patriotic, liberation democratic movement against fascist occupiers and regimes during WW II. It developed in territories occupied by aggressors and in countries of the fascist bloc. Its goals are liberation from fascism, restoration of national independence, establishment of a democratic system, and implementation of progressive social reforms. Its forms are failure to comply with the orders of the occupation authorities, anti-fascist propaganda, assistance to persons persecuted by the fascists, intelligence activities in favor of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, strikes, sabotage, sabotage, mass protests and demonstrations, partisan struggle, armed uprisings. Various social forces participated in the Resistance Movement: the working class, the peasantry, the patriotic intelligentsia, part of the clergy, the petty and middle bourgeoisie, prisoners of war, escaped concentration camp prisoners. In total, 2.2 million people took part in the movement. It made a significant contribution to the defeat of the bloc of fascist states
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RESISTANCE MOVEMENT
national liberation, anti-fascist democratic people's movement masses during the Second World War 1939-45 against Germany, Italy. and Japanese occupiers and local reactionaries who collaborated with them. elements. D.S. appeared as one of the creatures. factors that determined the transformation of the 2nd World War into a just war, liberation., anti-fascist. the war and anti-fascists who contributed to the victory. coalitions; in it the decisive role of the people was especially clearly manifested. masses in the life of society, their increased influence on the fate of the state. With its roots, D.S. was closely connected with the struggle against fascism and the war carried out by the people. masses in the pre-war years (armed battles in Austria, the Popular Front in France, the struggle against foreign interventionists and Francoist rebels in Spain), and was a continuation of this struggle in the conditions of war and fascism. enslavement. D.S. was a natural and legitimate struggle against fascism and its “new order” as an undisguised form of nationalism. and social oppression of peoples by imperialism. Various classes and segments of the population participated in the D.S., regardless of class. accessories, political and religious beliefs: workers and peasants, mountains. small and partly medium bourgeoisie, democratic tuned intelligentsia and part of the clergy. In Asian countries in the fight against the Japanese. The colonialists united even more heterogeneous layers of the population. In almost all countries occupied by the fascists, there were two currents in the D.S.: 1) people's democratic, led by the working class, led by the communists. parties that put forward liberation in their programs. struggle demands not only national, but also social liberation, and 2) right-wing, conservative, led by the bourgeoisie. elements, which limited its tasks to restoring the power of the national. bourgeoisie and the order that existed before the occupation of the country. Ch. The role in the D.S. was played by the working class and the peasantry, which were its active force, especially the working class led by the communists. and workers' parties. The vast majority of bourgeois. organizations that were part of the right wing of D.S. sought to keep the people. the masses from active struggle against the occupiers. In their plans for the liberation of occupied countries and the seizure of power, they were guided by the victory of the West. powers, hence a characteristic feature of their tactics was passively waiting for the arrival of allied troops, hesitation and inconsistency. It means that she took the same position. part of the Social-Democratic leaders and socialist parties. In a number of countries (France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, etc.) between the people's democratic and right-wing movements during the D. S. established cooperation against a common enemy. In some countries (Yugoslavia, Albania, Poland, Greece, etc.) the bourgeoisie who were in exile. The pr-va, with the support of the ruling circles of Great Britain and the United States, created fascists in the occupied states. bloc territories of their reaction countries. organizations, which, although formally they advocated liberation from German fascists. occupation, in fact they fought against the people's liberation. movements, against communist parties and other democratic ones. organizations, often handing them over to the enemy. The communists collaborated with those elements in the right movement of the D.S. who were ready to carry out action. struggle against the occupiers and at the same time resolutely opposed the treacherous activities of the Antinars. bourgeois org-tions and technical bourgeoisie. representatives in D.S., who destroyed the unity of action in the fight against the occupiers, tried to seize the leadership of the National Liberation Party. struggle with the aim of weakening the D.S., striking a blow at the communist parties and democrats. organizations supporting the Communist parties. By its nature, D.S. in each individual country was deeply national, since it pursued national goals. liberation, which corresponded to the fundamental interests of the peoples of the countries occupied by the fascists. At the same time, it was international, because it had a common goal for all fighting peoples - the defeat of the forces of fascism, the liberation of the territories of the occupied countries of Europe and Asia from invaders, and the creation of conditions for a lasting post-war. peace. The internationalism of the D.S. was manifested in the interaction and mutual assistance of national D.S. and in the broad participation of anti-fascists from various countries in each national. D.S. In many European countries, the Owls fought bravely in D.S. people who fled from fascism. concentration camps. Many owls patriots were leaders of anti-fascists. groups, partisan commanders. squads. Ch. The goal that united heterogeneous layers of the population in the D.S. was the liberation of the occupied countries from the oppression of the Nazis. aggressors and restoration of national independence. Thanks people. character D.S. fight for the national. liberation was closely intertwined with the struggle for democracy. transformations and social demands of the working people, and in colonial and dependent countries and with the struggle for liberation from imperialism. and colonial oppression. In a number of countries, during the D.S. people began and won. revolutions (Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia). In some countries. the revolutions that developed during the D.S. period successfully ended after the end of World War II (China, North Vietnam, North Korea). D.S. was distinguished by the variety of forms and tactics used by patriots in the fight against the invaders. The most common forms were: anti-fascist. propaganda and agitation, publication and distribution of underground literature, strikes, sabotage of work at enterprises that produced products for the occupiers, and in transport, weapons. attacks with the aim of destroying traitors and representatives of the invaders. administration, partisans war. The highest and most effective form of D.S. was the national one. armed an uprising in which the leading role belonged to the working class. Communist and workers' parties, which were the main ones. organizers and inspirers of D.S., developed national liberation programs in relation to the conditions of each country. anti-fascist struggle. Based on the fact that the fundamental problem in the life of the countries of Europe occupied by the Nazis was the destruction of the Nazis. occupier regime, program documents of the national liberation. movements oriented all patriots of these countries towards the development of a broad people. struggle for the overthrow of foreign domination, restoration of national. independence and establishment of democracy. free Thus, in the Communist Manifesto. Party of Czechoslovakia (CHR) dated March 15, 1939, it was indicated that the communists “will selflessly and courageously fight in the vanguard of the national Resistance for the restoration of complete freedom and independence of the Czech nation.” The Communist Party of Human Rights called on the working people of the city and countryside, all honest patriots of the country to unite in a broad national. front and decide to deploy. fight against fascists. occupiers and their accomplices. The same task of consolidating patriotic. forces were put forward in the proposals of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of France to the government on June 6, 1940 and in its Manifesto to the French people, published on July 10, 1940 in Gas. "Humanité", in the Address of the Communist Party of Greece dated November 2. 1939, in the decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Indochina (June 1940), in the Directive of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China dated March 6, 1940, in the Appeal of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Romania dated July 8, 1941, in the Appeal of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia dated April 15. 1941 and in the program documents of the communist. parties of other countries subjected to Nazism. occupation. The communist-led progressive forces of the Fascist countries. block your ch. the task was seen as self-sacrifice. the fight against fascism and reaction to contribute to the victory of freedom-loving peoples in their just war for the national. independence, overthrow the fascists. regime and establish a democratic orders. Thus, already in the first days of the war (September 1939), the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Germany, which was deep underground, appealed to party members, all of them. patriots with a call to join forces in the fight against fascism and the war unleashed by it. adventures. A similar appeal was made to Italy. to the people of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Italy (June 1940). The process of the emergence and development of D.S. in different countries did not take place simultaneously; its scope and forms of struggle were determined by a number of internal factors. and ext. factors, class ratio. forces, natural-geographical conditions, etc. In Slovakia and in some countries where partisanship has become widespread. movement (Yugoslavia, Poland, France, Belgium, Italy, Greece, Albania, Vietnam, Malaya, Philippines), it grew into a national liberation movement. war against the fascists. invaders. Moreover, this outgrowth occurred at different stages of the war, over several years, up to 1944 inclusive. In Yugoslavia and Albania, national liberation. the war against the occupiers merged with the civil society. war against internal reactions that opposed liberation. movements of their peoples. Due to a number of military and domestic politics. reasons in countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, armed. the struggle was not widely developed. The main and most widespread and effective form of civil society in these countries was the strike movement, anti-fascist. demonstrations. In Germany ch. The form of struggle was the carefully concealed activities of underground antifascists. groups to involve workers in the active struggle against fascism, disseminate propaganda. materials among the population and in the army, providing assistance to foreigners. workers and prisoners of war, etc. D.S. in its development (mainly developed in the countries of Western Europe) went through the following main stages. periods caused by the turning points of the 2nd World War and, above all, the situation at its decisive Soviet-German. front. (For the insert map about D.S., see between pp. 688-689). The first period (the beginning of the war - June 1941) was a period of accumulation of forces, organization. and the propaganda preparation of the mass struggle, when illegal antifascists were created and strengthened. org-tions. Communist parties in enemy-occupied countries developed anti-fascist programs. will release. struggle, rallied patriotic. forces, carried out will explain. work among the masses, trying to overcome the confusion and feeling of hopelessness that has gripped us. part of the population of occupied countries who fell under the yoke of fascist enslavers. Already from the first days of the 2nd World War, anti-fascists began in the occupied regions. speeches. In Poland in September-Oct. 1939 in the fight against Nazi Germany. occupier The troops involved separate military units and small partisans. detachments created by soldiers who escaped captivity and the local population. Basic the core of the first partisans. groups and detachments were workers, and their vanguard were the Polish communists, who, despite the dissolution of the CPP (1938), continued to lead the revolution. work. During the autumn of 1939 - summer of 1940, D.S. was embraced. part of Polish Silesia. Since 1940, sabotage spontaneously arose at enterprises and railways. transport, which soon became widespread. Basic Polish form of struggle. peasants during this period were sabotaged supplies, non-payment of numerous. taxes. Gradually, non-proletarian sections of the population and progressive Polish people were drawn into the struggle. intelligentsia. However, what has begun will liberate. the movement was still heterogeneous and unorganized, because in Poland in the first years of the occupation there was no political movement. a party capable of uniting and leading the patriotic struggle. strength In Czechoslovakia in the initial period of the German-fascist. occupations were an important form of struggle politically. demonstrations, boycott of fascists. press, there was also a strike movement (in total in 1939 there were 25 strikes at 31 factories). At the call of the underground Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, Czech and Slovak patriots began to create groups to fight against the invaders, which began to carry out acts of sabotage and sabotage in factories, transport, etc. in the fall of 1939. The first partisans were in Yugoslavia. detachments that arose immediately after the occupation of the country (April 1941) Ch. arr. on the initiative of the communists, they consisted of small groups of patriotic soldiers and officers, who did not lay down their arms, but went to the mountains to continue the fight. Partiz. By the summer of 1941, the struggle in Yugoslavia had intensified, but was not yet of a mass nature. In France, the first participants in the D.S. were workers of the Paris region and the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais, as well as other industries. centers. The most common forms of resistance during this period were sabotage at enterprises and railways. transport, patriotic workers' demonstrations and strikes. One of the first major protests against the occupiers organized by the communists was a demonstration of thousands of students and working youth in Paris on November 11. 1940, on the anniversary of the end of the 1st World War. In May 1941 there was a powerful strike that swept St. 100 thousand miners of the Nord and Pas-de-Calais departments. At the call of the PCF, thousands of representatives of the French. The intelligentsia joined the working class in the struggle for the liberation of France. In May 1941, on the initiative of the PCF, a mass patriotic movement was created. association - National front that united the French. patriots of various social strata and views. Simultaneously with the creation of the National front, the FKP was preparing the conditions for a widespread deployment of weapons. fight against the occupiers. Already at the end. 1940 communists created the embryo of the military. organization, called The “special organization” was soon renamed into the organization “Frantirers and Partisans” (FTP). The peoples of other Europe also rose up to fight against the invaders. state - Albania (occupied by the Italian army in April 1939), Belgium and the Netherlands (occupied by the Nazi German army in May 1940), Greece (April 1941), etc. However, a characteristic feature of D.S. in the first period there was a predominance of elements of spontaneity and still insufficient organization. Attacks on occupiers and traitors were carried out by individuals or small groups of patriots. The national liberation movement, which began before World War II, reached great proportions during this period. fight whale people defending their independence from the Japanese. imperialists. After the July 1937 attack on China by the Japanese. The invaders, encouraged by the ruling circles of the USA, Great Britain and France, opened a new frontier in the implementation of their plans to seize all of China, D.S. whale. people became widespread. Due to the fact that two camps had emerged in China at that time - the democratic one led by the CPC and the bourgeois-landlord led by the Kuomintang, each with its own territory and its own weapons. forces, there were actually two independent states here. front: Kuomintang and CPC-led democratic. front of the liberated districts, and the latter was the main one. anti-Japanese front D.S. In the period from Oct. 1938 to Aug. 1945 intense struggle was waged in China. arr. between Japanese army and liberated districts. The guiding force is the national liberation. the war was the CCP. During the struggle, the forces of the 8th and New 4th armies and partisans led by the Communist Party grew. detachments behind Japanese lines. Aug 20 - 5 Dec. In 1940, units of the 8th Army were carried out in the North. China's attack on Japan. position, called the Battle of the "Hundred Regiments". Democratic democracies were held in the liberated areas. transformation, democratic representatives were elected through general elections. organs of power, the leadership of which the people handed over to the communists. Democratic the transformations strengthened the anti-Japanese base. struggle and prepared accordingly. transformation throughout China. The second period (June 1941 - November 1942) is characterized by the strengthening of the D.S. in the countries of Europe and Asia in connection with the entry of the USSR into the war against the Nazis. Germany and its allies in Europe as a result of the treacherous attack on it by the Nazis. Germany and other European countries state-in-fash. block. Under the influence of courage. struggle and first victories of the Red Army over the Nazis. D.S. troops in almost all European countries began to acquire a national character. struggle against the occupiers and traitors, major success was achieved in uniting the patriotic. strength Will free you. the struggle of peoples was led by mass patriots. org-tions - National front in Poland and France, Antifash. Assembly of People's Liberation in Yugoslavia, National Liberation. front in Greece and Albania, independence front in Belgium, Fatherland. front in Bulgaria. In Yugoslavia, on June 27, 1941, the Communist Party formed the chapter. People's Liberation Headquarters partisan squads. On July 4, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia adopted a decision on armament. uprising On July 7, 1941, armament began. uprising in Serbia, July 13 - in Montenegro, armed at the end of July. the struggle began in Slovenia, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Despite the terror and actions taken in September. and Oct. 1941 carats expeditions to eliminate the partisans. forces and suppress the uprising, the occupiers were unable to strangle the liberates. the struggle of the peoples of Yugoslavia. By the end of 1941, 44 partisans were operating in the country. detachment, 14 separate battalions and 1 proletarian brigade (up to 80 people in total). The main headquarters of the people's liberation, which led their struggle. detachments on Sept. 1941 was transformed into the Supreme Headquarters of the People's Liberation Movement. partisan units of Yugoslavia. By the end of 1942, the patriots liberated 1/5 of the territory. Yugoslavia. 26-27 Nov. 1942 The Anti-Fascist Assembly of People's Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) was formed, which elected the Executive. committee, which actually performed the functions of a government agency, which included, along with the communists, representatives of all anti-fascists. groups. An important role in the further development of the Polish struggle, which increased in 1941. people played created, in Jan. 1942 Polish Workers' Party (PPR), which organized the partisans. detachments and the leader of their weapons. fight against the occupiers. Partiz. The detachments united in May 1942 into the Ludov Guard. Following the example of the Ludova Guard on the path to arms. struggles became plural. detachments of the "Hlop Battalions" and the Home Army, created by the emigrant government of Poland and intended not to fight the occupiers, but to disrupt this struggle and seize power in the country at the time of its liberation. Soldiers and b. Some of the junior officers of the Home Army were honest patriots and were eager to fight the occupiers. In Czechoslovakia, the first partisans were created in the summer of 1942. groups. In Bulgaria, on the initiative of the Communist Party (BKP), the Fatherland Front was created underground in 1942, uniting all anti-fascists led by communists. forces and began a wide partisan campaign. anti-fascist war. For the leadership of weapons. The Center was created in the fight against the occupiers. military commission, transformed in the spring of 1943 into Ch. People's Liberation Headquarters partisan army. In Romania, the Communist Party (CPR) developed an anti-fascist program in 1941. fight room people. Under her hand. in the beginning. 1943 Patriotic was created underground. front, which, in addition to the CPR, included democratic. cross. organization "Front of Farmers", democratic. org-tion Hung. national minorities "Mados" and others. The partisans have expanded. fight alb. people led by the one created in November. 1941 by the Communist Party (CPA). In Greece he will be released. The fight was led by the one created in September. 1941 on the initiative of the Greek. Communist Party (KKE) National Liberation. front (EAM), the core of which were workers and peasants. Arose in the beginning. 1941 partisans. The detachments were united in December. 1941 in People's Liberation. army (ELAS). The leading role in EAM and ELAS belonged to the KKE. The fight against German fascists. The occupation of the occupiers also intensified in other European countries: Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. In the 2nd half. 1941 anti-fascists intensified. and anti-war. speeches by workers in Italy protesting against Italy's participation in the war on the side of the Nazis. Germany. On the initiative of the ICP in September. In 1941, the “Kot of Actions for the Unity of the Italian People” was created in the country, the task of which was to organize the people. fight against war. As a result of the persistent activities of the communists in order to unite the efforts of the nation in November. 1942 The National Committee was formed in Turin. front, consisting of representatives of anti-fascists. parties. Similar companies were created in other cities. Anti-fascist activity, which did not stop during the war, became more active. the fight against the Nazis in fascism. Germany. It was carried out in difficult conditions by the German communists jointly. with the best representatives of social democracy and non-party movement. workers. Despite the Gestapo repressions, in the end. 1941 - beginning 1942 The production of underground anti-war films increased significantly in the country. and anti-fascist. printed materials. Organized by anti-fascists. struggle were underground communist. groups of Urich, Schulze-Boysen, Bestlein-Jacob-Abshagen, Neubauer-Poser, etc. Under the influence of heroic. the struggle of the Red Army expanded the D.S. peoples of the countries of the East. and South-East. Asia, subjected to Japanese. occupation. The national liberation movement took on the greatest scope in Asian countries. fight whale people. In 1941-42 Japanese. The army launched a “general offensive” against the liberated areas, but at the cost of heavy losses it was only able to capture part of the territory. liberated districts of the North. China, and the territory of the liberated districts of Central and South. China continued to expand during this period. Inspired by the heroic resistance of owls German-fascist people The invaders launched an active struggle for the liberation of their countries from Japanese oppression. invaders patriots of Vietnam, Korea, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Philippines. In Vietnam in 1941, the communists created a core of partisans. army. In May 1941, on the initiative of the Indo-Chinese Communist Party, the Viet Minh League for the Independence of Vietnam was founded. In the provinces of Vietnam, partisans formed and fought. squads. D.S. also developed in other regions of Indochina - Laos and Cambodia. The first partisans in Malaya. detachments began to be created by the communists in December. 1941. At the end. In 1942, anti-Japan was created on their basis. Malayan People's Army. Among citizens the population was organized against Japan. union. In these organizations, the Communist Party rallied the workers and peasants of the three main nationalities. groups of Malaya - Malays, Chinese and Indians. In the spring of 1942, immediately after the Japanese. occupation of Indonesia, liberation began to unfold. Indonesian wrestling people, directed against the Japanese. invaders, against all colonial oppression. Acts of sabotage and sabotage were carried out at enterprises and transport, and the cross was raised. uprisings (in Singaparna, Indramayu, in the Karo region), there was an uprising of troops in Blitar. All these anti-Japanese. the protests were brutally suppressed by the occupiers. In 1942, the struggle against the Japanese began. occupiers in Burma. In the north and in some parts of the center. In areas of the country, communists who were underground created partisans. detachments and groups that fought against the occupiers and the local military that collaborated with them. administration. Anti-Japanese violence gained momentum. wrestling in the Philippines. The Communist Party of the Philippines united and led the working class, the working peasantry and part of the nation. bourgeoisie into a single anti-Japanese. patriotic front strength In March 1942, in addition to other anti-Japanese. organizations headed by representatives of national bourgeoisie, on the initiative of the Communist Party, the People's Republic was created. The army of Hukbalakhap, based on the support of the population, led the fight against the invaders. The D.S., which unfolded in Europe and Asia against the invaders, contributed to the strengthening of the anti-fascist coalition and significantly weakened the forces of the countries of the fascist bloc. The third period (November 1942 - end of 1943) is associated with a radical change in the war caused by history. victories of the Red Army on the Volga and near Kursk; D.S. in all occupied countries and even in some countries included in the Fascism. the bloc (including in Germany itself) sharply intensified; completed in basic national association of patriotic forces and unified national nationals were created. fronts. D.S. became more and more widespread. Communists of their courage. Through the struggle they won the trust of the people and became the leading force of the D.S. The partisan movement reached enormous proportions. movement and began to play a decisive role in anti-fascists. struggle. Based on the partisans. detachments were created by People's Liberation. armies in Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria. The Ludowa Guard acted in Poland, captivating the Home Army units with their example, which was prevented in every possible way by its reaction. leaders. 19 Apr 1943 An uprising began in the Warsaw ghetto in response to an attempt by the Nazis. troops to take out another batch of Jews for destruction. population. Brutally depressed after weeks of heroism. struggle, the uprising contributed to the strengthening of the Polish struggle. people against the occupiers. New partisans emerged. detachments in Czechoslovakia, Romania. Liberation has reached a wide scope. wrestling in France, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands. In Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and North. In Italy, entire regions were liberated from the occupiers, on the territory of which the people's bodies created by patriots operated. authorities. In some countries there are partisans. the struggle grew into national liberation. war against the fascists. invaders and merged with the citizens. war against internal reactions. In a number of countries, preparations for the implementation of national nationalities were completed. armed uprisings; against occupiers and traitors. The Soviet partisans were an example of the fight against fascism for the peoples of the world (see Partisan movement in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45). Victory of the Red Army, struggle of the Soviets. people on the Sovs temporarily captured by the Nazis. territories - in Belarus, Ukraine, Karelia, the Baltic states, Bryansk region, Leningrad and other regions of the RSFSR, where Soviet formations. partisans actively assisted the regular troops of the Red Army and had a huge impact on the entire further course of development of the D.S. not only in Europe, but also in Asia. Arms have acquired a large scale. struggle in China, especially in those areas where it was led by the CCP. 8th and New 4th armies of China along with partisans. detachments and people The militia of the liberated areas not only successfully repelled Japanese attacks. troops, but they themselves went on the offensive. In the battles of 1943, the national revolutionary. army and other forces China. people were destroyed by more than 250 thousand invaders and their accomplices - the so-called. troops of the puppet "government" Wang Jing-wei, returned the territories of the liberated districts, lost in battles with the Japanese. troops in 1941-42. In Korea in 1943, despite persecution and police terror, the number of strikes and cases of sabotage increased sharply. There are many in Vietnam. partisan detachments expelled the Japanese by the end of 1943. occupiers from many districts in the north of the country. In the liberated districts, instead of the colonial authorities, the patriots created their own committees, which became the embryo of a new, democratic. building. In Burma, the center of patriotic Anti-Fash, formed in 1944, became the country's strength. League of People's Freedom, which included the Communist Party, trade unions and other patriotic. strength of the country. The struggle of the patriots of Malaya, Indonesia and the Philippines intensified. Fourth period (late 1943 - May-September 1945). During this period, the Red Army carried out a fascist attack. will crush the invaders. blows, expelled them from the owls. land, suffered the war. actions on the territory of the countries of the East. and South-East. Europe, she played a decisive role in the liberation of these countries from the fascist occupiers. In the context of a successful Soviet offensive. troops nationwide anti-fascist. the struggle in many occupied countries resulted in weapons. uprisings that led to the establishment of people's democracy. building. After the start of the Iasi-Kishinev operation of the Red Army on August 23. 1944 anti-fascist occurred. adv. uprising in Romania, which marked the beginning of a radical turn in the history of this country. With the entry of the owls. troops in the territory Bulgaria began (September 9, 1944) armament. Bulgarian uprising people (see September People's Armed Uprising of 1944), which opened the era of socialism for Bulgaria. Aug 1 1944 began the anti-fascist movement that lasted 63 days and ended tragically. Warsaw Uprising 1944. 29 Aug. 1944 The Slovak uprising of 1944 began, which played a huge role in the development of the struggle of the peoples of Czechoslovakia against the Nazis. invaders. The command of the Red Army and the Soviets provided great assistance to the uprising. partisans. The final event in the liberation of Czechoslovakia was the Czech uprising. people in May 1945, the center of which was in Prague. Units of the Red Army, which made a rapid transition in a short time (see Prague operation of 1945), came to the aid of the Czechs. to the people. Having expelled the occupiers and the traitors who collaborated with them from among the monopolists. bourgeoisie and landowners, the working masses of Czechoslovakia, led by the working class, took the fate of the state into their own hands and established a people's democracy in Czechoslovakia. system that ensured the development of the country along the path to socialism. As the Red Army's military successes in the fight against fascism grew, liberation expanded. wrestling in Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Albania. Patriotic The forces of these countries, under the leadership of the working class, created revolutionary bodies. authorities who solved the problems of people's democratic. revolution. On Dec. 1943, when the victories of the Red Army brought the liberation of Poland closer, the Crajova Rada Narodova (KRN) was created in Poland on the initiative of the PPR, then local people's councils began to be created, and in July 1944 the Polish National Committee was formed. liberation, which took over the functions of temporary. pr-va. In Hungary, in the conditions of the beginning of the liberation of the country, the Soviet Union. troops 2 Dec. 1944, on the initiative of the Communist Party, Weng was created. national Independence Front, and 22 Dec. 1944 Temp. national the meeting in Debrecen formed the Provisional. national production In Yugoslavia it is still 29 November. 1943 National was created. Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia, performing the functions of Temporary. revolutionary pr-va, and on March 7, 1945, after the liberation of the country of the Soviets. and Yugoslav armed forces, - democratic. production Legislation was created in Albania. organ - Antifash. national liberation Council of Albania, which formed the Anti-Fascist National Liberation Council. to-t, endowed with the functions of time. pr-va. In Greece, patriots took advantage of the favorable situation caused by the rapid advance of the Red Army in the Balkans, and achieved the liberation of the entire territory by the end of October 1944. continental Greece from German-fascist. invaders. However, the Greek the people failed to consolidate their won independence and establish the people. power. German-fascist occupiers in Oct. 1944 replaced by English. troops, which, with the support of the United States, restored the reactionary forces in Greece. monarchic mode. D.S. achieved great success in France. Created in May 1943 National. On March 15, 1944, the Resistance Council (RCC) adopted the D.S. program, which outlined the urgent tasks of the struggle for the liberation of France and provided for economic prospects. and democratic development of France after its liberation. In the spring of 1944, the military organizations of the Resistance united and created a single French army. internal forces (FFI) numbering up to 500 thousand people, in which the leading role belonged to the communists. Under the influence of the victories of the Red Army and the landing of Allied troops in Normandy (June 6, 1944), the struggle against the invaders grew into a national one. an uprising, the highest point of which was the victorious Parisian uprising of August 19-25. 1944. French. Patriots liberated most of the territory on their own. France, including Paris, Lyon, Grenoble and a number of other large cities. In Italy, in the summer of 1944, a united partisan force was created. the patriotic army of the Freedom Volunteer Corps, numbering St. 100 thousand fighters. Partiz. the army liberated vast areas of northern Italy from the invaders. In cities and villages, patriotic groups arose and fought. actions. Along with the partisans. struggle in the winter of 1944-45 in a number of industries. centers of the North Mass strikes took place in Italy. In April In 1945, a general strike began in the north of the country, which grew into a national strike. uprising that ended with the liberation of the North from the occupiers. and Center. Italy even before the Anglo-Americans arrived there. troops. By the summer of 1944, up to 50 thousand partisans were operating in Belgium. Armed the struggle of partisans and patriots. militia, thanks to the efforts of the communists, the national nationalization was completed. the uprising that took place in September. 1944 throughout the country and contributed to the liberation of many. cities and villages of Belgium. In Germany, despite the brutal mass repressions and executions, the victims of which were the leader of the Germans. communists Ernst Thälmann, most of the participants and leaders of anti-fascists. groups, the Nazis were unable to completely suppress the country D.S. The surviving communists. groups continued to fight against the fascists. mode. Outside Germany, in July 1943, on the initiative of the Central Committee of the KKE in the USSR, a national government was created and acted. the leading center of the struggle against Hitler's rule was the National Committee of Free Germany (NKSG), which united representatives of various political parties. views and beliefs. The creation of the NKSG was of great importance for the activities of the German government. anti-fascists who were in Germany itself, in German-fascists. troops, as well as in countries occupied by Germany. In France on November 1943 The Free German Committee for the West was formed. German Communists in France, Belgium and the Netherlands, with the help of local communists, waged anti-fascists. work among him. occupier troops and actively participated in D.S. organizations and detachments in these countries. The NKSG program and its activities provided significant assistance to anti-fascists in Germany itself. Antifash. fight Democrats under the leadership of the Communist Party contributed to the fight against fascism in Germany and played an important role in the formation after the war of the first German language in history. people of the workers' and peasants' state - German Democratic. Republic. D.S. achieved great success in Asia. In the Philippines people. The Hukbalahap army in 1944, with the active participation of the population, cleared the Japanese. invaders in a number of areas of the island. Luzon, where democrats were held. transformations. However, the progressive forces of the Filipino people failed to consolidate the achieved successes. In Indochina at the end. 1944 on the basis of the partisans organized in 1941. units, the Vietnam Liberation Army was created. D.S. became especially widespread immediately after the USSR entered the war against Japan, which led to the defeat of the Soviets. troops of the Kwantung Army (Aug. 1945) and their liberation of the North-East. China and Korea. Victory of the owls. troops allowed the 8th and New 4th armies to launch a general offensive. They liberated us from the Japanese. occupiers of almost all of Northern and part of Central China. Will free you. fight whale people contributed to the defeat of the imperialist. Japan and laid the foundation for the further victorious deployment of the people. revolution in China. In Aug. 1945 saw the victorious Nar. uprising in Vietnam (see August Revolution of 1945 in Vietnam), which led to the creation of an independent Democratic Party. Republic of Vietnam. In Indonesia on 17 Aug. 1945 the people proclaimed the formation of a republic. There is anti-Japanese in Malaya. adv. the army liberated a number of districts of the country in 1944-45, and in August. 1945 disarmed the Japanese. troops even before the English landing there. armed strength In March 1945, a national meeting began. uprising in Burma, which completed the liberation of the country from the Japanese. occupiers. D.S., who made a great contribution to the defeat of the fascist bloc, influenced the further development of the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Asia and Africa. During the D.S., the peoples of the whole world were again convinced by facts of the truly international nature of the Soviet policy. socialist state The Soviet Union provided assistance to the peoples of all countries fighting against fascists. domination, huge political, economic. and military help. The ruling circles of the USA and Great Britain had a completely different attitude towards D.S. Despite certain differences determined by the imperialist. the goals of their policy, pr-va zap. The powers in their attitude towards D.S. agreed on the main thing. They feared the rise of politics. people's activity masses and outgrowth of national liberation. movements in the revolutionary fight against bourgeois regimes, and in the occupied countries of the East and South-East - against the imperialist. and colonial oppression. Throughout the war, formally recognizing the position. the role of D.S. and using his results to achieve victory over the Nazi troops. coalitions, the USA and Great Britain were guided by the bourgeoisie. and moderate liberal elements in the D.S. and, together with the emigrant pr-you of the occupied countries of Europe, supported only the D.S. organizations that were influenced by representatives of the bourgeoisie, and were not intended to expel the fascists. invaders, but to fight for the restoration of pre-war. conservative regimes. Based on the reaction forces in the occupied countries, the government of the United States and Great Britain, tried in every possible way to subjugate the D.S. in order to narrow its goals and scope, limiting the participation of the people. the masses through passive forms of struggle: gathering reconnaissance. information and carrying out sabotage in the rear. occupiers under the strict control of the Anglo-Americans. intelligence services In an effort to limit the scope of the truly popular D.S., the governments of the United States and Great Britain sent their agents into its ranks and sought to oppose other social groups and political groups to the working class and communists. the currents that participated in the D.S. created and armed the reactionary movement. antinar. formations, supported traitors masquerading as members of the D.S. ("Bali Kombetara" in Albania, Draž Mihailovic in Yugoslavia, etc.), and at the same time refused support to the democratic and especially proletarian elements and, together with the reactionary. the forces of the occupied countries tried to prevent nationals there. armed uprisings; they took advantage of the presence of their troops in countries liberated from the Nazis. invaders (Italy, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway), and in the West. Germany against democrats. forces to restore monopoly power. bourgeoisie; disarmed the participants of the D.S., without stopping to use military force. forces (in Greece, Indonesia, Malaya, the Philippines); tried to send their troops into Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia in order to establish an antinar there. regimes, which was prevented by the Red Army and the democrats. the forces of these countries. In the fight against the occupiers, many heroes of the D.S. died. The greatest number of victims were suffered by the communists, who were in the forefront of the D.S.D.S. played creatures. role in the defeat of f
Resistance movement nationally -
liberation, anti-fascist movement during the Second World War 1939-45 (See Second World War 1939-1945) against the German, Italian and Japanese occupiers and local reactionary elements who collaborated with them. Workers and peasants, patriotic urban petty and partly middle bourgeoisie, intelligentsia and part of the clergy participated in the D.S. In Asian countries, some groups of landowners also joined in the struggle against the Japanese colonialists to one degree or another. In almost all the countries occupied by the fascists and in the D.S., there were two main currents: 1) democratic, led by the working class led by the communist parties and putting forward the demand for not only national, but also social liberation; 2) right-wing, conservative, led by bourgeois elements, which limited its tasks to restoring the power of the national bourgeoisie and the order that existed before the occupation. The communists collaborated with those right-wing elements in the ranks of the D.S. who were ready to wage an active struggle against the occupiers. In a number of countries (France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, etc.) between the democratic and right-wing movements during the D.S. S. established cooperation against a common enemy. In some countries (Yugoslavia, Albania, Poland, Greece, etc.), the bourgeois governments in exile, with the support of the ruling circles of Great Britain and the USA, created their own organizations in the territories of their countries occupied by the states of the fascist bloc, which, formally advocating liberation from the German fascist occupation, in fact, they primarily fought against the communist parties and other democratic organizations that participated in the D.S. Being deeply national in character in each individual country, the D.S. was at the same time an international movement, because had a common goal for all fighting peoples - the defeat of the forces of fascism, liberation from the invaders of the territories of occupied countries. The internationalism of the D.S. was manifested in the interaction and mutual assistance of national D.S. and in the broad participation of anti-fascists from various countries in the national D.S. In many European countries, Soviet people who fled from fascist concentration camps fought in the D.S. Many Soviet patriots were leaders of anti-fascist groups and commanders of partisan detachments. In D.S., the struggle against fascism and for national liberation was closely intertwined, as a rule, with the struggle for democratic changes and social demands of the working people, and in colonial and dependent countries - with the struggle against imperialist and colonial oppression. In a number of countries within the D.S., people's democratic revolutions unfolded (See People's Democratic Revolution). In some countries, popular revolutions that began during the period of D.S. successfully ended after the end of World War II. D.S. was distinguished by the variety of forms of struggle against the occupiers. The most common forms were: anti-fascist propaganda and agitation, publication and distribution of underground literature, strikes, sabotage and sabotage at enterprises that produced products for the occupiers and in transport, armed attacks to destroy traitors and representatives of the occupation administration, collection of intelligence information for the armies of the anti-fascist coalitions, guerrilla warfare. The highest form of civil society was a nationwide armed uprising, in which the leading role belonged to the working class. In some countries (Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, Belgium, Italy, Greece, Albania, Vietnam, Malaya, Philippines) the war of war grew into a national liberation war against the fascist invaders. In Yugoslavia and Albania, the national liberation war against the occupiers merged with the civil war against internal reaction, which opposed the liberation struggle of their peoples. In countries such as the Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway, the main forms of DS were the strike movement and anti-fascist demonstrations. In Germany, the main forms of DS were the carefully clandestine activities of underground anti-fascist groups to involve workers in the fight against fascism, distributing propaganda materials among the population and in the army, providing assistance to foreign workers and prisoners of war deported to Germany, etc. The first period of D.S. (the beginning of the war - June 1941) was a period of accumulation of forces, organizational and propaganda preparation of mass struggle, creation and strengthening of illegal anti-fascist organizations with the leading participation of the Communist Parties. In Poland in September - October 1939, small partisan detachments created by soldiers who escaped captivity and the local population took part in the fight against the Nazi occupation forces. The main core of the first partisan groups were workers, and their vanguard were Polish communists, who, despite the dissolution of the Communist Party of Poland (CPP) (1938), continued to carry out revolutionary work. During the autumn of 1939 - summer of 1940, D.S. covered a significant part of Silesia. Since 1940, spontaneous sabotage was carried out at enterprises and railways. transport. Polish peasants sabotaged food supplies and refused to pay numerous taxes. The progressive Polish intelligentsia was drawn into the struggle. In Czechoslovakia, in the initial period of the German-fascist occupation, an important form of struggle was political demonstrations, a boycott of the fascist press, and there was also a strike movement (in total in 1939 there were 25 strikes at 31 factories). At the call of the underground Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (CPC), Czech and Slovak patriots began to create groups that began to carry out acts of sabotage and sabotage in factories, transport, etc. in the fall of 1939. In Yugoslavia, the first partisan detachments, which arose mainly on the initiative of the communists immediately after occupation of the country (April 1941), consisted of small groups of patriotic soldiers and officers who did not lay down their arms, but went to the mountains to continue the fight. In France, the first participants in the D.S. were workers of the Paris region, the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais, as well as other industrial centers. One of the first major protests against the occupiers organized by the communists was a demonstration of thousands of students and working youth in Paris on November 11, 1940, on the anniversary of the end of the First World War of 1914-18. In May 1941, a powerful strike occurred, involving over 100 thousand miners in the Nord and Pas-de-Calais departments. At the call of the French Communist Party (PCF), thousands of members of the French intelligentsia joined the working class in the struggle for the liberation of France. In May 1941, on the initiative of the PCF, a mass patriotic association was created - the National Front, which united French patriots of various social strata and various political views. The embryo of a military organization - the “Special Organization” was created by the communists at the end of 1940; in 1941 she joined the organization “Frantieurs and Partisans” (FTP). Peoples of other European states also rose up to fight against the invaders - Albania (occupied by the Italian army in April 1939), Belgium and the Netherlands (occupied by the Nazi army in May 1940), Greece (occupied in April - early June 1941) and others on a large scale. During this period, the liberation struggle of the Chinese people against the Japanese imperialists, which began before World War II, reached its peak. During the struggle, the forces of the 8th and New 4th armies led by the Communist Party and partisan detachments in the rear of the Japanese grew. From August 20 to December 5, 1940, units of the 8th Army carried out an offensive against Japanese positions in Northern China. Democratic reforms were carried out in the liberated areas, democratic authorities led by communists were elected. The second period of D.S. (June 1941 - November 1942) is characterized by its strengthening in the countries of Europe and Asia in connection with the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941-45 (See Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941-45) .
Under the influence of the courageous struggle and the first victories of the Red Army over the Nazi troops, especially the historical battle of Moscow, the D.S. began to acquire the character of a national movement in almost all European countries. The liberation struggle of peoples was led by mass patriotic organizations - the National Fronts in Poland and France, the Anti-Fascist Assembly of People's Liberation in Yugoslavia, the National Liberation Fronts in Greece and Albania, the Independence Front in Belgium, the Fatherland Front in Bulgaria. In Yugoslavia, on June 27, 1941, the Communist Party formed the Main Headquarters of the People's Liberation Partisan Detachments (since September 1941 - the Supreme Headquarters of the People's Liberation Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia). On July 7, 1941, under the leadership of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPYU), an armed uprising began in Serbia, on July 13 - in Montenegro, and at the end of July, armed struggle began in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the end of 1941, there were 44 partisan detachments, 14 separate battalions and 1 proletarian brigade (up to 80 thousand people in total) operating in the country. By the end of 1942, the patriots liberated the entire territory of Yugoslavia. On November 26-27, 1942, the Anti-Fascist Assembly of People's Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) was formed, which elected the Executive Committee; It included, along with communists, representatives of all anti-fascist groups. In Poland, an important role in the further development of the liberation struggle was played by the Polish Workers' Party (PPR), created in January 1942, which acted as the organizer and leader of partisan detachments that united into the Ludowa Guard (See Ludowa Guard). Following the example of the Ludowa Guard, many detachments of the “Hlop Battalions” and the Home Army, created by the emigrant government of Poland, took the path of armed struggle, essentially not to fight the occupiers, but to disrupt this struggle and seize power in the country at the time of its liberation. In Czechoslovakia, the first partisan groups were created in the summer of 1942. In Bulgaria, on the initiative of the Communist Party, the Fatherland Front was created underground in 1942, uniting all anti-fascist forces led by the Communists and starting a wide partisan anti-fascist war. To lead the armed struggle against fascism, a Central Military Commission was created, transformed in the spring of 1943 into the Main Headquarters of the People's Liberation Partisan Army. The partisan struggle of the Albanian people, led by the Communist Party (CPA), created in November 1941, expanded. In Greece, the liberation struggle was led by the National Liberation Front (EAF), created in September 1941 on the initiative of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), the core of which were workers and peasants. The partisan detachments that emerged in early 1941 were united in December 1941 into the People's Liberation Army (ELAS). The leading role in EAM and ELAS belonged to the KKE. The struggle against the Nazi occupiers intensified in other European countries: France, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. In the second half of 1941, anti-fascist and anti-war protests by workers in Italy took on a wider scale. On the initiative of the Italian Communist Party (ICP), in October 1941, the Action Committee for the Unity of the Italian People was created in the country, and in November 1942 in Turin, the National Front Committee, consisting of representatives of anti-fascist parties, was created. Similar committees were created in other cities. In Germany, despite the repressions of the Gestapo, at the end of 1941 - beginning of 1942, much more underground anti-war and anti-fascist printed materials were distributed than in the first days of the war. The organizers of the anti-fascist struggle were underground communist groups. The D.S. of the peoples of the countries of East and Southeast Asia that were subjected to Japanese occupation, especially in China, was expanding. In 1941-1942, the Japanese army launched a “general offensive” against the liberated areas, but was able, at the cost of heavy losses, to capture only part of their territory in Northern China; The territory of the liberated regions of Central and Southern China continued to expand during this period. In May 1941, on the initiative of the Indochinese Communist Party, the League of Struggle for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) was founded. In the provinces of Vietnam, partisan detachments were formed and fought. D.S. also unfolded in other regions of Indochina - Laos and Cambodia. In Malaya, at the end of 1942, on the basis of the first partisan detachments formed by the communists, the anti-Japanese army of the peoples of Malaya was created. An anti-Japanese alliance was organized among the civilian population. In the spring of 1942, immediately after the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, the liberation struggle of the Indonesian people began to unfold. Acts of sabotage and sabotage were carried out at enterprises and transport, and peasant uprisings arose. All these anti-Japanese protests were brutally suppressed by the occupiers. In 1942, the struggle began against the Japanese occupiers in Burma, especially in the west and central regions, where the communists who were underground created partisan detachments and groups. The anti-Japanese struggle in the Philippines acquired great scope, where a united anti-Japanese front of patriotic forces was created. In March 1942, in addition to the anti-Japanese organizations led by representatives of the national bourgeoisie, the Hukbalahap People's Army was created on the initiative of the Communist Party. The third period of D.S. (November 1942 - end of 1943) is associated with a radical turning point in the war caused by the historical victories of the Red Army at Stalingrad and Kursk; D.S. in all occupied countries and even in some countries included in the fascist bloc (including Germany itself) sharply intensified. At this time, in a number of countries, the national unification of patriotic forces was essentially completed and united national fronts were strengthened. On the basis of partisan detachments, people's liberation armies were created in Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria. The Ludowa Guard acted in Poland, captivating by its example the units of the Home Army, which was prevented in every possible way by the reactionary leaders of the latter. On April 19, 1943, an uprising began in the Warsaw Ghetto (see Warsaw Uprising of 1943) ,
brutally suppressed after several weeks of heroic struggle. New partisan detachments emerged in Czechoslovakia. The Patriotic Anti-Hitler Front was founded in Romania in June 1943. The liberation struggle expanded in France, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. In Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Northern Italy, entire regions were liberated from the occupiers, on the territory of which bodies of people's power created by patriots operated. The actions of Soviet partisans were an inspiring example of the struggle against fascism for the peoples of the world (see Partisan movement in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45). In China, the people's revolutionary army, partisans, and militia units not only returned the territories of the liberated areas lost in battles with Japanese troops in 1941-42, but also expanded them. In Korea in 1943, the number of strikes and acts of sabotage increased sharply. In Vietnam, by the end of 1943, numerous partisan detachments expelled the Japanese occupiers from many areas in the north of the country. Committees were created here, which became the embryo of a new, democratic system. In Burma, the center of the country's patriotic forces became the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, formed in 1944, which included the Communist Party, trade unions and other patriotic forces of the country. The struggle of the patriots of Malaya, Indonesia and the Philippines intensified. The fourth period of D.S. (end of 1943 - May - September 1945). During this period, the Red Army inflicted crushing blows on the fascist invaders, expelled them from Soviet soil, liberated the peoples of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, completed, together with the armed forces of the Allies, the defeat of Nazi Germany (on May 8, representatives of the German command signed an act of surrender) and, speaking on 9 August 1945 against Japan, played a decisive role in the victory over Japanese militarism. In the context of the successful offensive of the Soviet troops, the nationwide anti-fascist struggle in a number of occupied countries resulted in armed uprisings, which became important milestones in the struggle of democratic forces, which led to the establishment of a people's democratic system during the people's democratic revolutions (People's armed uprising on August 23, 1944 (See. People's armed uprising in Romania 1944) in Romania, September people's armed uprising 1944 in Bulgaria, Slovak national uprising 1944, People's uprising 1945 in the Czech lands). The liberation struggle expanded in Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Albania, where, just like in other countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, patriotic forces under the leadership of the working class created bodies of revolutionary power that solved the problems of the people's democratic revolution. In December 1943, when the victories of the Red Army brought the liberation of Poland closer, the Crajova Rada Narodova (KRN) was created in the country on the initiative of the PPR, then local People's Radas began to be created, and in July 1944 the Polish Committee of National Liberation was formed, which took over the functions of the provisional government . The reaction's attempt to use the heroic Warsaw Uprising of 1944 to seize political power (See Warsaw Uprising of 1943) was unsuccessful. People's democratic power was strengthened in the country. In Hungary, in the context of the beginning of the liberation of the country by Soviet troops, on December 2, 1944, on the initiative of the Communist Party, the Hungarian National Independence Front was created, and on December 22, 1944, the Provisional National Assembly in Debrecen formed the Provisional National Government. In Yugoslavia, on November 29, 1943, the National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia was created, which performed the functions of the Provisional Revolutionary Government, and on March 7, 1945, after the liberation of the country by the Soviet and Yugoslav armed forces, a democratic government was created. A legislative body was created in Albania - the Anti-Fascist National Liberation Council of Albania, which formed the Anti-Fascist National Liberation Committee, endowed with the functions of a provisional government. In Greece, patriots took advantage of the favorable situation caused by the rapid advance of the Red Army in the Balkans, and by the end of October 1944 achieved the liberation of the entire territory of continental Greece from the Nazi invaders. However, the forces of Greek reaction, with the help of British troops that entered the country in October 1944, managed to restore the reactionary monarchical regime in Greece. D.S. achieved great success in France. The National Council of Resistance (NCR), created in May 1943, adopted the D.S. program on March 15, 1944, which outlined the urgent tasks of the struggle for the liberation of France and provided for the prospects for the economic and democratic development of the country after its liberation. In the spring of 1944, the fighting organizations of the Resistance united and created a single army of French internal forces numbering up to 500 thousand people, in which the leading role belonged to the communists. Under the influence of the victories of the Red Army and the landing of Allied troops in Normandy (June 6, 1944), the struggle against the invaders grew into a nationwide uprising, the pinnacle of which was the victorious Paris Uprising of 1944 (See Paris Uprising of 1944). French patriots liberated most of France on their own, including Paris, Lyon, Grenoble and a number of other large cities. In Italy, in the summer of 1944, a united partisan army of patriots, the Freedom Volunteer Corps, was created, numbering over 100 thousand fighters. The partisan army liberated vast areas in northern Italy from the invaders. Patriotic action groups emerged in cities and villages. In the winter of 1944-45, mass strikes took place in a number of industrial centers in Northern Italy. In April 1945, a general strike began in the north of the country, which developed into a nationwide uprising, which ended with the liberation of Northern and Central Italy from the occupiers even before the arrival of Anglo-American troops there (see April Uprising of 1945).
By the summer of 1944, up to 50 thousand partisans were operating in Belgium. Thanks to the efforts of the communists, the armed struggle of the partisans and patriotic militia ended in a nationwide uprising that swept the entire country in September 1944. In Germany, despite brutal mass repressions and executions, the victims of which were the majority of participants and leaders of anti-fascist groups, the surviving communist groups continued to fight against the fascist regime. Resistance groups were created among prisoners in Hitler's concentration camps. In July 1943, on the initiative of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), a national leadership center of the anti-fascist struggle was created in the USSR - the National Committee of Free Germany (NKSG), which united representatives of various political views and beliefs. In France, in November 1943, the Free German Committee for the West was formed, which led anti-fascist work in Germany in France, Belgium and the Netherlands, with the help of local communists. communists among the occupying forces. D.S. achieved great success in Asia. In the Philippines, the Hukbalahap People's Army in 1944, with the active participation of the population, cleared a number of areas of the island from Japanese invaders. Luzon, where democratic changes were carried out. However, the progressive forces of the Filipino people failed to consolidate the achieved successes. In Indochina in May 1945, all liberation armed forces united into a single liberation army of Vietnam (Vietnamese People's Army). The military movement in Asia became especially widespread immediately after the USSR entered the war with Japan, the defeat of the Kwantung Army by Soviet troops (August 1945) and their liberation of Northeast China and Korea. The victories of the Soviet troops allowed the 8th and New 4th National Liberation Armies to clear almost all of Northern and part of Central China from Japanese occupiers. The liberation struggle of the Chinese people laid the foundation for the further development of the people's revolution in China. In August 1945 there was a People's Uprising in Vietnam (see August Revolution of 1945 in Vietnam) ,
which led to the creation of the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In Indonesia, where D.S. embraced various social strata, a republic was proclaimed on August 17, 1945. In Malaya, the anti-Japanese people's army liberated a number of regions of the country in 1944-45, and in August 1945 disarmed the Japanese troops even before the landing of British armed forces there. In March 1945, a nationwide uprising began in Burma, which completed the liberation of the country from the Japanese occupiers. D.S. was one of the significant factors contributing to the victory of the anti-Hitler coalition. The glorious traditions of D.S. are used by peoples in the struggle against imperialist reaction and for world peace. Lit.: Anti-fascist resistance movement in European countries during the Second World War, M., 1966; Boltin E.A., Kunina D.E., Urgent issues of the Resistance movement, “New and Contemporary History”, 1961, No. 5; Heroes of the Resistance, M., 1970; Koloskov I. A., Tsyrulnikov N. G. The people of France in the struggle against fascism, M., 1960; Boltin E. A., The Soviet Union and the Resistance movement in Europe during the Second World War, “Questions of History”, 1961, No. 9; Semiryaga M.I., Soviet people in the European Resistance, M., 1970; Klokov V.I., The struggle of the peoples of the Slavic countries against the fascist enslavers (1939-1945), Kyiv, 1961; Pozolotin M., The struggle of the Bulgarian people for freedom and independence during the Second World War, M., 1954; Valev L. B., From the history of the Fatherland Front of Bulgaria (July 1942-September 1944), M. - L., 1950; Nedorezov A.I., National liberation movement in Czechoslovakia 1939-1945, M., 1961; Lebedev N.I., Romania during the Second World War, M., 1961; Ginzberg L.I., Drabkin Ya.S., German anti-fascists in the struggle against the Hitlerite dictatorship (1933-1945), M., 1961, Maryanovich I., The War of Liberation and the People's Revolution in Yugoslavia, trans. from Serbo-Croatian, M., 1956; Longo L., The People of Italy in Struggle, trans. from Italian, M., 1952; Battaglia R., History of the Italian Resistance Movement (Sept. 8, 1943 - April 25, 1945), trans. from Italian, M., 1954; Secchia P. and Moscatelli C., Monte Rosa descended to Milan. From the history of the Resistance movement in Italy, trans. from Italian, M., 1961; Grenier F., That's How It Was, trans. from French, M., 1960; Galleni M., Soviet partisans in the Italian Resistance movement, trans. from Italian, M., 1970; Konyo J., Communist parties of Western Europe
during the Second World War, “Questions of the History of the CPSU”, 1960, No. 3; Sapozhnikov B. G., The Sino-Japanese War and the colonial policy of Japan in China (1937-1941), M., 1970; Dudinsky A.M., Liberation mission of the Soviet Union in the Far East M., 1966; European resistance movements. 1939-1945, First International Conference on the history of the Resistance movements held at Liège - Bruxelles - Breendonk, 14-17 September 1958, Oxf., 1960; European Resistance Movements 1939-1945, v. 2, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the history of the Resistance movements held at Milan 26-29 March 1961, Oxf., 1964; Le Parti Communiste franc ais dans la Resistance, P., 1967; Tito J. B., Fight for the Osloboħeje Jygoslavie ,
1941-1943, Beograd 1947; Michel H., Les mouvements clandestins en Europe (1938-1945), P., 1961; Laroche G., On les nommait des étrangers, P., 1965. Periodicals: “Revue d'histoire de la deuxième guerre mondiaie” (P., 1941-); “Il movimiento di Liberazione in ltalia” (Roma, 1949- ); "Cahiérs lnternationaux de la Résistance" (Wien, 1959-). N. G. Tsyrulnikov. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia.
1969-1978
.
The Resistance Movement was one of the significant aspects in the fight against Hitlerism and fascism. Almost immediately after the outbreak of World War II, many residents of European countries volunteered to join the active army, and after the occupation, they went underground. The Resistance movement was more widespread in France and Germany itself. The main events and actions of the Resistance Movement will be discussed in this lesson.
Background
1944- a higher authority was created (Crajova Rada Narodova), which opposed the emigrant government.
1944 G.- Warsaw Uprising. The rebels sought to liberate the city from German occupation. The uprising was suppressed.
France
During the war, there were many anti-fascist organizations in France.
1940- “Free France” was created (since 1942 - “Fighting France”), which was founded by General de Gaulle. The troops of “Fighting France” in 1942 reached 70 thousand people.
1944- an army of French internal forces was created based on the unification of individual anti-fascist organizations.
1944- the number of participants in the Resistance movement is over 400 thousand people.
Participants
As mentioned above, the Resistance Movement was also located in Germany itself. The Germans, who no longer wanted to put up with Hitlerism, created an underground anti-fascist organization "Red Chapel", which was engaged in underground anti-fascist propaganda and agitation, maintained relations with Soviet intelligence, etc. Many members of the underground organization, created at the end of the 1930s. (about 600 people), occupied responsible civil and military positions and positions in the Third Reich. When, in 1942, the Gestapo (German secret police) uncovered the organization, the investigators themselves were surprised at the scale of the work being carried out. The leader of the Red Chapel, H. Schulze-Boysen (Fig. 2), was shot, like many members of the organization.
Rice. 2. H. Schulze-Boysen ()
The Resistance Movement reached particular scale in France. The Free French Committee, led by General de Gaulle, fought against the Nazis and collaborators(having made a deal to cooperate with the enemy) a real war. Armed formations operated throughout France, carrying out military and sabotage operations. When in the summer of 1944 the Anglo-American army landed in Normandy and opened the “Second Front,” de Gaulle led his army to help the Allies and, together with them, liberated Paris.
The situation in Poland and Yugoslavia was quite complex and contradictory. In these countries there were two opposing anti-fascist groups. In Poland such organizations were "Home Army" and "Ludova's Army". The first organization was created by the exile government of Poland and was based not only on the fight against the fascists, but also against the communists. Created in 1942, with the help of Moscow, the Army of the People (People's Army) was the conductor of Soviet policy in Poland and was considered a truly popular organization. There were often skirmishes and conflicts between these two armies.
In Yugoslavia there was essentially a similar situation. On the one hand, the Nazis were opposed by the so-called. "Chetniks"(from the Serbian word “cheta” - combat unit, military detachment) led by General Draže Mihailović, speaking from pro-monarchist positions, and on the other - partisan detachments of the communist Josip Broz Tito, which formed the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia. The Chetniks and partisans not only fought the enemy, but also fought among themselves. Despite this, and VIn Poland and Yugoslavia, pro-Soviet forces eventually gained the upper hand.
The Resistance movement was truly large-scale. It was not only in the occupied countries of Europe, but also in the concentration death camps. Underground anti-fascist organizations existed and operated in them. Many prisoners died trying to raise an uprising in Buchenwald, Dachau, Auschwitz etc., they were burned in crematoria ovens, gassed and starved (Fig. 3).
In total, by the summer of 1944, the total number of participants in the Resistance Movement in different countries numbered about 1.5 million people. It rightfully made its significant contribution to the fight against fascism and to the common victory over the enemy.
Rice. 3. Uprising in the Sobibor death camp. Some participants ()
1. Aleksashkina L.N. General history. XX - early XXI centuries. - M.: Mnemosyne, 2011.
2. Zagladin N.V. General history. XX century Textbook for 11th grade. - M.: Russian Word, 2009.
3. Plenkov O.Yu., Andreevskaya T.P., Shevchenko S.V. General history. 11th grade / Ed. Myasnikova V.S. - M., 2011.
1. Read Chapter 13 of the textbook by Aleksashkina L.N. General history. XX - early XXI centuries and give answers to questions 1-4 on p. 153.
2. Why did Great Britain become the center and “headquarters” of the Resistance Movement?
3. How can we explain the confrontation between various military and political groups in Poland and Yugoslavia during the Second World War?
The largest military conflict that has occurred in the history of mankind is the Second World War. It claimed the lives of tens of millions of people, destroyed tens of thousands of cities, towns and villages. Many countries and many peoples were drawn into the war. The “culprit” of this event was Nazi Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler.
Before the start of the war, A. Hitler put forward the task: “a complete economic and political transformation of the world,” where each state was assigned its own role in the new world order organized by Greater Germany1. They intended to achieve this new order through the enslavement and colonization of the occupied countries not only of Europe, but of the whole world. In the occupied territories, a policy of national coercion was pursued, depending on the nation’s affiliation with the German nationalities, economic potential and military-strategic significance.
1 Muller N. Wehrmacht and occupation 1941-1945 / translated with him M., 1974.P. 41
The approaches to the enslavement of countries were different, but this did not prevent the emergence of an organized resistance movement. “All forms and all means of struggle from expression of protest to partisan struggle” - this is how the term “Resistance” was interpreted.
The partisan movement played a huge role in the victory over Nazi Germany; many occupied territories took part in the movement. Including Yugoslavia, which made a huge contribution to the victory over the common enemy. The People's Liberation War of Yugoslavia is an integral part of the Resistance movement throughout Europe.
The purpose of the study is to historically reconstruct the formation of the resistance movement in Yugoslavia.
Two main movements began to form a powerful resistance in Yugoslavia: the Serbian monarchist group under the command of Colonel Dragoljub Mihailovic and the communist movement under the command of Josip Broz Tito.
D. Mihailović’s group was called “Chetniks”, taking the name of the Serbian nationalist organization that operated in the First World War against the Turks. The Chetniks existed as a reserve force, called upon in times of need. Kosta Pekanac, the leader of the Chetniks during the First World War, defected to the government of Milan Nedić (prime minister of the puppet collaborationist government created after the occupation of Serbia by German troops) from the beginning of the occupation. From the old organization that joined D. Mikhailovich’s movement, only those who wanted to resist the occupiers remained.
D. Mikhailovich himself considered his people an integral part of the army of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The movement quickly gained strength and in the early summer of 1941 established contact with the government of Tsar Peter in exile; soon after this, Mikhailovich was first appointed commander of the resistance forces in Yugoslavia, and then minister of defense of the tsarist government in exile2.
The activities of the Chetniks boiled down to the following: groups of people were sent to their places of residence to organize an underground partisan movement throughout the country, where sabotage, sabotage, reconnaissance and explosions were carried out. The main mission was to prepare the people for a general uprising when the Allies landed on the Balkan Peninsula.
Thus, the activities of the Chetniks were mainly limited to small operations and sabotage.
The communist irregular forces took the name "Partisans" and made it synonymous with the word rebels3. In April 1941, following the surrender of Belgrade to the Germans, communist forces organized a partisan movement under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, who became General Secretary of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia in 1937.
In May 1941, the headquarters of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia moved to Belgrade, where the details of the upcoming uprising were discussed. During May and June 1941, military committees began to be formed, engaged in the acquisition of weapons, ammunition, medicine, uniforms, the recruitment of partisans, and conducting training courses for doctors and soldiers. Small partisan detachments engaged in sabotage and sabotage.
The signal for the Yugoslav partisans was the German attack on the USSR, since Russia for them was the “patron of the Balkan Slavs.” On June 22, 1941, the people of Yugoslavia receive a call from the Politburo of the Communist Party, which calls on the people to enter into open armed confrontation with the occupiers. Already on June 27, the Main Headquarters of the People's Liberation Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia was created and Josip Broz Tito was appointed commander. Subsequently, the United People's Liberation Front of Yugoslavia was formed, which became the unifying and leading organization for all anti-fascist movements in Yugoslavia.
Initially, the Chetniks and Communists acted as a united front against the occupiers and collaborators. However, in November 1941, contradictions regarding the monarchical views of D. Mikhailovich and the communist views of Josip Broz Tito led to a civil war. In some cases, some Chetnik attacks on the occupiers and their assistants were attributed to the partisans; in others, the Chetniks were credited with successful guerrilla raids. To further complicate the situation, there were also bands of rebels who obeyed no one4.
Thus, the resistance movement in Yugoslavia began to form two distinct movements. The Chetniks sought a policy of underground resistance to the occupiers, and the partisans acted openly and on a large scale.
2 Zimke E.F. German occupation of Northern Europe. 1940-1945. M., 2005. P. 154
Bibliography
1. Zimke E.F. German occupation of Northern Europe 1940-1945/ E.F. Zimke. - M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2005. - 432 s.
2. Muller N. Wehrmacht and occupation (1941-1944) / Translated from German A.P. Artemova - M.: Voenizdat, 1974. - 387 p.
3. German operations against partisans in the Balkans (1941-1944). [Electronic resource]. Washington, 1951. Access mode: http://militera.lib.ru/h/balkans/02.html (access date 04/11/2016).
Separate detachments, reconnaissance, sabotage and organizational groups for operations in the occupied territory of Europe were created in Great Britain. The most famous of these detachments in 1942 made an attempt on the life of the Imperial Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, R. Heydrich.
First period (beginning of the war - June 1941)
The first period was a period of accumulation of human resources, propaganda and organizational preparation for mass struggle.
- After the German occupation of Poland, the underground “Union of Armed Struggle” was created. In 1939-1940 the movement spread to Silesia. In 1940, there was sabotage at enterprises and railway transport. Polish peasants refused to pay exorbitant taxes and sabotaged food supplies.
- In Czechoslovakia, the formation of groups began that carried out sabotage in factories, transport, etc.
- In Yugoslavia, partisan detachments consisted of soldiers and officers who did not lay down their arms after the end of the war and went to the mountains to continue the fight.
- In France, the first participants in the movement were workers in the Paris region, Nord and Pas-de-Calais departments. One of the first major demonstrations was dedicated to the end of the First World War on November 11, 1940. In May 1941, there was a strike of over 100 thousand miners in the Nord and Pas-de-Calais departments. In France, in May of the same year, the National Front was created - a mass patriotic association that united the French of various social classes and political views. The prototype of a military organization - the "Special Organization" was created at the end of 1940 (later included in the organization "Franteurs and Partisans").
- Also, Albania, Belgium, Greece, the Netherlands and other countries that occupied German, Italian or Japanese troops, as well as their satellites, rose up to fight.
- China's resistance against the Japanese imperialists reached large proportions. From August 20 to December 5, 1940, the Chinese army launched an offensive against Japanese positions.
Second period (June 1941 - November 1942)
The second period is primarily associated with the German attack on the USSR. The heroic struggle of the Red Army, especially the battle of Moscow, made it possible to unite the Resistance movement and make it national. The liberation struggle of many peoples was led by:
- National Front (in Poland, France and Italy)
- Anti-fascist Assembly of People's Liberation (Yugoslavia)
- National Liberation Front (in Greece and Albania)
- Independence Front (Belgium)
- Fatherland Front (Bulgaria)
Yugoslavia
On June 27, 1941, the Main Headquarters of the People's Liberation Partisan Detachments was formed in Yugoslavia. On July 7, under their leadership, an armed uprising began in Serbia, on July 13 - in Montenegro, after which the action spread to Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. By the end of 1941, up to 80 thousand partisans were operating in the country. ‽ On November 27 of the same year, the Anti-Fascist Assembly of People's Liberation of Yugoslavia was created.
Poland
The force of the Polish Resistance was the Home Army. In 1942, the Ludov Guard was also created, and since 1944, the Ludov Army acted in its place.
Bulgaria
Other European countries
In Albania the scale of the struggle increased. In Greece, the National Liberation Front led the struggle. The resulting detachments were united in December 1941 into the People's Liberation Army.
Asia
The Resistance movement expanded in East and Southeast Asia, especially in China. The Japanese launched an offensive, but at the cost of heavy losses they were able to capture only Northern China.
Third period (November 1942 - end of 1943)
Europe
This period is associated with fundamental changes in favor of the anti-Hitler coalition: victory at Stalingrad, the Kursk Bulge, and so on. Therefore, the Resistance movement sharply intensified in all countries (including Germany itself). In Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria, people's liberation armies were created on the basis of partisan detachments. In Poland, the Ludowa Guard acted, thereby setting an example for the Home Army, which was unable to act due to its reactionary leaders. An example of resistance is the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising on April 19, 1943. The movement expanded in Czechoslovakia, and the Patriotic Anti-Hitler Front was created in Romania. The scale of the movement increased in France, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Denmark; in Greece, Albania, Yugoslavia and Northern Italy, entire territories were liberated from the occupiers.
Asia
More and more territories were liberated in China. In 1943, the movement began in Korea, and strikes and sabotage began. Vietnam was able to expel the Japanese to the north of the country. In Burma, the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League was formed in 1944. The Philippines, Indonesia and Malaya became more active.
Fourth period (late 1943 - September 1945)
This period is characterized by the joyful Miha Chirva. the final stage of the war: the cleansing of Europe from Nazism and the victory over militaristic Japan.
Europe
As a result of the apparent collapse of the Nazi regime, a wave of uprisings swept across Europe:
- Romania - uprising on August 23, 1944;
- Bulgaria - uprising in September 1944;
- Slovakia - uprising of 1944;
- Czechoslovakia - Slovak National Uprising of 1944, Prague Uprising of 1945;
- Poland - government organization, Warsaw Uprising - summer 1944, unsuccessful;
- Hungary - organization of government on December 22, 1944;
- Yugoslavia - National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia, after March 7, 1945 - democratic government;
- Albania - organization of the legislature and provisional government;
- Greece - thanks to the advance of Soviet troops, by the end of October 1944 the occupiers were destroyed, but due to the British army the monarchical regime was restored;
- France - in 1943 the movement intensified, culminating in the Paris uprising on June 6, 1944, which brought victory;
- Italy - in the fall of 1943, after the surrender of Italy to the British-American allies and the subsequent occupation of the northern half of Italy by German troops, the Italian Resistance intensified, and in the summer of 1944 a partisan army numbering over 100 thousand people was created, in April 1945 a national uprising began, leading to the complete cleansing of the country from occupiers;
- Belgium - about 50 thousand partisans operated, an uprising broke out in September 1944;
- Germany - despite the brutal Nazi regime, the movement achieved a lot here too. Communist detachments continued to operate, resistance groups were created in concentration camps, a national committee “Free Germany” was created (with the support of the USSR), and similar committees were created with the support of Western Europe.
Asia
- Philippines - the Hukbalahap army cleared the island of Luzon from the invaders in 1944, but the success could not be consolidated.
- Indochina - unification into the Vietnamese Liberation Army.
- China - after the USSR entered the war with Japan, the Chinese army had the opportunity to completely clear the territory of the occupiers.
- Vietnam - uprising in August 1945 and proclamation of a republic.
- Indonesia - A republic was proclaimed on August 17, 1945.
- Malaya - liberation from the occupiers by August 1945.
Movement results
Thanks to the Resistance movement, the defeat of the Axis countries significantly accelerated. The movement also became a shining example of the struggle against imperialist reaction, against the destruction of civilians and other war crimes; for world peace.
Resistance movements in different countries
Russia (USSR)
Ukrainian SSR: special forces of the NKVD and Soviet partisans.
Yugoslavia
Greece
Albania
Poland
- Home Army (until February 14, 1942 - Union of Armed Struggle)
- Army of the People (until January 1, 1944 - Guard of the People)
- Union of Independent Socialist Youth "Spartacus"
Malaya
Philippines
- People's Anti-Japanese Army (Hukbalahap)
Italy
France
Czechoslovakia
see also
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An excerpt characterizing the Resistance Movement during World War II
“How fun, Count,” she said, “isn’t it?”Pierre smiled absently, obviously not understanding what was being said to him.
“Yes, I’m very glad,” he said.
“How can they be unhappy with something,” Natasha thought. Especially someone as good as this Bezukhov?” In Natasha’s eyes, everyone at the ball were equally kind, sweet, wonderful people who loved each other: no one could offend each other, and therefore everyone should be happy.
The next day, Prince Andrei remembered yesterday's ball, but did not dwell on it for long. “Yes, it was a very brilliant ball. And also... yes, Rostova is very nice. There is something fresh, special, not St. Petersburg, that distinguishes her.” That's all he thought about yesterday's ball, and after drinking tea, he sat down to work.
But from fatigue or insomnia (the day was not a good one for studying, and Prince Andrei could not do anything), he kept criticizing his own work, as often happened to him, and was glad when he heard that someone had arrived.
The visitor was Bitsky, who served on various commissions, visited all the societies of St. Petersburg, a passionate admirer of new ideas and Speransky and a concerned messenger of St. Petersburg, one of those people who choose a direction like a dress - according to fashion, but who for this reason seem to be the most ardent partisans of directions . He worriedly, barely having time to take off his hat, ran to Prince Andrei and immediately began to speak. He had just learned the details of the meeting of the State Council this morning, opened by the sovereign, and was talking about it with delight. The sovereign's speech was extraordinary. It was one of those speeches that are given only by constitutional monarchs. “The Emperor directly said that the council and the senate are state estates; he said that government should not be based on arbitrariness, but on solid principles. The Emperor said that finances should be transformed and reports should be made public,” said Bitsky, emphasizing well-known words and significantly opening his eyes.
“Yes, the current event is an era, the greatest era in our history,” he concluded.
Prince Andrei listened to the story about the opening of the State Council, which he expected with such impatience and to which he attributed such importance, and was surprised that this event, now that it had happened, not only did not touch him, but seemed to him more than insignificant. He listened to Bitsky's enthusiastic story with quiet mockery. The simplest thought came to his mind: “What does it matter to me and Bitsky, what do we care about what the sovereign was pleased to say in council! Can all this make me happier and better?”
And this simple reasoning suddenly destroyed for Prince Andrei all the previous interest in the transformations being carried out. On the same day, Prince Andrei was supposed to dine at Speransky’s “en petit comite,” [in a small meeting], as the owner told him, inviting him. This dinner in the family and friendly circle of a man whom he admired so much had previously greatly interested Prince Andrei, especially since until now he had not seen Speransky in his home life; but now he didn’t want to go.
At the appointed hour of lunch, however, Prince Andrei was already entering Speransky’s own small house near the Tauride Garden. In the parquet dining room of a small house, distinguished by its extraordinary cleanliness (reminiscent of monastic purity), Prince Andrei, who was somewhat late, already found at five o’clock the entire company of this petit comite, Speransky’s intimate acquaintances, gathered. There were no ladies except Speransky's little daughter (with a long face similar to her father) and her governess. The guests were Gervais, Magnitsky and Stolypin. From the hallway, Prince Andrei heard loud voices and clear, clear laughter - laughter similar to the one they laugh on stage. Someone in a voice similar to Speransky’s voice distinctly chimed: ha... ha... ha... Prince Andrei had never heard Speransky’s laughter, and this ringing, subtle laughter of a statesman strangely struck him.
Prince Andrei entered the dining room. The whole company stood between two windows at a small table with snacks. Speransky, in a gray tailcoat with a star, obviously still wearing the white vest and high white tie he wore at the famous meeting of the State Council, stood at the table with a cheerful face. Guests surrounded him. Magnitsky, addressing Mikhail Mikhailovich, told an anecdote. Speransky listened, laughing ahead at what Magnitsky would say. As Prince Andrei entered the room, Magnitsky’s words were again drowned out by laughter. Stolypin boomed loudly, chewing a piece of bread with cheese; Gervais hissed with a quiet laugh, and Speransky laughed subtly, distinctly.
Speransky, still laughing, gave Prince Andrei his white, tender hand.
“I’m very glad to see you, prince,” he said. - Just a minute... he turned to Magnitsky, interrupting his story. “We have an agreement today: dinner of pleasure, and not a word about business.” - And he turned to the narrator again, and laughed again.
Prince Andrei listened to his laughter with surprise and sadness of disappointment and looked at the laughing Speransky. It was not Speransky, but another person, it seemed to Prince Andrei. Everything that had previously seemed mysterious and attractive to Prince Andrei in Speransky suddenly became clear and unattractive to him.
At the table the conversation did not stop for a moment and seemed to consist of a collection of funny anecdotes. Magnitsky had not yet finished his story when someone else declared his readiness to tell something that was even funnier. The anecdotes mostly concerned, if not the official world itself, then the official persons. It seemed that in this society the insignificance of these persons was so finally decided that the only attitude towards them could only be good-naturedly comic. Speransky told how at the council this morning, when asked by a deaf dignitary about his opinion, this dignitary answered that he was of the same opinion. Gervais told a whole story about the audit, remarkable for the nonsense of all the characters. Stolypin, stuttering, intervened in the conversation and began to speak passionately about the abuses of the previous order of things, threatening to turn the conversation into a serious one. Magnitsky began to mock Stolypin’s ardor, Gervais inserted a joke and the conversation again took its previous, cheerful direction.
Obviously, after work, Speransky loved to relax and have fun in a circle of friends, and all his guests, understanding his desire, tried to amuse him and have fun themselves. But this fun seemed heavy and sad to Prince Andrei. The thin sound of Speransky's voice struck him unpleasantly, and the incessant laughter, with its false note, for some reason offended the feelings of Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei did not laugh and was afraid that he would be difficult for this society. But no one noticed his inconsistency with the general mood. Everyone seemed to be having a lot of fun.
Several times he wanted to enter into conversation, but each time his word was thrown out like a cork out of water; and he could not joke with them together.
There was nothing bad or inappropriate in what they said, everything was witty and could have been funny; but something, the very thing that is the essence of fun, not only did not exist, but they did not even know that it existed.
After dinner, Speransky’s daughter and her governess got up. Speransky caressed his daughter with his white hand and kissed her. And this gesture seemed unnatural to Prince Andrei.
The men, in English, remained at the table and drinking port. In the middle of the conversation that began about Napoleon's Spanish affairs, which everyone was of the same opinion approving, Prince Andrei began to contradict them. Speransky smiled and, obviously wanting to divert the conversation from the accepted direction, told an anecdote that had nothing to do with the conversation. For a few moments everyone fell silent.
After sitting at the table, Speransky corked a bottle of wine and said: “nowadays good wine goes in boots,” gave it to the servant and stood up. Everyone got up and, also talking noisily, went into the living room. Speransky was given two envelopes brought by a courier. He took them and went into the office. As soon as he left, the general fun fell silent and the guests began to talk to each other judiciously and quietly.
- Well, now the recitation! - said Speransky, leaving the office. - Amazing talent! - he turned to Prince Andrei. Magnitsky immediately struck a pose and began to speak French humorous poems that he had composed for some famous people in St. Petersburg, and was interrupted several times by applause. Prince Andrei, at the end of the poems, approached Speransky, saying goodbye to him.
-Where are you going so early? - said Speransky.
- I promised for the evening...
They were silent. Prince Andrei looked closely into those mirrored, impenetrable eyes and it became funny to him how he could expect anything from Speransky and from all his activities associated with him, and how he could attribute importance to what Speransky did. This neat, cheerless laughter did not stop ringing in the ears of Prince Andrei for a long time after he left Speransky.
Returning home, Prince Andrei began to remember his life in St. Petersburg during these four months, as if it were something new. He recalled his efforts, his searches, the history of his draft military regulations, which were taken into account and about which they tried to keep silent only because other work, very bad, had already been done and presented to the sovereign; remembered the meetings of the committee of which Berg was a member; I remembered how in these meetings everything related to the form and process of the committee meetings was carefully and lengthily discussed, and how carefully and briefly everything related to the essence of the matter was discussed. He remembered his legislative work, how he anxiously translated articles from the Roman and French codes into Russian, and he felt ashamed of himself. Then he vividly imagined Bogucharovo, his activities in the village, his trip to Ryazan, he remembered the peasants, Drona the headman, and attaching to them the rights of persons, which he distributed in paragraphs, it became surprising to him how he could engage in such idle work for so long.
The next day, Prince Andrei went on visits to some houses where he had not yet been, including the Rostovs, with whom he renewed his acquaintance at the last ball. In addition to the laws of politeness, according to which he needed to be with the Rostovs, Prince Andrei wanted to see at home this special, lively girl, who left him with a pleasant memory.
Natasha was one of the first to meet him. She was wearing a blue home dress, in which she seemed even better to Prince Andrei than in the ball gown. She and the entire Rostov family received Prince Andrei as an old friend, simply and cordially. The entire family, which Prince Andrei had previously judged strictly, now seemed to him to be made up of wonderful, simple and kind people. The hospitality and good nature of the old count, which was especially striking in St. Petersburg, was such that Prince Andrei could not refuse dinner. “Yes, these are kind, nice people,” thought Bolkonsky, who, of course, don’t understand one bit the treasure they have in Natasha; but good people who make up the best background for this especially poetic, full of life, lovely girl to stand out against!”
