History of the princes of Kievan Rus. The first Slavic princes. Formation of the state of Kievan Rus

“Kievan Rus” is a concept that is subject to much speculation today. Historians argue not only about whether there was a state with that name, but also about who inhabited it.

Where did “Kievan Rus” come from?

If today in Russia the phrase “Kievan Rus” is gradually leaving scientific usage, being replaced by the concept “Old Russian state,” then Ukrainian historians use it everywhere, and in the context of “Kievan Rus - Ukraine,” emphasizing the historical continuity of the two states.

However, until the beginning of the 19th century, the term “Kievan Rus” did not exist; the ancient inhabitants of the Kyiv lands did not even suspect that they lived in a state with such a name. The first to use the phrase “Kievan Rus” was the historian Mikhail Maksimovich in his work “Where does the Russian Land Come From,” which was completed in the year of Pushkin’s death.

It is important to note that Maksimovich used this expression not in the sense of the state, but in a number of other names of Rus' - Chervonnaya, Belaya, Suzdal, that is, in the sense of geographical location. The historians Sergei Solovyov and Nikolai Kostomarov used it in the same meaning.

Some authors of the early 20th century, including Sergei Platonov and Alexander Presnyakov, began to use the term “Kievan Rus” in the sovereign-political sense, as the name of the state of the Eastern Slavs with a single political center in Kiev.

However, Kievan Rus became a full-fledged state during the Stalin era. There is an interesting story about how academician Boris Grekov, while working on the books “Kievan Rus” and “Culture of Kievan Rus,” asked his colleague: “You are a party member, please advise, you should know what concept He (Stalin) will like.”

Having used the term “Kievan Rus”, Grekov considered it necessary to explain its meaning: “In my work, I deal with Kievan Rus not in the narrow territorial sense of this term (Ukraine), but precisely in the broad sense of the “Rurikovich empire”, corresponding to the Western European empire Charlemagne, which includes a vast territory on which several independent state units were subsequently formed.”

State before Rurik

Official domestic historiography says that statehood in Rus' arose in 862 after the Rurik dynasty came to power. However, for example, political scientist Sergei Chernyakhovsky argues that the beginning of Russian statehood should be pushed back at least 200 years into history.

He draws attention to the fact that in Byzantine sources, when describing the life of the Rus, obvious signs of their state structure were reflected: the presence of writing, the hierarchy of the nobility, the administrative division of lands, small princes, over whom stood “kings,” are also mentioned.

And yet, despite the fact that Kievan Rus united under its rule vast territories inhabited by East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes, many historians are inclined to believe that in the pre-Christian period it could not be called a full-fledged state, since there were no class structures there and there was no centralized authority. On the other hand, it was not a monarchy, not a despotism, not a republic; most of all, according to historians, it was like some kind of corporate governance.

It is known that the ancient Russians lived in tribal settlements, were engaged in crafts, hunting, fishing, trade, agriculture, and cattle breeding. The Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan described in 928 that the Russians built large houses in which 30-50 people lived.

“The archaeological monuments of the Eastern Slavs recreate a society without any clear traces of property stratification. In the most diverse regions of the forest-steppe zone, it is not possible to indicate those that, in their architectural appearance and in the content of the household and household equipment found in them, would stand out for their wealth,” emphasized historian Ivan Lyapushkin.

Russian archaeologist Valentin Sedov notes that the emergence of economic inequality is not yet possible to establish based on existing archaeological data. “It seems that there are no clear traces of property differentiation of Slavic society in the grave monuments of the 6th-8th centuries,” the scientist concludes.

Historians conclude that the accumulation of wealth and its transfer by inheritance in ancient Russian society was not an end in itself; it apparently was neither a moral value nor a vital necessity. Moreover, hoarding was clearly not welcomed and even condemned.

For example, in one of the agreements between the Rus and the Byzantine emperor there is a fragment of the oath of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, telling what will happen in case of violation of obligations: “may we be golden, like this gold” (meaning the golden tablet-stand of the Byzantine scribe) . This once again shows the despicable attitude of the Rus towards the golden calf.

A more correct definition of the political structure of pre-dynastic Kievan Rus is a veche society, where the prince was completely dependent on the people's assembly. The veche could approve the transfer of power to the prince by inheritance, or it could re-elect him. The historian Igor Froyanov noted that “the ancient Russian prince was not an emperor or even a monarch, for above him stood a veche, or people’s assembly, to which he was accountable.”

The first Kyiv princes

The Tale of Bygone Years tells how Kiy, who lived on the Dnieper “mountains,” together with his brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid, built a city on the right bank of the Dnieper, which was later named Kiev in honor of the founder. Kiy, according to the chronicle, he was the first prince of Kyiv. However, modern authors are more inclined to believe that the story of the founding of the city is an etymological myth designed to explain the names of Kyiv localities.

Thus, the hypothesis of the American-Ukrainian orientalist Omelyan Pritsak, who believed that the emergence of Kyiv is connected with the Khazars, and Kiy as a person is identical to the hypothetical Khazar vizier Kuya, became widely known.

At the end of the 9th century, no less legendary princes appeared on the historical stage of Kyiv - Askold and Dir. It is believed that they were members of the Varangian squad of Rurik, who later became the rulers of the capital city, adopted Christianity and laid the foundations of ancient Russian statehood. But here too there are many questions.

The Ustyug Chronicle says that Askold and Dir were “neither the tribe of a prince nor a boyar, and Rurik would not give them a city or a village.” Historians believe that their desire to go to Kyiv was stimulated by the desire to obtain lands and a princely title. According to historian Yuri Begunov, Askold and Dir, having betrayed Rurik, turned into Khazar vassals.

The chronicler Nestor writes that the troops of Askold and Dir in 866 made a campaign against Byzantium and plundered the outskirts of Constantinople. However, academician Alexei Shakhmatov argued that in the more ancient chronicles telling about the campaign against Constantinople there is no mention of Askold and Dir, nothing is said about them in either Byzantine or Arab sources. “Their names were inserted later,” the scientist believed.

Some researchers suggest that Askold and Dir ruled in Kyiv at different times. Others put forward the version that Askold and Dir are one and the same person. According to this assumption, in the Old Norse spelling of the name "Haskuldr", the last two letters "d" and "r" could be isolated into a separate word, and over time turn into an independent person.

If you look at Byzantine sources, you can see that during the siege of Constantinople, the chronicler speaks of only one military leader, although without naming his name.
Historian Boris Rybakov explained: “The personality of Prince Dir is not clear to us. It is felt that his name is artificially attached to Askold, because when describing their joint actions, the grammatical form gives us a single, and not a double, number, as it should be when describing the joint actions of two persons.”

Kievan Rus and Khazaria

The Khazar Kaganate is considered a powerful state, under whose control were the most important trade routes from Europe to Asia. +In its heyday (at the beginning of the 8th century), the territory of the Khazar Kaganate extended from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, including the lower Dnieper region.

The Khazars carried out regular raids on the Slavic lands, subjecting them to plunder. According to the testimony of the medieval traveler Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, they mined not only wax, furs and horses, but mainly prisoners of war for sale into slavery, as well as young men, girls and children. In other words, the lands of Southern Rus' actually fell into Khazar bondage.

Maybe they were looking for the Khazar state in the wrong place? Publicist Alexander Polyukh is trying to understand this issue. In his research, he focuses on genetics, in particular, on the position according to which the blood type corresponds to the way of life of the people and determines the ethnic group.

He notes that according to genetic data, Russians and Belarusians, like most Europeans, have more than 90% blood group I (O), and ethnic Ukrainians are 40% carriers of group III (B). This serves as a sign of peoples who led a nomadic lifestyle (he includes the Khazars here), in whom blood group III (B) approaches 100% of the population.

These conclusions are largely supported by the archaeological finds of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Valentin Yanin, who confirmed that Kiev at the time of its capture by the Novgorodians (IX century) was not a Slavic city, this is also evidenced by “birch bark letters”.
According to Polyukh, the conquest of Kyiv by the Novgorodians and the revenge on the Khazars carried out by the Prophetic Oleg suspiciously coincide in terms of timing. Perhaps it was the same event? Here he makes a resounding conclusion: “Kyiv is the possible capital of the Khazar Kaganate, and ethnic Ukrainians are the direct descendants of the Khazars.”

Despite the paradoxical nature of the conclusions, perhaps they are not so divorced from reality. Indeed, in a number of sources of the 9th century, the ruler of the Rus was called not a prince, but a kagan (khakan). The earliest report of this dates back to 839, when, according to ancient Russian chronicles, Rurik’s warriors had not yet arrived in Kyiv.

FIRST PRINCE OF KIEVAN RUS

The Old Russian state was formed in Eastern Europe in the last decades of the 9th century as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kiev and Novgorod, as well as lands located along the waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks”. Already in the 830s, Kyiv was an independent city and claimed to be the main city of the Eastern Slavs.

Rurik, as the chronicle tells, when dying, transferred power to his brother-in-law Oleg (879–912). Prince Oleg remained in Novgorod for three years. Then, having recruited an army and moved in 882 from Ilmen to the Dnieper, he conquered Smolensk, Lyubech and, settling in Kiev for a living, made it the capital of his principality, saying that Kiev would be “the mother of Russian cities.” Oleg managed to unite in his hands all the main cities along the great waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” This was his first goal. From Kyiv he continued his unification activities: he went against the Drevlyans, then against the northerners and conquered them, then he subjugated the Radimichi. Thus, all the main tribes of the Russian Slavs, except for the outlying ones, and all the most important Russian cities gathered under his hand. Kyiv became the center of a large state (Kievan Rus) and freed the Russian tribes from Khazar dependence. Having thrown off the Khazar yoke, Oleg tried to strengthen his country with fortresses from the eastern nomads (both Khazars and Pechenegs) and built cities along the border of the steppe.

After Oleg's death, his son Igor (912–945) took over, apparently having no talent as a warrior or ruler. Igor died in the country of the Drevlyans, from whom he wanted to collect double tribute. His death, the matchmaking of the Drevlyan prince Mal, who wanted to marry Igor’s widow Olga, and Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband form the subject of a poetic legend, described in detail in the chronicle.

Olga remained after Igor with her young son Svyatoslav and took over the rule of the Principality of Kyiv (945–957). According to ancient Slavic custom, widows enjoyed civic independence and full rights, and in general, the position of women among the Slavs was better than among other European peoples.

Her main business was the adoption of the Christian faith and a pious journey in 957 to Constantinople. According to the chronicle, Olga was baptized “by the king and the patriarch” in Constantinople, although it is more likely that she was baptized at home in Rus', before her trip to Greece. With the triumph of Christianity in Rus', the memory of Princess Olga, in the holy baptism of Helen, began to be revered, and Equal-to-the-Apostles Olga was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Olga's son Svyatoslav (957–972) already bore a Slavic name, but his character was still a typical Varangian warrior, a warrior. As soon as he had time to mature, he formed himself a large and brave squad and with it began to seek glory and prey for himself. He left his mother's influence early and was "angry with his mother" when she urged him to be baptized.

How can I change my faith alone? The squad will start laughing at me,” he said.

He got along well with his squad and led a harsh camp life with them.

After the death of Svyatoslav in one of the military campaigns, an internecine war occurred between his sons (Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir), in which Yaropolk and Oleg died, and Vladimir remained the sole ruler of Kievan Rus.

Vladimir waged many wars with various neighbors over the border volosts, and also fought with the Kama Bulgarians. He also became involved in a war with the Greeks, as a result of which he converted to Christianity according to the Greek rite. This most important event ended the first period of power of the Varangian Rurik dynasty in Rus'.

This is how the Principality of Kiev was formed and strengthened, politically uniting most of the tribes of the Russian Slavs.

Another even more powerful factor of unification for Rus' was Christianity. The baptism of the prince was immediately followed by the adoption of Christianity in 988 by all of Russia and the solemn abolition of the pagan cult.

Returning from the Korsun campaign to Kyiv with the Greek clergy, Vladimir began to convert the people of Kiev and all of Rus' to the new faith. He baptized people in Kyiv on the banks of the Dnieper and its tributary Pochayna. The idols of the old gods were thrown to the ground and thrown into the river. Churches were erected in their places. This was the case in other cities where Christianity was introduced by princely governors.

During his lifetime, Vladimir distributed control of individual lands to his numerous sons.

Kievan Rus became the cradle of the Russian land, and the son of Equal-to-the-Apostles Grand Duke Vladimir, Grand Duke of Kiev Yuri Dolgoruky, who was also the Prince of Rostov, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl, is called by historians the first ruler of Russia.

This text is an introductory fragment. From the book Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe author Gumilev Lev Nikolaevich

155. About the “desolation” of Kievan Rus Banal versions have the attractiveness that they allow one to make a decision without criticism, which is difficult and one does not want to think about. So, it is indisputable that Kievan Rus of the 12th century. was a very rich country, with excellent crafts, and brilliant

author

The desolation of Kievan Rus Under the pressure of these three unfavorable conditions, the legal and economic humiliation of the lower classes, princely strife and Polovtsian attacks, from the half of the 12th century. signs of desolation of Kievan Rus and the Dnieper region become noticeable. River

From the book Course of Russian History (Lectures I-XXXII) author Klyuchevsky Vasily Osipovich

The Collapse of Kievan Rus The political consequences of the Russian colonization of the Upper Volga region, which we have just studied, laid the foundation for a new system of social relations in that region. In the further history of Upper Volga Rus', we will have to follow the development of the foundations laid in

From the book World History. Volume 2. Middle Ages by Yeager Oscar

CHAPTER FIVE The most ancient history of the Eastern Slavs. - Formation of the Russian state in the north and south. - Establishment of Christianity in Rus'. The fragmentation of Rus' into fiefs. - Russian princes and Polovtsians. - Suzdal and Novgorod. - The emergence of the Livonian Order. - Internal

author Fedoseev Yuri Grigorievich

Chapter 2 The calling of the Varangians, their first steps. Education of Kievan Rus. Tormenting neighboring tribes. Squads. Communities. Social stratification. Tribute. Remains of ancient democracy So what about Rurik and his Varangians? How to explain their appearance in 862 in Rus': how

From the book Pre-Letopic Rus'. Pre-Horde Rus'. Rus' and the Golden Horde author Fedoseev Yuri Grigorievich

Chapter 4 Ladder order of succession to the throne. Outcasts. Tribal viceroy. Division of Rus' under Yaroslavich Civil strife. Vladimir Monomakh. Reasons for the collapse of Kievan Rus. Population outflow In the initial period of statehood in Rus' there were problems with

From the book Millennium around the Black Sea author Abramov Dmitry Mikhailovich

Twilight of Golden Kievan Rus, or the First Glimpses of Dawn The second half of the 13th century became for many Russian lands a time of final decline, feudal wars and fragmentation. Western Rus' suffered less from the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars than other Russian lands. In 1245

From the book Russian Lands through the Eyes of Contemporaries and Descendants (XII-XIV centuries). Lecture course author Danilevsky Igor Nikolaevich

Lecture 1: FROM KIEVAN Rus' TO APART Rus' In domestic historiography, the boundary between the first and second is considered to be the boundary of the existence of that very shaky and rather amorphous association, which is loudly called Kievan Rus or the Old Russian state

author Semenenko Valery Ivanovich

The first princes of the Kyiv land. Askold, Oleg (Helg), Igor were already mentioned above. The chronology of the reign of Oleg, who most likely did not belong to the Rurik dynasty, suggests that there were two Olegs over a 33-year period. First of all, we note that

From the book History of Ukraine from ancient times to the present day author Semenenko Valery Ivanovich

Culture of Kievan Rus Some historians and archaeologists believe that in the 9th century in Rus' there was proto-writing in the form of “lines and cuts”, which was later written about by the Bulgarian Chernorizets Khrobr, the Arabs Ibn Fadlan, El Masudi and Ibn el Nedima. But after accepting Christianity here

From the book History of Ukraine from ancient times to the present day author Semenenko Valery Ivanovich

Law of Kievan Rus The first codified collection of legal norms in Rus' was “Russian Truth,” which consisted of two parts: “The Truth of Yaroslav” of 17 articles (1015–1016) and “The Truth of the Yaroslavichs” (up to 1072). To date, more than a hundred copies of the Brief are known,

From the book Ancient Rus'. Events and people author Tvorogov Oleg Viktorovich

THE FLOWING OF KIEVAN Rus' 978 (?) - Vladimir Svyatoslavich from Novgorod goes to Polotsk. He wanted to marry the daughter of the Polotsk prince Rogvolod Rogneda, but Rogneda, who was counting on a marriage with Yaropolk, refused Vladimir, speaking disparagingly about the son of a slave (see 970).

author Kukushkin Leonid

From the book History of Orthodoxy author Kukushkin Leonid

From the book In Search of Oleg's Rus' author Anisimov Konstantin Alexandrovich

The Birth of Kievan Rus The only logical explanation for the success of the coup carried out by Oleg can be considered the dissatisfaction of Rus' with Askold's religious reforms. Oleg was a pagan and led the pagan reaction. Above, in the chapter “The Riddles of Prophetic Oleg”, already

From the book Smoke over Ukraine by the LDPR

From Kievan Rus to Little Russia The Mongol invasion of 1237–1241 dealt a terrible blow to the entire ancient Russian civilization, as a result of which there was a total redrawing of the political map of Eastern Europe. The immediate political consequences of this event are very

In modern historiography, the title “Kyiv princes” is usually used to designate a number of rulers of the Kyiv principality and the Old Russian state. The classical period of their reign began in 912 under the reign of Igor Rurikovich, the first to bear the title of “Grand Duke of Kiev,” and lasted until approximately the middle of the 12th century, when the collapse of the Old Russian state began. Let's briefly look at the most prominent rulers during this period.

Oleg Prophetic (882-912)

Igor Rurikovich (912-945) – the first ruler of Kyiv, called the “Grand Duke of Kyiv.” During his reign, he conducted a number of military campaigns, both against neighboring tribes (Pechenegs and Drevlyans) and against the Byzantine kingdom. The Pechenegs and Drevlyans recognized the supremacy of Igor, but the Byzantines, better equipped militarily, put up stubborn resistance. In 944, Igor was forced to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium. At the same time, the terms of the agreement were beneficial for Igor, since Byzantium paid significant tribute. A year later, he decided to attack the Drevlyans again, despite the fact that they had already recognized his power and paid him tribute. Igor’s vigilantes, in turn, had the opportunity to profit from the robberies of the local population. The Drevlyans set up an ambush in 945 and, having captured Igor, executed him.

Olga (945-964)– Widow of Prince Rurik, killed in 945 by the Drevlyan tribe. She headed the state until her son, Svyatoslav Igorevich, became an adult. It is unknown when exactly she transferred power to her son. Olga was the first of the rulers of Rus' to convert to Christianity, while the entire country, the army, and even her son still remained pagans. Important facts of her reign were the submission of the Drevlyans, who killed her husband Igor Rurikovich. Olga established the exact amounts of taxes that the lands subject to Kyiv had to pay, and systematized the frequency of their payment and deadlines. An administrative reform was carried out, dividing the lands subordinate to Kyiv into clearly defined units, at the head of each of which a princely official “tiun” was installed. Under Olga, the first stone buildings appeared in Kyiv, Olga's tower and the city palace.

Svyatoslav (964-972)- son of Igor Rurikovich and Princess Olga. A characteristic feature of the reign was that most of its time was actually ruled by Olga, first due to Svyatoslav’s minority, and then due to his constant military campaigns and absence from Kiev. Took power around 950. He did not follow his mother’s example and did not accept Christianity, which was then unpopular among the secular and military nobility. The reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich was marked by a series of continuous campaigns of conquest that he carried out against neighboring tribes and state entities. The Khazars, Vyatichi, the Bulgarian Kingdom (968-969) and Byzantium (970-971) were attacked. The war with Byzantium brought heavy losses to both sides, and ended, in fact, in a draw. Returning from this campaign, Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pechenegs and was killed.

Yaropolk (972-978)

Vladimir the Holy (978-1015)- Kiev prince, most famous for the baptism of Rus'. He was the prince of Novgorod from 970 to 978, when he seized the Kiev throne. During his reign, he continuously carried out campaigns against neighboring tribes and states. He conquered and annexed to his power the tribes of the Vyatichi, Yatvingians, Radimichi and Pechenegs. He carried out a number of government reforms aimed at strengthening the power of the prince. In particular, he began minting a single state coin, replacing the previously used Arab and Byzantine money. With the help of invited Bulgarian and Byzantine teachers, he began to spread literacy in Rus', forcibly sending children to study. Founded the cities of Pereyaslavl and Belgorod. The main achievement is considered to be the baptism of Rus', carried out in 988. The introduction of Christianity as a state religion also contributed to the centralization of the Old Russian state. The resistance of various pagan cults, then widespread in Rus', weakened the power of the Kyiv throne and was brutally suppressed. Prince Vladimir died in 1015 during another military campaign against the Pechenegs.

SvyatopolkDamned (1015-1016)

Yaroslav the Wise (1016-1054)- son of Vladimir. He feuded with his father and seized power in Kyiv in 1016, driving out his brother Svyatopolk. The reign of Yaroslav is represented in history by traditional raids on neighboring states and internecine wars with numerous relatives laying claim to the throne. For this reason, Yaroslav was forced to temporarily leave the Kiev throne. He built the churches of St. Sophia in Novgorod and Kyiv. The main temple in Constantinople is dedicated to her, so the fact of such construction spoke of the equality of the Russian church with the Byzantine one. As part of the confrontation with the Byzantine Church, he independently appointed the first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion in 1051. Yaroslav also founded the first Russian monasteries: the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv and the Yuriev Monastery in Novgorod. For the first time he codified feudal law, publishing a code of laws “Russian Truth” and a church charter. He did a lot of work translating Greek and Byzantine books into Old Russian and Church Slavonic languages, and constantly spent large sums on rewriting new books. He founded a large school in Novgorod, in which the children of elders and priests learned to read and write. He strengthened diplomatic and military ties with the Varangians, thus securing the northern borders of the state. He died in Vyshgorod in February 1054.

SvyatopolkDamned (1018-1019)– secondary temporary government

Izyaslav (1054-1068)- son of Yaroslav the Wise. According to his father's will, he sat on the throne of Kyiv in 1054. Throughout almost his entire reign, he was at odds with his younger brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod, who sought to seize the prestigious Kiev throne. In 1068, the Izyaslav troops were defeated by the Polovtsians in the battle on the Alta River. This led to the Kyiv Uprising of 1068. At the veche meeting, the remnants of the defeated militia demanded that they be given weapons in order to continue the fight against the Polovtsians, but Izyaslav refused to do this, which forced the Kievites to revolt. Izyaslav was forced to flee to the Polish king, his nephew. With the military help of the Poles, Izyaslav regained the throne for the period 1069-1073, was again overthrown, and ruled for the last time from 1077 to 1078.

Vseslav the Magician (1068-1069)

Svyatoslav (1073-1076)

Vsevolod (1076-1077)

Svyatopolk (1093-1113)- son of Izyaslav Yaroslavich, before occupying the Kyiv throne, he periodically headed the Novgorod and Turov principalities. The beginning of the Kyiv principality of Svyatopolk was marked by the invasion of the Cumans, who inflicted a serious defeat on Svyatopolk’s troops in the battle of the Stugna River. After this, several more battles followed, the outcome of which is not known for certain, but ultimately peace was concluded with the Cumans, and Svyatopolk took the daughter of Khan Tugorkan as his wife. The subsequent reign of Svyatopolk was overshadowed by the continuous struggle between Vladimir Monomakh and Oleg Svyatoslavich, in which Svyatopolk usually supported Monomakh. Svyatopolk also repelled the constant raids of the Polovtsy under the leadership of the khans Tugorkan and Bonyak. He died suddenly in the spring of 1113, possibly poisoned.

Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) was the prince of Chernigov when his father died. He had the right to the Kiev throne, but lost it to his cousin Svyatopolk, because he did not want war at that time. In 1113, the people of Kiev rebelled and, having overthrown Svyatopolk, invited Vladimir to the kingdom. For this reason, he was forced to accept the so-called “Charter of Vladimir Monomakh”, which alleviated the situation of the urban lower classes. The law did not affect the foundations of the feudal system, but regulated the conditions of enslavement and limited the profits of moneylenders. Under Monomakh, Rus' reached the peak of its power. The Principality of Minsk was conquered, and the Polovtsians were forced to migrate east from the Russian borders. With the help of an impostor who posed as the son of a previously murdered Byzantine emperor, Monomakh organized an adventure aimed at placing him on the Byzantine throne. Several Danube cities were conquered, but it was not possible to further develop the success. The campaign ended in 1123 with the signing of peace. Monomakh organized the publication of improved editions of The Tale of Bygone Years, which have survived in this form to this day. Monomakh also independently created several works: the autobiographical “Ways and Fishing”, a set of laws “The Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich” and “The Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh”.

Mstislav the Great (1125-1132)- son of Monomakh, formerly the prince of Belgorod. He ascended the throne of Kyiv in 1125 without resistance from the other brothers. Among the most outstanding acts of Mstislav, one can name the campaign against the Polovtsians in 1127 and the plunder of the cities of Izyaslav, Strezhev and Lagozhsk. After a similar campaign in 1129, the Principality of Polotsk was finally annexed to the possessions of Mstislav. In order to collect tribute, several campaigns were made in the Baltic states against the Chud tribe, but they ended in failure. In April 1132, Mstislav died suddenly, but managed to transfer the throne to Yaropolk, his brother.

Yaropolk (1132-1139)- being the son of Monomakh, inherited the throne when his brother Mstislav died. At the time of coming to power he was 49 years old. In fact, he only controlled Kyiv and its environs. By his natural inclinations he was a good warrior, but did not have diplomatic and political abilities. Immediately after taking the throne, traditional civil strife began related to the inheritance of the throne in the Pereyaslav Principality. Yuri and Andrei Vladimirovich expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich, who had been placed there by Yaropolk, from Pereyaslavl. Also, the situation in the country was complicated by the increasingly frequent raids of the Polovtsians, who, together with the allied Chernigovites, plundered the outskirts of Kyiv. Yaropolk's indecisive policy led to military defeat in the battle on the Supoya River with the troops of Vsevolod Olgovich. The cities of Kursk and Posemye were also lost during the reign of Yaropolk. This development of events further weakened his authority, which the Novgorodians took advantage of, announcing their secession in 1136. The result of Yaropolk's reign was the virtual collapse of the Old Russian state. Formally, only the Principality of Rostov-Suzdal retained its subordination to Kyiv.

Vyacheslav (1139, 1150, 1151-1154)

At the end of the 9th century AD. e. scattered tribes of the Eastern Slavs unite into a powerful union, which will later be called Kievan Rus. The ancient state covered vast territories of central and southern Europe, uniting completely culturally different peoples.

Name

The question of the history of the emergence of Russian statehood has been causing a lot of disagreement among historians and archaeologists for decades. For a very long time, the manuscript “The Tale of Bygone Years,” one of the main documented sources of information about this period, was considered a falsification, and therefore the data on when and how Kievan Rus appeared was questioned. The formation of a single center among the Eastern Slavs presumably dates back to the eleventh century.

The state of the Russians received its familiar name to us only in the twentieth century, when the textbook studies of Soviet scientists were published. They clarified that this concept does not include a separate region of modern Ukraine, but the entire Rurikovich empire, located over a vast territory. The Old Russian state is called conventionally, for a more convenient distinction between the periods before and after the Mongol invasion.

Prerequisites for the emergence of statehood

In the early Middle Ages, throughout almost the entire territory of Europe, there was a tendency to unite disparate tribes and principalities. This was associated with the conquests of some king or knight, as well as with the creation of alliances of wealthy families. The prerequisites for the formation of Kievan Rus were different and had their own specifics.

By the end of IX, several large tribes, such as the Krivichi, Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichs, Vyatichi, Northerners, and Radimichi, gradually united into one principality. The main reasons for this process were the following factors:

All alliances rallied to confront common enemies - the steppe nomads, who often carried out devastating raids on cities and villages.
These tribes were also united by a common geographical location; they all lived near the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
The first Kyiv princes known to us - Askold, Dir, and later Oleg, Vladimir and Yaroslav made campaigns of conquest in the North and South-East of Europe in order to establish their rule and impose tribute on the local population.

Thus, the formation of Kievan Rus gradually took place. It is difficult to speak briefly about this period; many events and bloody battles preceded the final consolidation of power in one center, under the leadership of the all-powerful prince. From the very beginning, the Russian state developed as a multi-ethnic state; peoples differed in terms of beliefs, way of life and culture.

"Norman" and "anti-Norman" theory

In historiography, the question of who and how created the state called Kievan Rus has not yet been finally resolved. For many decades, the formation of a single center among the Slavs was associated with the arrival of leaders from outside the lands - the Varangians or Normans, whom the local residents themselves called upon.

The theory has many shortcomings, the main reliable source of its confirmation is the mention of a certain legend of the chroniclers of the “Tale of Bygone Years” about the arrival of princes from the Varangians and their establishment of statehood; any archaeological or historical evidence still does not exist. This interpretation was adhered to by German scientists G. Miller and I. Bayer.

The theory of the formation of Kievan Rus by foreign princes was challenged by M. Lomonosov; he and his followers believed that statehood in this territory arose through the gradual establishment of the power of one center over others, and was not introduced from the outside. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus, and this issue has long been politicized and used as a lever of pressure on the perception of Russian history.

The first princes

Whatever disagreements there may be regarding the issue of the origin of statehood, official history speaks of the arrival of three brothers to the Slavic lands - Sinius, Truvor and Rurik. The first two soon died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the then large cities of Ladoga, Izborsk and Beloozero. After his death, his son Igor, due to his early age, was unable to take over control, so Prince Oleg became regent for the heir.

It is with his name that the formation of the eastern state of Kievan Rus is associated; at the end of the ninth century, he made a campaign against the capital city and declared these lands “the cradle of the Russian land.” Oleg proved himself not only as a strong leader and a great conqueror, but also as a good manager. In each city he created a special system of subordination, legal proceedings and rules for collecting taxes.

Several destructive campaigns against Greek lands carried out by Oleg and his predecessor Igor helped strengthen the authority of Rus' as a strong and independent state, and also led to the establishment of wider and more profitable trade with Byzantium.

Prince Vladimir

Igor's son Svyatoslav continued his campaigns of conquest into remote territories, annexed the Crimea and the Taman Peninsula to his possessions, and returned cities previously conquered by the Khazars. However, it was very difficult to manage such economically and culturally different territories from Kyiv. Therefore, Svyatoslav carried out an important administrative reform, placing his sons in charge of all major cities.

The formation and development of Kievan Rus was successfully continued by his illegitimate son Vladimir, this man became an outstanding figure in Russian history, it was during his reign that Russian statehood was finally formed, and a new religion was adopted - Christianity. He continued to consolidate all the lands under his control, removing individual rulers and appointing his sons as princes.

The rise of the state

Vladimir is often called the first Russian reformer; during his reign, he created a clear system of administrative division and subordination, and also established a unified rule for collecting taxes. In addition, he reorganized judicial law, now the law was administered on his behalf by governors in each region. During the first period of his reign, Vladimir devoted a lot of effort to fighting the raids of steppe nomads and strengthening the country’s borders.

It was during his reign that Kievan Rus was finally formed. The formation of a new state is impossible without establishing a single religion and worldview among the people, so Vladimir, being a smart strategist, decides to convert to Orthodoxy. Thanks to the rapprochement with the strong and enlightened Byzantium, the state very soon became the cultural center of Europe. Thanks to the Christian faith, the authority of the head of the country is strengthened, schools are opened, monasteries are built and books are published.

Civil wars, collapse

Initially, the system of government in Rus' was formed on the basis of tribal traditions of inheritance - from father to son. Under Vladimir, and then Yaroslav, this custom played a key role in uniting disparate lands; the prince appointed his sons as governors in different cities, thereby maintaining a unified government. But already in the 17th century, the grandchildren of Vladimir Monomakh were mired in internecine wars among themselves.

The centralized state, created with such diligence over the course of two hundred years, soon fell apart into many appanage principalities. The absence of a strong leader and agreement between the children of Mstislav Vladimirovich led to the fact that the once powerful country found itself completely unprotected against the forces of Batu’s crushing hordes.

Way of life

By the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, there were about three hundred cities in Rus', although the majority of the population lived in rural areas, where they farmed the land and raised livestock. The formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs of Kievan Rus contributed to the massive construction and strengthening of settlements; part of the taxes went both to the creation of infrastructure and to the construction of powerful defensive systems. To establish Christianity among the population, churches and monasteries were built in every city.

The class division in Kievan Rus developed over a long period of time. One of the first to stand out was a group of leaders; it usually consisted of representatives of a separate family; the social inequality between the leaders and the rest of the population was striking. Gradually, the future feudal nobility is formed from the princely squad. Despite the active slave trade with Byzantium and other eastern countries, there were not many slaves in Ancient Rus'. Among the subordinate people, historians distinguish smerds, who obey the will of the prince, and slaves, who have practically no rights.

Economy

The formation of the monetary system in Ancient Rus' occurred in the first half of the 9th century and was associated with the beginning of active trade with large states of Europe and the East. For a long time, the country used coins minted in the centers of the Caliphate or in Western Europe; the Slavic princes had neither the experience nor the necessary raw materials to make their own banknotes.

The formation of the state of Kievan Rus became possible largely thanks to the establishment of economic ties with Germany, Byzantium, and Poland. Russian princes always prioritized protecting the interests of merchants abroad. Traditional trade goods in Rus' were furs, honey, wax, flax, silver, jewelry, castles, weapons and much more. The message took place along the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” when ships ascended the Dnieper River to the Black Sea, as well as along the Volga route through Ladoga to the Caspian Sea.

Meaning

Social and cultural processes that took place during the formation and heyday of Kievan Rus became the basis for the formation of Russian nationality. With the adoption of Christianity, the country forever changed its appearance; in subsequent centuries, Orthodoxy will become a unifying factor for all peoples living in this territory, despite the fact that the pagan customs and rituals of our ancestors still remain in the culture and way of life.

Folklore, for which Kievan Rus was famous, had a huge influence on Russian literature and people’s worldview. The formation of a single center contributed to the emergence of common legends and fairy tales glorifying the great princes and their exploits.

With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', the widespread construction of monumental stone structures began. Some architectural monuments have survived to this day, for example, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which dates back to the 9th century. Of no less historical value are examples of paintings by ancient masters that remained in the form of frescoes and mosaics in Orthodox temples and churches.

1. At the end of the 9th century. the process of formation of a single Old Russian state took place. It consisted of two stages:

- the calling to reign in 862 by the inhabitants of Novgorod of the Varangians, led by Rurik and his squad, the establishment of the power of the Rurikovichs over Novgorod;

- the forced unification by the Varangian-Novgorod squad of East Slavic tribes settled along the Dnieper into a single state - Kievan Rus.

At the first stage, according to the generally accepted legend:

ancient Russian tribes, despite the beginnings of statehood, lived separately;
Enmity was common both within the tribe and between tribes;
in 862, the residents of Novgorod turned to the Varangians (Swedes) with a request to take power in the city and restore order;
at the request of the Novgorodians, three brothers arrived from Scandinavia - Rurik, Truvor and Sineus, together with their squad;

Rurik became the Prince of Novgorod and is considered the founder of the princely Rurik dynasty, which ruled Russia for more than 700 years (until 1598).

Having established themselves in power in Novgorod and mixed with the local population, the Rurikovichs and the Novgorod-Varangian squad began to unite the neighboring East Slavic tribes under their rule:

after the death of Rurik in 879, Rurik’s young son Igor (Ingvar) was proclaimed the new prince, and the military leader Prince Oleg became the de facto ruler;
Prince Oleg at the end of the 9th century. made campaigns against neighboring tribes and subjugated them to his will;
in 882, Kyiv was captured by Prince Oleg, the local Polyana princes Askold and Dir were killed;
The capital of the new state was moved to Kyiv, which was called “Kievan Rus”.

The unification of Kyiv and Novgorod in 882 under the rule of one prince (Oleg) is considered the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state.

2. In connection with the formation of Kievan Rus, there are two common theories:

Norman, according to which the Varangians (Normans) brought the state to the Slavic tribes;
ancient Slavic, which denies the role of the Varangians and claims that the state existed before their arrival, but information in history has not been preserved; it is also hypothesized that Rurik was a Slav and not a Varangian.

Accurate archival evidence of this or that theory has not been preserved. Both points of view have their supporters and opponents. There are two theories about the origin of the term “Rus”:

“southern theory”, according to which the name came from the Ros River near Kiev;
“Northern theory”, according to which the name “Rus” was brought by the Varangians. A number of Scandinavian tribes, especially their elite - military leaders, managers, called themselves "Rus". In the Scandinavian countries there are many cities, rivers, names derived from the root “Rus” (Rosenborg, Rus, Russa, etc.). Accordingly, Kievan Rus, according to this theory, is translated as the state of the Varangians (“Rus”) with its center in Kiev.

Also controversial is the question of the existence of a single ancient Russian people and the centralized nature of the state of Kievan Rus. Most sources, especially foreign ones (Italian, Arabic), prove that even under the rule of the Rurikovichs, Kievan Rus, until its collapse, remained a union of different Slavic tribes. Boyar-aristocratic Kiev, culturally close to Byzantium and nomads, was very different from the trading democratic republic of Novgorod, which gravitated towards the northern European cities of the Hanseatic Trade Union, and the life and way of life of the Tiverts living at the mouth of the Danube was very different from the life of Ryazan and the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

Despite this, in the 900s. (X century) there is a process of spreading the power of the Rurikovichs and strengthening the Old Russian state they created. It is associated with the names of the first ancient Russian princes:

Oleg;
Igor Rurikovich;
Olga;
Svyatoslav Igorevich.

3. In 907, the squad of Kievan Rus, led by Prince Oleg, made the first major foreign campaign of conquest and captured the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (Constantinople). After this, Byzantium, one of the largest empires of that time, paid tribute to Kievan Rus.

4. In 912, Prince Oleg died (according to legend, from the bite of a snake hidden in the skull of Oleg’s horse).

His heir was Rurik's son Igor. Under Igor, the tribes were finally united around Kyiv and forced to pay tribute. In 945, during the collection of tribute, Prince Igor was killed by the Drevlyans, who with this step protested against the increase in the amount of tribute.

Princess Olga, Igor's wife, who reigned from 945 to 964, continued his policy. Olga began her reign with a campaign against the Drevlyans, burned many Drevlyan settlements, suppressed their protests and avenged the death of her husband. Olga was the first of the princes to convert to Christianity. The process of Christianization of the ancient Russian elite began, while the majority of the population remained pagans.

5. The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav, spent most of his time on campaigns of conquest, in which he showed very great strength and courage. Svyatoslav always declared war in advance (“I’m going to fight you”) and fought with the Pechenegs and the Byzantines. In 969 - 971 Svyatoslav fought on the territory of Bulgaria and settled at the mouth of the Danube. In 972, during his return from a campaign in Kyiv, Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs.

6. By the end of the 10th century. the process of formation of the Old Russian state, which lasted about 100 years (from Rurik to Vladimir Svyatoslavovich), was basically completed. Its main results can be highlighted:

under the rule of Kyiv (Kievan Rus) all the main ancient Russian tribes were united, which paid tribute to Kyiv;
at the head of the state was the prince, who was no longer only a military leader, but also a political leader; the prince and the squad (army) defended Rus' from external threats (mainly nomads) and suppressed internal strife;
from the prince's wealthy warriors, the formation of an independent political and economic elite began - the boyars;
the Christianization of the ancient Russian elite began;
Rus' began to seek recognition of other countries, primarily Byzantium.