack from NATO aircraft.
6. Fidel Castro
Before Fidel Castro's rule, Cuba was a prosperous country with a rich economy, but once Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista in 1959, it all collapsed under oppressive communist rule. Over two years, over 500 political opponents were shot. Experts estimate that thousands of people were executed during Fidel Castro's 50-year reign. Newspapers were not published at that time. Priests, homosexuals and other people disliked by the new government served their sentences in camps. Freedom of speech was abolished. The population had no rights. 90% of people lived below the poverty line.
7. Caligula
Gaius Julius Caesar or Caligula, whose name has become synonymous with cruelty, madness and evil, is known throughout the world. He declared himself God, slept with his sisters, had many wives, which he was very proud of, and did many other immoral things. Caesar spent money on luxurious things while his own people starved. Caligula terrorized Ancient Rome with his unbridled madness, talked to the moon and tried to appoint his horse as consul. The greatest evil he committed was giving the order to saw innocent people in half during one of his luxurious feasts.
8. King John
King John the Landless is considered one of the worst kings in British history. He is best known for the fact that he first became landless, and then a king without a kingdom at all. Sensual, lazy, lustful, cruel, treacherous, immoral - this is his portrait.
When his enemies came to him, John threw them into the castle and starved them to death. In order to build a huge army and navy, he imposed heavy taxes on England, took away lands from the nobles and put them in prison, and tortured the Jews until they paid him the required amount. The king died of a terrible fever.
9. Empress Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian is one of the few female leaders in ancient history and history in general. Her life is quite remarkable. Becoming the emperor's concubine at the age of 13, she eventually became an empress herself. After the death of the emperor, the heir to the throne realized that he could not do without the faithful Wu Zetian and brought her into his harem, which became a sensation for that time. Some more time passed, and in 655 Gaozong officially recognized Wu Zetian as his wife. This meant that now she was the main wife.
She was a sneaky schemer. On her orders, for example, her husband’s uncle was killed. Anyone who dared to go against her was immediately killed. At the end of her life she was dethroned. She was treated better than she treated her enemies and was allowed to die a natural death.
10. Maximilian Robespierre
The architect of the French Revolution and author of The Reign of Terror, Maximilien Robespierre, constantly spoke of overthrowing the Tsar and revolting against the aristocracy. Elected to the Committee of General Salvation, Robespierre unleashed a bloody reign of terror, which was marked by many arrests, the murder of 300,000 perceived enemies, of whom 17,000 were executed by guillotine. Soon the Convention decided to put Robespierre and his supporters on trial. They tried to organize resistance in the Paris Town Hall, but were captured by troops loyal to the Convention and executed a day later.
11. Go Amin
General Idi Amin overthrew elected official Milton Obote and declared himself President of Uganda in 1971. He imposed a brutal regime on the country that lasted eight years, expelled 70,000 Asians, slaughtered 300,000 civilians, and ultimately led the country to economic ruin. He was overthrown in 1979 but never answered for his crimes. Idi Amin died in Saudi Arabia on August 16, 2003 at the age of 75.
12. Timur
Born in 1336, Timur, known to many as Tamerlane, became a tyrant and bloodthirsty conqueror of Asia in the Middle East. He was able to conquer some corners of Russia and even occupied Moscow and carried out an uprising in Persia, being several thousand kilometers away. He did all this by destroying cities, exterminating the population and building towers from their corpses. In India or Baghdad, wherever he was, everything was accompanied by bloody massacre, destruction and thousands of killed people.
Genghis Khan was a ruthless Mongol warlord who was successful in his conquests. He ruled one of the largest empires in history. But, of course, he paid too high a price for this. He was responsible for the deaths of 40 million people. His battles reduced the world's population by 11%!
14. Vlad Tepes
Vlad Tepes is better known by another name - Count Dracula. He became notorious for his sadistic torture of enemies and civilians, the most terrible of which was the piercing of the anus. Dracula impaled living people. One day he invited many vagabonds to the palace, locked them in the palace and set them on fire. He also nailed the hats of the Turkish ambassadors to the heads, which they refused to take off in front of him.
The grandson of Ivan the Great, Ivan the Terrible led Rus' to Unity, but during his reign he received the nickname Grozny for the many reforms and terrors he carried out. Since childhood, Ivan had a bad character; he really liked to torture animals. After becoming king, he carried out a number of peaceful political reforms. But when his wife died, he fell into a deep depression, and then the era of the Great Terror began. He seized lands and created police forces to fight dissent. Many nobles were blamed for his wife's death. He beat his pregnant daughter, killed his son in a fit of rage and blinded the architect of St. Basil's Cathedral.
Attila was the great leader of the Huns, who greatly valued gold. All his raids were accompanied by robberies, destruction and rape. Desiring absolute power, he killed his own brother Bled. One of the great invasions of his army is the city of Naisus. It was so terrible that the corpses blocked the road to the Danube River for many years. Attila once pierced deserters through the rectum and ate two of his own sons.
17. Kim Jong Il
Kim Jong Il is one of the most “successful” dictators along with Joseph Stalin. When he came to power in 1994, he inherited a poor North Korea with a starving population. Instead of helping his people, he spent all his money on building the world's fifth largest military base, while millions of people were dying of hunger. He deceived the United States by not giving them his nuclear developments. According to him, he has created a unique nuclear weapon and is terrorizing South Korea with threats. Kim Jong Il supported America's bombing of Vietnam, where many South Korean officials were killed and civilians were massacred.
18. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
Lenin was the first leader of revolutionary Soviet Russia, adhering to the ideology of overthrowing the monarchy and turning Russia into a totalitarian state. His Red Terror - a set of punitive measures against class social groups - is known throughout the world. Among the social groups there were many repressed peasants, industrial workers, and priests who opposed the Bolshevik government. In the first months of the terror, 15,000 people died, many priests and monks were crucified.
Leopold II, King of Belgium, was nicknamed the Butcher of the Congo. His army captured the Congo River basin and terrorized the local population. He himself never visited the Congo, but on his orders 20 million people were killed there. He often showed his military the hands of rebellious workers. The period of his reign was marked by the devastation of the state treasury. King Leopold II died at the age of 75.
Pol Pot, the leader of the Khmer Rouge movement, is put on a par with Hitler. During his reign in Cambodia, which was less than four years, more than 3,500,000 people were killed. His policy was as follows: the path to a happy life lies through the rejection of modern Western values, the destruction of cities that carry a pernicious infection, and the re-education of their inhabitants. This ideology laid the foundation for the creation of concentration camps, the extermination of the local population in the regions and their actual eviction.
21. Mao Zedong
The head of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, Mao Zedong, captured China with the help of the USSR army, founding the PRC, and was its leader until his death. He carried out many land reforms, which were accompanied by the theft of large plots of land from landowners through violence and terror. There were always critics in his path, but he quickly dealt with dissent. His so-called “Great Leap Forward” led to famine from 1959 to 1961, killing 40 million people.
22. Osama Bin Laden
Osama Bin Laden is one of the most odious terrorists in human history. He was the leader of the al-Qaeda terrorist group, which carried out a number of attacks on the United States. These included the 1998 bombing of the US embassy in Kenya, where 300 civilians were killed, and the September 11 air attacks on the World Trade Center in America, which killed 3,000 civilians. Many of his orders were carried out by suicide bombers.
23. Emperor Hirohito
Emperor Hirohito was one of the bloodiest rulers in Japanese history. His most important crime against humanity was the Nanjing massacre that occurred during the second Sino-Japanese War, where thousands of people were killed and raped. There, the emperor's troops carried out monstrous experiments on people, as a result of which more than 300,000 people died. The emperor, despite his power, never stopped the bloody lawlessness of his army.
24. Joseph Stalin
Another controversial figure in history is Joseph Stalin. During his reign, all large tracts of land were under his control. Millions of farmers who refused to give up their plots were simply killed, which led to a great famine throughout Russia. During his totalitarian regime, a secret police force flourished, encouraging citizens to spy on each other. As a result of this policy, millions of people were killed or sent to the Gulag. More than 20,000,000 people were killed as a result of his brutal tyrannical rule.
25. Adolf Hitler
Hitler is the most famous, evil and destructive leader in human history. His angry and hateful speeches, his senseless invasion of European and African countries, the genocide of millions of Jews, his murder and torture, rape and execution of people in concentration camps, plus countless other known and unknown atrocities, make Hitler the most brutal ruler of all time. . Overall, historians attribute more than 11,000,000 deaths to the Nazi regime.
To receive the title “great,” a ruler needed different things at different times: Charles I expanded the borders of the Frankish kingdom, Frederick II is better known for his contribution to enlightenment. Who else was awarded the honorary title and for what?
Modern residents of the capital associate the name of this prince primarily with the bell tower of Ivan the Great. Meanwhile, Ivan Vasilyevich is important for our history because under him the territory of the great Moscow principality increased many times: many territories were annexed to it, including the two main competing principalities - Tver and Novgorod. Only the Ryazan and Pskov principalities remained independent, but they were not independent either. During the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Bryansk, Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov and many other cities - a third of the Principality of Lithuania - became part of Moscow. In addition, the troops of Ivan III made campaigns to the north and to the Urals (present-day Perm region). But the most important thing is that under Ivan the Great a significant event also took place - the “Standing on the Ugra”, as a result of which Rus' finally got rid of the Horde yoke.
For foreigners, Ivan III is not just a Grand Duke, but Caesar
In 1497, the Code of Law was adopted, which marked the completion of a number of reforms. At the same time, the foundations of the command system of management were laid, and the local system also appeared. The centralization of the country and the elimination of fragmentation were continued; The government waged a fairly tough fight against the separatism of the appanage princes. The era of the reign of Ivan III became a time of cultural upsurge: new buildings were erected (for example, the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow), chronicle writing flourished. The idea of Rus' abroad has also changed: in official embassy documents, the Russian prince is now a tsar or Caesar (from “Caesar”). The concept of “Moscow is the third Rome” and the double-headed eagle on the princely seal appear for the first time.
Beginning with Charlemagne, the title of Emperor of the West existed in Europe. Otto became the first Holy Roman Emperor. This happened as a result of Otto’s natural desire to strengthen his power. The fact is that local secular rulers often fought against the growing power of the centralized state. Therefore, it was necessary to unite the country and strengthen power with the help of the church. Otto moved towards rapprochement with the Pope and undertook two trips to Italy. As a result, he became the partial ruler of Italy, gained the support of the Pope and, as a result, acquired a new title. At the very end of his reign, Otto undertook another campaign with the goal of expelling the Saracens from the peninsula. To do this, he was even able to enlist the support of Constantinople, which always showed dissatisfaction with the fact that in the West someone bears the title of emperor and considers himself a continuator of the Roman tradition.
Frederick the Great's father, the soldier-king Frederick I, wanted to make his son a real warrior. Did not work out. The fact that Prussia doubled in size under Frederick the Great is more likely the favor of Fortune and the ability to take advantage of the opportunity, rather than a consequence of the valor and military skill of the king. This is confirmed by the Seven Years' War, during which Berlin was captured twice: first by the Austrians and then by the Russians.
“In this respect, our age is the age of enlightenment, or the age of Frederick,” - Immanuel Kant
Probably, the fact that Frederick II was not a great warrior played a positive role in the life of Prussia and all Germans. Having taken the throne, Frederick began to rule, guided by the ideas of the Enlightenment: he abolished censorship, established the Royal Opera and the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and consulted with Voltaire on the board. Frederick the Great can rightfully be called the most tolerant monarch of that time. For example, he said: “All religions are equal and good if their adherents are honest people. And if Turks and pagans arrived and wanted to live in our country, we would build mosques and prayer houses for them too.”. For all his deeds he received the highest praise from Immanuel Kant.
On the slab of the tomb of the first Emperor of the West of the Empire in the cathedral of the city of Aachen is a simple inscription: “Carolus Magnus”, Charlemagne. About him either in a nutshell or in many pages - he accomplished so many great things for his state. His long reign took place in almost continuous wars with his neighbors: the Saxons, Lombards, Slavs, Bretons, Danes, Vikings, Pyrenean Arabs and Basques. It was during the conflict with the latter that the legendary French hero Roland died, saving Charles at the cost of his life. “The Song of Roland,” which tells about this feat at the Battle of Ronselvan Gorge, is the oldest major work of French literature.
Frankish Kingdom under Charlemagne
Being almost illiterate, Charles tried to attract famous scientists to his service (theologians Alcuin and Rabanus Maurus, historians Paul the Deacon and Einhard, etc.). Schools were opened at the monasteries, which later supplied administrative personnel for the empire. Alcuin wrote the first textbooks.
« Their emperor is a valiant fighter. / Even death will not frighten him", - "The Song of Roland"
In Aachen, at the court of Charles, the “Palace Academy” arose, a semblance of Plato’s school. This period was called the Carolingian Renaissance. Also, by order of Charlemagne, all ancient regulations on the procedure for performing public and military service were collected, corrected and systematized. These decrees, known as "capitularies", supplemented by new laws, precisely determined who was obliged to perform what service and in what order.
Louis XIV was truly a great monarch from the point of view of absolutism. This is largely why he is credited with the phrase: “The state is me.” All power in France was finally concentrated in the hands of one person. According to the French philosopher Saint-Simon, “Louis destroyed and eradicated every other force or authority in France, except those that came from him: reference to the law, to the right was considered a crime.” The cult of the Sun King, in which courtesans and intriguers increasingly seized power, and worthy people increasingly moved away from it, ultimately led to the Great Revolution of 1789.
Louis destroyed every other power or authority in France
But in those days, in the good old days of Louis XIV, Versailles was the center of the world. Louis's diplomacy dominated all European courts. The French have reached unprecedented heights with their achievements in the arts and sciences, in industry and trade. The Versailles court became the subject of envy and surprise of almost all modern sovereigns, who tried to imitate the great king even in his weaknesses. Strict etiquette was introduced at court, regulating all court life. Versailles became the center of all high society life, in which the tastes of Louis himself and his many favorites reigned. The entire high aristocracy sought court positions, since living away from the court for a nobleman was a sign of opposition or royal disgrace.
Probably only the Old World can boast of such an abundance of outstanding rulers. Some of them were talented commanders, others were bold reformers, and others skillfully combined both virtues.
Geiseric (428-477)
Gaiseric conducted politics as if he were playing a game of chess.
In 429, he and his army landed on the North African coast, which belonged to Rome. Taking advantage of the confusion (the uprising of the Roman commander, the encroachments of the Berbers), the king managed to significantly expand the borders of his kingdom. Soon the Byzantine army appeared on the North African coast. Geiseric made peace with the empire: the Vandals and Alans received the status of federates in exchange for protecting the borders.
In 439, Geiseric captured Carthage and acquired a navy. By occupying Sicily, the king forced the Western Roman Empire to agree to a peace treaty. The Vandals threw off their federal status and in fact became independent.
An uprising of the Vandal aristocracy broke out. Geiseric forever deprived the tribal aristocracy of influence and banned public meetings.
To be universally recognized as a great king, Geiseric needed to capture Rome. In 455, Emperor Valentinian III fell at the hands of conspirators, and chaos began in Rome. Vandals occupied the Eternal City.
Theodoric the Great (470-526)
Theodoric's first military feat was the defeat of the Sarmatians and the capture of their main city - Singudun. After this, eighteen-year-old Theodoric began to consider himself the true ruler of the Ostrogoths.
The Byzantine Emperor Zeno, in order to appease his aggressive neighbor, granted him the title of consul. On orders from Zeno, Theodoric invaded Italy. He was opposed by the “official gravedigger of Rome” Odoacer, who was supported by many Germanic tribes. Theodoric and his army managed to inflict several serious defeats on Odoacer and even capture his capital, Ravenna. After this, peace was concluded, according to which the two rulers divided power in Italy. But Theodoric was not satisfied with this.
Just a few days later, during a feast, he personally killed Odoacer. All of Italy was under the control of the Ostrogoths.
As soon as Theodoric managed to drive the Vandals out of neighboring lands and spread influence into southeastern Gaul, Byzantium appointed the king of the Ostrogoths as the legal ruler of the Western Roman Empire.
Clovis I (481/482-511)
Clovis took the throne at the age of fifteen. He gained power over a small part of the Franks with his capital in Tournai. To increase his authority and political weight, the king became a Christian. To hide the cynicism, a beautiful legend was invented:
“During the battle, the Franks wavered, and Clovis asked God to give him victory - suddenly, the enemy king fell dead, and his soldiers fled.”
Having become a Christian, Clovis annexed Aquitaine to the Visigoths. His next goal was the unification of all Frankish tribes. He persuaded the son of the king of the eastern Franks, and he killed his own father, after which he died from Clovis’s mercenaries. So the king of the Franks deprived his opponents of both the ruler and the heir.
It was under Clovis that the Salic Truth (code of laws) appeared, and Paris became the capital of the Frankish state.
The power and popularity of Clovis in Europe was also noticed in Byzantium. Ambassadors visited him and presented him with insignia - a mantle, a purple tunic and a diadem - in recognition of his greatness.
Charles I the Great (768-814)
The King of the Franks accepted the title of Emperor from the hands of the Pope for the first time in 400 years (since the fall of the Roman Empire). Charles annexed Italy, the lands of the Saxons and Bavarians to his kingdom, and also significantly advanced deep into Muslim Spain.
The pagan Saxons who suffered the most were the pagan Saxons, whom Charles forcibly forced to convert to Christianity. Refusal of the new faith was punishable by death.
During the suppression of one of the uprisings, Charles ordered the execution of more than four thousand captured pagans. This event went down in history under the name “Verdun Massacre”.
The uprising was suppressed, the Saxons surrendered, and their leader, Vidukin, himself converted to Christianity.
Charles's military successes were ensured by innovations. Firstly, the massive use of cavalry in attacks. Secondly, well-thought-out schemes for the siege of fortresses and the use of well-organized logistics.
Charles's empire reached the peak of its power by 800. Pope Leo III promoted the Frankish ruler to emperor, giving him the nickname “Father of Europe.”
William I the Conqueror (1066-1087)
Being illegitimate, but the only child of the ruler of Normandy, Duke Robert II the Magnificent, William became heir to the throne. Although the French nobility gave him the nickname Bastard (illegitimate).
A difficult childhood left a certain imprint on his character and affected his education. Wilhelm could not read, was a secretive, suspicious and domineering person.
In 1066 he conquered England and was crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.
In 1086, William ordered an inventory of all lands under his control, as well as a census of the population, which would streamline the taxation system. Before Wilhelm, no one even thought about this.
William died on September 9, 1087 in the French monastery of Saint-Gervais. A severe wound to the stomach, received during the campaign against France, took its toll. As soon as the king gave up the ghost, his entourage removed all the jewelry from him. Only one knight remained loyal to William. He transported his body to the Church of St. Stephen in Cana. As soon as the coffin was in the city, a fire broke out. When the fire was over, it turned out that Wilhelm’s body did not fit in the grave. But attempts to “compact” it there led to such a stench that even incense did not help.
Frederick I Barbarossa (1152 - 1190)
Frederick took the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1152. First of all, he carried out army reform. Frederick had an army of thousands at his disposal, consisting of heavy knightly cavalry.
Frederick struck at the wealthy city-states of Northern Italy. He wanted to receive the crown directly from the hands of the Pope.
In 1143, the Germans dug in near St. Peter's Basilica, and Pope Adrian IV crowned Barbarossa.
On the same day, the inhabitants of Rome attacked and tried to expel the Germans, but their attack was repulsed.
A protracted war between the Germans and Italian cities began. The new Pope Alexander III excommunicated the emperor from the church. However, Frederick managed to take control of Rome. Soon a plague epidemic broke out in his army. Italian cities rebelled. The confrontation ended in 1174. Because of the defeat, Frederick agreed to recognize Alexander III as the sole Pope and returned to him the power of the Tuscan Margrave and the prefecture in Rome. The Pope, with a curtsey, canceled the excommunication.
Gustav II Adolf (1611-1632)
Gustav became king when he was not yet seventeen years old. He “inherited” two wars (with Denmark and Poland), as well as intervention in Russia. The Swedish army was in a deplorable state; not everything was in order with the state and finances.
Having dealt with the Danes and Poles, Gustav took on Russia. The result was the conclusion of the Stolbovsky Peace in 1617 on terms favorable to Sweden. Gustav annexed Karelia, part of Ingria, cutting off Russia from access to the Baltic.
For his valor, courage and brilliant mind, Gustav was called the “Lion of the North”, and also the “Father of modern strategy”. He created the most powerful army on the continent, which became the most formidable force in the then raging Thirty Years' War.
Many of Gustav Adolf's innovations are still relevant today. For example, the use of maneuverable light artillery, linear formation of mixed types of troops, aggressive offensive tactics. It is believed that the Swedish king personally invented the world's first paper cartridge.
The French monarch reigned longer than anyone else in European history - 72 years. Before Louis, no other French monarch had waged so many wars.
First he annexed Flanders, then Alsace, Lorraine, Franche-Comté and some lands of Belgium. After - Strasbourg, Casale, Luxembourg, Kehl and other territories.
First of all, the king abolished the position of first minister. Under Louis XIV, his diplomats became the main ones in any European court. The monarch introduced strict etiquette for the first time, and Versailles became the capital of European social life.
Louis's main mistake was the War of the Spanish Succession. Very quickly, ordinary citizens of France became poor, and famine reigned in the country. The monarch managed to make peace with the British on very equal terms. France emerged from the war, albeit without acquiring new territories, but without losing practically anything.
It was Louis who is credited with the famous phrase: “The State is me!” The reign of this monarch is considered to be the Great Century of France. 
