The Punic Wars were the names of three military conflicts between the mighty Roman Empire and the first colonial empire of ancient times. Carthage, the Punic Wars, in fact, led to the decline and destruction. The first war began in 264 BC, when a conflict arose between the Romans and the Carthaginians over the island of Sicily. This name was given to them by the Romans themselves - they called the Carthaginians Punians. The conflict was unleashed when Syracusan mercenaries rebelled against the Greeks and captured the city of Messana. They asked for help at the same time from Rome and Carthage. As a result, the armies of both powers clashed near Messana, which started the conflict. The defeat of the Carthaginians was predetermined when the Greek Syracuse took the side of Rome. However, at first the Carthaginians managed to achieve superiority at sea, but already in 255 Carthage was besieged. The Romans were destroyed, but the success of the Carthaginians in Sicily was in doubt. In 241, after the defeat in the naval battle of the Aegates, the Carthaginians left Sicily.
A new war began in 219 BC. Then Hannibal Barca, starting the war with the capture of Saguntum in Spain, transferred his troops through the Alps to the northern borders of Italy. The attack was sudden, and Hannibal defeated the Roman troops in several battles, enlisting the support of the Gauls. In 217, the army of Gaius Flaminius was destroyed at the Battle of Trasimene, and in 216, at the Battle of Cannae, Hannibal repeated his success. However, in 212 the Romans seized the initiative. Hannibal's brothers attempted to bring him reinforcements, but were destroyed before they reached their destination. In 204, the army of Cornelius Scipio Africanus crossed the sea directly to Carthage. In the Battle of Zama, Hannibal himself was defeated. In 201, peace came, but the power of Carthage was undermined. All its colonies were transferred to Rome, and although the Carthaginians managed to keep the capital, their fate was predetermined - Carthage could not survive the Punic Wars.
In 149, the Romans decided to finish off the Carthaginians, and besieged their capital city. The city held out for three years, but in 146 Aemilian launched an assault on the city. Having made their way through the outer fortifications, the Romans fought for the city for almost a week, which finally fell after the fall of the palace of Dido - Byrsus. Most of the inhabitants were destroyed, the rest fell into slavery. The city was completely destroyed.
Expansion of Roman rule to the neighboring islands of Italy and the region of the Po River
First Punic War (264 - 241)
Treaty of Rome with the Mamertines and the beginning of the First Punic War
Important were the hours when the Roman Senate deliberated about the request of the Mamertines, who were seeking Rome's help (p. 407). It was tempting to take possession of rich, fertile Sicily, and there was no danger of meeting firm resistance from the Sicilian Greeks, who quarreled among themselves; but there were important considerations that prevented the Romans from interfering in Sicilian affairs, from going beyond the natural boundaries of the state. Honest citizens, whose conscience had not died out in their breasts, found it shameful that Rome, which had just punished a band of robbers who had taken possession of Rhegium, shortly before, took upon itself the protection of their fellow tribesmen, the same robbers, and saved them from the just vengeance of Hiero; cautious statesmen were afraid to leave the policy of the fathers, which glorified Rome, and start a war overseas, which the ancestors did not do. It seemed to them that the outcome of this war was not correct, because in it the victory would be decided not by battles on a dry route, but by sea battles. It was clear to everyone, even the most short-sighted people, that by sending their troops to Sicily, the Romans would have to fight against Carthage, whose fleets rule the sea; At that time, the Romans had at their disposal only the ships of the conquered Greek cities of southern Italy, small and weak in comparison with the huge naval forces of Carthage. It was also unpleasant to break friendship with the state with which the Romans entered into an alliance during the war with Pyrrhus. These and similar considerations caused the Roman senate to reject the request of the Mamertines; but the consuls Appius Claudius and Mark Fulvius, who wanted war, transferred the matter to the decision of the popular assembly. The people did not know how powerful Carthage was, did not know how dangerous, difficult, how long the war would be, and decided to take under the protection of Rome the Mamertines, who have the right to this due to their Italian origin, and send them the help they ask for. This relieved the senate of responsibility for the war, and it now concluded a treaty with the Mamertines without hesitation. “It was one of those moments,” says Mommsen, “when calculation disappears, and the people, believing in their own happiness, bravely accept the hand that extends out of the darkness of the future, so that it leads them to no one knows where.” Political morality was sacrificed to profit.
First Punic War. Map
Both in Rome and in Carthage they wanted to refrain from the first decisive step towards a military clash. The Carthaginians wanted to deprive the Roman Senate of any reason for war, so that he could not make them guilty of attacking the Romans, instigators of the war, as he wanted to do. They gave full satisfaction to the complaints of the Roman embassy, who came to Carthage with accusations against the head of the Carthaginian fleet, who, according to the Romans, behaved ambiguously during the Tarentine war; so that there would be no excuse for the Romans to intervene in Hieron's war with the Mamertines, Hanno, who commanded the Carthaginian troops in the Messan citadel and the fleet guarding the strait, persuaded the belligerents to reconcile. Hiero raised the siege of Messana, and Rome had no one to defend the Mamertines, who themselves sent to say that they no longer needed Roman help. The ambassadors conveyed this to Gaius Claudius, a Roman general who had come with an advance detachment to Rhegium. He understood that this was done at the suggestion of the Carthaginians, he was sure that not all Mamertines approved of the embassy and that many of them wanted war, so he began to prepare for the crossing. Hanno wanted to prevent her, began to seize the Roman ships, but returned them to the "friends of Carthage." Claudius was not afraid of his intention to oppose the crossing, his oath that he would not allow the Romans to wash their hands in the sea. Having explored the course of the sea in the strait, Claudius put the army on ships and sailed to the Messan harbor. Having landed his army, he immediately convened a popular assembly of the Mamertines; Hanno was invited to be present in this meeting and appeared there to take away from Claudius any reason for military action. After long futile negotiations, the Romans captured and arrested Hanno. He was so cowardly that he bought his release by surrendering the citadel to the Romans. He led the garrison out of it; Claudius occupied it with his army. The Carthaginians crucified Hanno on the cross, killed all the Italians who were in their service, and entered into an alliance with Hieron; their united troops and him went to take Messana from the Romans, and their fleet tried to prevent the crossing of the consul Appius Claudius Caudex, who had come to Rhegium with the main forces of the army. They did not succeed: Appius Claudius swam across the strait on a dark night, connected with the Messan detachment, attacked the enemies with all their might, who stood apart, and defeated both of their troops one by one. Their damage was so great that they retreated from Messana. Roman detachments approached the very Syracuse and carried out reconnaissance. The Syracusans reluctantly united with the Carthaginians, their ancient enemies, from whom they suffered so much in former times, but successfully resisted the Romans, so that Appius Claudius had to withdraw to Messana when winter came. In the following year, both Roman consuls crossed over to Sicily with large forces; one of them, Mark Valery Maximus, won several victories over the Syracusans and the Carthaginians; Hieron, yielding to the desire of the people, made peace and an alliance with the Romans. - Valery Maxim received the title of Messalla (“Messanian”) for his victories.
Union of Syracuse with Rome and the struggle in Sicily
The alliance with the Romans gave Hieron a quiet reign, and Syracuse, which had endured so many disasters for so long, a rather long-term prosperity. Therefore, the memory of Hiero remained sacred to the Syracusans. The Romans constantly showed respect to the king, who, by his alliance with them, paved the way for them to conquer Sicily, helped them during the war with food supplies, provided other services, remained unfailingly faithful to them even in their failures. Other cities followed the example of Syracuse: they suffered so much from the cruelty of the Carthaginians that they happily went over to the side of the Romans. Even Segesta (Egesta), who was constantly in alliance with the Carthaginians, now entered into an alliance with the Romans. 67 cities concluded agreements with them and, relying on Messana and Syracuse, they ruled over everything east coast Sicily, could without difficulty and danger transport their troops to this island and feed them there. The victory won by Valery at Messana was, it seems, not particularly important, but he depicted it on one of the walls of the senate.
The Carthaginians saw themselves in the need to increase their forces in Sicily, so as not to be completely driven out from there. In the third year of the war, Hannibal occupied the city of Akragant (Agrigent) with a large army of various tribes, part of which was restored from ruins, and its huge walls gave it strong protection. The Romans laid siege to Agrigentum; but another Carthaginian commander, Hanno, dominated his fleet at sea and did not let the supply of supplies to the Romans. The siege lasted 5 months. The summer heats produced an epidemic fever in the Roman camp, from which many soldiers died; then the damp, cold autumn days began; the transport of provisions became more and more difficult; the Romans, like the besieged, suffered greatly from hunger. The Carthaginians decided to act offensively. Hanno landed his troops at Heraclea and gave the Romans a number of battles, while Hannibal made a strong sortie. Both sides fought very bravely. The Carthaginians were more numerous, their Numidian cavalry was better than the Roman; but the Roman infantry finally prevailed after a fierce battle. In the evening the legions were so tired that they could not pursue the enemy; At night, the Carthaginians boarded ships and sailed away. The next day, the Romans took Agrigentum, plundered it and sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery. The capture of this strong fortress gave the Romans a decisive advantage in Sicily; almost all the cities far from the sea surrendered to them. But the more stubbornly Hamilcar, who took the place of Hanno as commander-in-chief of the fleet and troops, defended the seaside fortresses, abundantly supplied with food.
Construction of the Roman fleet
To defeat the Carthaginians, it was necessary to defeat them at sea. Victories on land remained useless while the Carthaginian fleet dominated the sea, seized warships and merchant ships of the Greek allies of Rome, made landings in Italy, took and plundered seaside cities that had no troops, and destroyed the maritime trade of Italy and Sicily. The Romans had only small ships, powerless against the huge Carthaginian ships, and with all their victories on land, the benefit of the war remained on the side of the Carthaginians; therefore, the senate decided to build ships on the model of the Carthaginian quinquereme (a warship with five rows of rowers) that crashed near the Bruttian coast. The work was carried out so energetically that after 60 days the Romans had a fleet of 130 ships ready to sail. Etruscan and Greek port cities probably helped equip them. But these were ships, heavy on the move, badly obeying the helm; and the crews of the ships, made up of Italian allies and Roman citizens of the lower classes, were inexperienced in maritime affairs; therefore, the fast Carthaginian ships, driven by skillful sailors, had a great advantage over the Roman ones and could easily pierce them with the iron rams of their bows. To take away their advantage from the Carthaginian ships, the Romans made an invention that turned a naval battle into something similar to a land battle. On the front of the ship they made a boarding bridge; fastened with a strong screw to a strong mast, it could be quickly lowered forward and on both sides; falling on an enemy ship, he pierced his tree with a sharp hook and held it. It was equipped with a railing, and the Roman soldiers rushed along it, two in a row, onto an enemy ship, on the deck of which hand-to-hand combat began; in it, Roman soldiers easily defeated the Carthaginian mercenaries.
Battle of Mily
But the beginning of hostilities at sea was unsuccessful for the Romans. Consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio with part of the new fleet sailed to take possession of the island of Lipara; the Carthaginians ambushed him and took him prisoner with the whole squadron. But another consul, Gaius Duilius, made amends for this failure of his comrade. He, with the main part of the fleet, unexpectedly attacked the Carthaginian ships cruising off the Italian coast, captured many of them, and then completely defeated Hannibal's fleet near Mil in the northeast of Messana. The boarding bridge proved to be very useful to the Romans. They sank, or took almost a whole half of the enemy fleet, about 50 large ships, including the ship of Hannibal himself, which had seven rows of rowers and was taken from Pyrrhus by the Carthaginians.
Best Historian ancient rome, Theodor Mommsen, tells of this glorious battle of the First Punic War:
“The Carthaginian fleet, sailing from Panormus under the command of Hannibal, met near Cape Mil, northwest of Messana, with the Roman fleet, which had to endure the first serious test there. The Carthaginian fleet, believing to find easy prey in the slow and clumsy Roman ships, rushed at them in loose formation, but the newly invented boarding bridges completely fulfilled their purpose. The Roman ships clung to the enemy, as these latter approached them one by one and took them by storm; they could not be approached either from the front or from the side, because the formidable bridge immediately lowered onto the enemy deck. When the battle was over, it turned out that about 50 Carthaginian ships, which accounted for almost half of the enemy fleet, were sunk or taken by the Romans, and among the latter was the admiral's ship Hannibal, once owned by King Pyrrhus. The success was enormous, but even more important was the moral impression he made. Rome suddenly became a maritime power; now he already had sufficient means to bring with energy to the outcome of the [First Punic] war, which threatened to drag on for an infinitely long time and destroy Italian trade.
The Romans commemorated this first victory at sea with a column of Parian marble, decorated with figures of the prows (rostra) of warships and therefore called Columna rostrata. A very ancient reproduction of this column has survived to this day. The Romans awarded the winner with honors. He was given the right to have a torch-bearer and flutist with him when he walked through the city at night. But Duilia's triumph and proud sense of victory were the only results of the battle he had won. Hamilcar successfully defended Panorm and the new sea fortress of Drepan, to which he transferred the inhabitants of Eryx. The Romans had no success; some cities of Sicily entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians; the attempts of the Romans to drive the Carthaginians out of Corsica and Sardinia, to seize their marinas and trading posts on these islands were unsuccessful, although the tombstone that survived in the ancestral tomb of the Scipios calls the consul Cornelius Scipio the conqueror of Corsica, the conqueror of the city of Aleria. From the meager information about those years of the war, we see that there were many bold campaigns, stubborn battles, attacks, sorties, that the war was fierce; but all its horrors did not lead to anything decisive and only increased the mutual hatred of the opponents. A second great naval battle took place off Tyndara Cape. It was indecisive. Both sides claimed victory in it.
War in Africa and the defeat of Regulus at Tunes
The Romans decided to give the war a new turn, to transfer it, following the example of Agathocles, to Africa and crush the forces of Carthage under its walls. In the spring of the eighth year of the war, the Roman fleet, consisting of 330 warships, each of which had 300 crew members, sailed through the Strait of Messana to the southern coast of Sicily; there a selected Roman army, consisting of 40,000 people, boarded ships, and the fleet went to the coast of Libya. The Carthaginians sent a fleet against him, consisting of 350 quinqueremes, the crews of which were more numerous than the Romans. A terrible battle took place near Eknom, such as had not been fought at sea in ancient times. The Roman fleet, which was also greatly benefited by the boarding bridges that frightened the Carthaginians, broke the enemy line and approached the African coast. The army, commanded by the consuls Mark Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius Vulson, landed at Clupeia without meeting resistance, and settled down in a fortified camp under the cover of a hill, pulling the ships ashore. Successful campaigns in the fertile region inspired the Romans with such confidence in victory that the senate recalled the consul Manlius to Italy with most of the fleet; he brought 20,000 prisoners; they were sold in Rome into slavery. Regulus, who remained with 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry and with 40 ships, hoped to defeat the Carthaginians. There is a story showing how strongly the imagination of the Romans was excited by this campaign through an unknown country: they say that a huge snake stopped the army of Regulus and that the Romans killed it by throwing huge ballista stones. Happiness remained true to Regulus for a long time. Covered by hills and forests that interfered with the action of the Carthaginian elephants and cavalry, he walked along the coast, conquering and devastating everything on the way; native tribes and cities, oppressed by the Carthaginians, helped him, wanting to free themselves from the heavy yoke; he set up a fortified camp at the harbor of Tunes and approached the gates of Carthage, which, as he informed the senate, were closed by horror. The Carthaginians asked for peace. He demanded that they renounce Sicily and Sardinia and enter into an alliance with the Romans on such terms that they subordinated them to Rome; one of the conditions was that they could wage war at sea only with the permission of the Romans. They decided to desperately defend themselves, reinforced their troops with the Numidian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and appointed the commander-in-chief of the skilled leader of the mercenaries, the Spartan Xanthippus. He introduced strict discipline, diligently engaged in the training of soldiers, inspired them with courage, and, after the onset of spring, led an army against the Romans together with Hamilcar Barca. They were in a disadvantageous position on the vast lowlands near Tunes. Xanthippus gave them battle; the Roman infantry fought bravely, but was finally overwhelmed by the numerous enemy cavalry and war elephants. The defeat was complete; from a large, beautiful army, only 2,000 people managed to leave for Klupeya, the rest - 30,000 heavily armed soldiers - lay down on the battlefield; 500, including Regulus himself, were taken prisoner.
The news of this defeat made a tremendous impression in Rome. The entire fleet was immediately sent to the African coast and saved the garrison of Klupei, pressed by the Carthaginians; the Romans were not so discouraged as to leave Clupeia; they won a brilliant victory at sea off Cape Germeus; it is said that the Carthaginians lost more than a hundred warships in it; but the Romans still abandoned the idea of a war in Africa. The Carthaginians now severely punished the cities and the native tribes who had betrayed them, took an indemnity of 1000 talents of silver and 20,000 heads of cattle, crucified the city rulers and the Numidian ancestors; the number of those crucified is said to have reached 3,000. - Xanthippus and his Lacedaemonians experienced the ingratitude of the Carthaginians; perhaps they, boasting that they had saved Carthage, began to behave arrogantly; be that as it may, the Carthaginians let them go without paying them a salary; there is a legend that the Carthaginians treacherously killed Xanthippus at sea; this story is hardly fair; but we do not know anything about the further fate of Xanthippus.
Continuation of the First Punic War at the turn of the 250-240s
After the defeat at Tunes, the Romans experienced new misfortunes. Their beautiful fleet, consisting of 330 ships, was wrecked off the southern coast of Sicily, due to the recklessness of the Roman commanders, who did not heed the warnings of experienced helmsmen: the ships were struck by storms on the rocks, and almost half of the fleet died; the entire coast was covered with shipwrecks and corpses. The following year, the consuls, having taken the city of Panormus on the northern coast of Sicily, wanted to again transfer the war to Africa, but lost many ships crashed on the underwater rocks of Little Sirte. and on the way back we lost 150 ships from the storm, mostly new ones; the recklessness of the chiefs was again to blame for this disaster. The Romans were discouraged, they decided not to keep more than 60 ships at sea and limit the actions of the fleet to the defense of the coast. And in the land war they avoided big battles, now fearing the elephants, with which the victory of the Carthaginians at Tunes was decided. Acting in separate detachments, the Romans conquered the entire northern coast of Sicily and took possession of the island of Lipara. After that, they dared to give a big battle, and the consul Lucius Caecilius Metellus won a brilliant victory over Hasdrubal under the walls of Panormus, which, after the capture of Agrigentum by the Romans, became the main stronghold of the actions of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily. Hasdrubal had many elephants; 120 of these animals, terrible to the Romans, were taken prisoner; they were carried through the city at the triumph of Metellus and then killed at games in the circus. The Romans took heart and decided to resume the war at sea; they equipped a fleet of 200 ships, took Eriks, laid siege to the strong Carthaginian fortresses of Lilibey and Drepan. To save these cities, the Carthaginians offered peace on terms favorable to the Romans; but the senate demanded that they completely withdraw from Sicily; The Carthaginians did not agree to this. Connected with the peace negotiations is the legend of the death of the former consul Atilius Regulus, who was held captive by the Carthaginians, and this legend is retold in one of Horace's patriotic odes.
Death of Regulus at Carthage
According to Roman tradition, the Carthaginians, sending ambassadors to Rome with proposals for peace and, in case of failure of negotiations on it, with a proposal to exchange prisoners, sent Regulus along with these ambassadors, taking an oath from him that if the Romans did not agree to exchange prisoners, then he will return to Carthage. He advised the Senate not to put up and not agree to the exchange of prisoners, arguing that these proposals were unprofitable for Rome, rejected all requests from fellow citizens and relatives who urged him to stay in Rome and, true to his word, returned to Carthage, where he was put to a painful death. This story is most likely a fiction of a later time, generated by hatred of the Carthaginians and liked by the rhetoricians, to whom it provided an excellent subject for depicting in bright colors the cruelty of the Carthaginians and the fidelity of the ancient Romans to this promise. We know for sure about the death of Regulus only that he died in Carthage. The continuation of the legend of the painful death of Regulus is the story of Diodorus, which he probably borrowed from Filin, a biased historian, and also unreliable: according to this story, the Atilius family, having heard that the Carthaginians treated Regulus cruelly, began to avenge him on two noble Carthaginians, Bostar and Hamilcar, who lived in Rome as captives or hostages. Atilii, and especially the wife of Regula, tormented these Carthaginians; the slaves, pitying them, reported this inhumanity to the people's tribunes, and the tribunes freed the unfortunate from torment.
The siege of Lilybaeum and the defeat of the Romans at Drepana
The siege of Lilybaeum by the Romans is remarkable in that here for the first time they applied to business the rules of the art of siege, which they had learned from the Greeks. They drew a line of strong fortifications on a dry route from sea to sea, and their fleet blocked the harbor and blocked the entrance to it; but, in spite of the strict blockade, the Carthaginian sailors, who were well acquainted with the area and very skillful, managed to bring food, detachments of troops into the city and maintain relations between the besieged fortress and Drepan. The Romans battered the walls with battering rams and other siege engines, but the resourceful Himilcon successfully countered all their efforts. A night fire destroyed the siege engines of the Romans; the caution and insight of Himilcon upset the hope of the Romans that the Greek mercenaries they had bribed would let them into the fortress; they refused to continue the attacks and limited themselves to a blockade, hoping to force the Carthaginians to surrender the fortress by starvation; but they themselves suffered from the blockade almost as much as the besieged. The new consul Appius Claudius, son of Claudius the Blind, having a strong fleet, decided to lift the siege from Lilybae and sail to Drepana at night, hoping to surprise and destroy the Carthaginian fleet stationed there. Divination was unfavorable; the hens did not want to peck (p. 22); he ordered to throw the cage with them into the sea, saying: "if they do not want to eat, then let them get drunk." Contrary to a bad omen, he entered the battle, but it was disastrous for the Romans. Adherbal, the head of the Carthaginian fleet, managed to take his ships out to the open sea and began to push the Romans sailing along the coast; having no room to maneuver, they were surrounded by the Carthaginians and were completely defeated. Adgerbal captured or sank 93 Roman ships; with the remaining 30 ships, the consul sailed to Lilibey; he now had no means of continuing the blockade from the sea. To top it off, the transport ships, on which another consul, Lucius Junius Pullus, brought food from Syracuse to the army besieging Lilybae, crashed on the rocks of the dangerous southern coast between Gela and Camarina. Pull's indiscretion was to blame for this. The guilty consuls, deprived by the senate of command over the military forces, both soon after died, either by going into exile, or by taking their own life, in order to avoid the punishment that awaited them. There is a story that sister Appia, when three years later the crowd interfered with her passage, said that it would be good if her brother rose again and lost another battle: then it would not be so crowded on the Roman streets.
Decline in Rome
Thus, in the sixteenth year of the [First Punic] War, the Romans were further from the goal than at the beginning of it; they suffered huge losses troops, ships; all their means were exhausted; the stoppage of maritime trade ruined their allies. [The human losses of Rome in the First Punic War were so great that in only five years 252-247 the number of taxpaying citizens decreased by one sixth - approx. author of the site "Russian Historical Library"] If the Carthaginians then energetically took advantage of the circumstances favorable to themselves and did not spare the sacrifices for victory, then, no doubt, they would have retained dominion at sea and in Sicily. There was a great depression in Rome; only cruisers fought at sea; on land, the Roman troops were limited to defensive actions, and again, as after the defeat at Tunes, they avoided big battles, acting only in small detachments. But the Carthaginians either were exhausted, or thought that the danger had passed and were engaged in trade more than war; be that as it may, but they did not undertake anything important. Thus the war dragged on languidly for five or six years without any remarkable action on either side.
Hamilcar Barka
It flared up with renewed vigor when Hamilcar became the Carthaginian commander-in-chief, who for his courage was called Barca, "lightning." He was then about 30 years old. In the hope of a powerful democratic party, of which he was the head, he began to act very decisively, restored discipline in the army by severely punishing the rebellious mercenaries and organized guerrilla war; he took Mount Eryx from the Romans with a fortress built on it and, despite the desperate defense of the Celtic mercenaries, took the temple of Aphrodite (i.e. Ashera) standing on the top of the rock; this mountain fortress became a stronghold for his campaigns; from Drepan food supplies were delivered to Eriks; Hamilcar settled there, made raids from there; from the cliff of Irkta near Panormus, he followed all the movements of the Romans; his detachments went throughout the western part of Sicily; he made landings on the coast of southern Italy. The Romans blockaded Eryx, but were unable to stop the expeditions of Hamilcar. He could successfully operate in this way only as long as he maintained free communications with Drepan and until the Roman fleet cut off the supply of food to him.
Battle of the Aegates
In order not to lose any benefit from their former efforts, the Romans had to again equip a fleet for themselves. Its construction serves as a brilliant testimony to the patriotism and energy of the Roman citizens. The state invited them to donate, declaring that it would pay them only if they won; and the citizens voluntarily donated so much money that 200 ships were built. With a crew of 60,000 rowers and sailors, the fleet sailed to the coast of Sicily; it was commanded by the consul Gaius Lutatius Catullus. The Carthaginian cruisers hid at his approach: not meeting the enemy, he blocked Irkta and Drepan from the sea and cut off the supply of food to these fortresses. The Carthaginians gathered all their warships, and the next spring sent transport ships with provisions under the escort of this fleet to the besieged fortresses, the garrisons of which were already suffering greatly from hunger. The Romans met the Carthaginian fleet at the island of Aeguse [one of the Aegates] and forced it into battle. The Roman quinqueremes, who had numerous and good rowers, were stronger than the Carthaginian ships, sank or captured them and transport ships. The consul was wounded in the battle, the praetor Publius Valerius Falton, who took command of the fleet, returned victoriously to the Lilybeian harbor, leading 70 captured ships with him. The Carthaginians, according to their fierce rule, crucified the defeated commander of the fleet on the cross, but they could no longer continue the war and gave Hamilcar unlimited authority to make peace with the Romans. Their treasury was exhausted; the loan they made in Alexandria (p. 304) could not replenish it; their fleet was destroyed; therefore it was necessary to end the war. But the Romans also wanted it to end, because they, too, were exhausted and needed rest. Thus Hamilcar and Lutatius Catullus soon came to an agreement among themselves on the terms of the peace.
End and results of the First Punic War
Hamilcar agreed to cede Sicily and the small islands adjacent to it, pay an indemnity, release Roman prisoners without ransom; Catullus recognized the independence of Carthage; the Carthaginians promised not to wage war against the states allied with Rome, and not to distract them from the Roman alliance; the same promise was made by the Romans regarding the allies of Carthage. Catullus first demanded that the Carthaginian troops in Sicily lay down their arms and that Hamilcar hand over the Roman deserters; but he decisively refused to accept these humiliating conditions, and Catullus backed down from them. The Carthaginian soldiers were allowed to leave freely, paying 18 denarii (about 4 [Russian pre-revolutionary] rubles) ransom. Rome hesitated to approve this treaty; many found that its conditions did not represent a sufficient reward for the sacrifices that the war cost; they reminded that the requirements of Regulus were more extensive. But the desire for peace prevailed. It was dangerous to excite such a skillful and firm military leader as Hamilcar to a desperate defense. Only the military indemnity was increased from 2000 Euboean talents to 3200; part of it the Carthaginians had to pay immediately, the rest of the amount in annual installments for 10 years. The undefeated commander of a conquered people descended from the mountains he had defended for so long, and handed over to the new masters the islands of the fortress, which the Carthaginians and Phoenicians owned for no less, if not more than 400 years, and whose walls withstood all the attacks of the Greeks.
Thus ended the First Punic War, which lasted 24 years and was marked by so many catastrophes; more than 1000 Carthaginian and Roman warships perished in it, crashing against the rocks, or sinking to the bottom from the blows of enemy ships. In no other naval war ancient world never fought such numerous fleets of large ships with four and five ranks of rowers. This war cost the Romans enormous efforts; the results did not correspond to the enormity of the victims, mainly because the Roman people did not like war at sea, they were afraid of it; another reason was that the management of military operations among the Romans too often passed from hand to hand. Already in land warfare, in which every Roman gained experience from a young age, the custom was often harmful that the commanders-in-chief changed every year with the appointment of new consuls; in naval warfare, which required much more experience, this rule had disastrous consequences. “The First Punic War shows that the Romans and Carthaginians were similar to each other in courage, strength of mind and character, and especially in an unbending desire for dominion,” says Polybius. – The Roman soldiers were much better than the Carthaginian ones; but among all the military leaders, undoubtedly, the first in mind and courage was Hamilcar Barca.
(264-241 BC)
In IV-III centuries BC. e. Rome gradually defeated all its political opponents in Italy. As a result of the Latin War, three wars with the Samnites and the conquest of the cities of Magna Graecia in southern Italy, the Roman Republic extended its influence to almost the entire Apennine Peninsula. Only the Gauls who lived in the Po Valley remained unconquered. Thus, Rome turned into a strong power and began to dream of new conquests.
The opposite was Carthage. In political, economic and military matters, he held a dominant position in the Western Mediterranean. The city of Carthage arose as a Phoenician colony in Africa at the end of the 9th century BC. e. Gradually it turned into a powerful state with vast possessions covering North Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, the west of Sicily, the Balearic Islands, the south of Iberia up to Cadiz (southwest of Spain).
We all know that two bears in one den do not get along. And Rome and Carthage just became these same bears, whose lair was the Western Mediterranean. And the most important strategic importance it had the island of Sicily. Control over Sicily guaranteed dominance over the trade routes linking the western and eastern waters of the Mediterranean.
Carthage followed the growing power of Rome very closely. At first, these two states were even allies. But the Roman Republic became more and more powerful, and, in the end, the moment came when the allied treaty began to interfere with it. That is, Rome decided on a military conflict with Carthage in order to prove its superiority by force of arms.
The overdue confrontation resulted in the Punic Wars, and the First Punic War took place in 264-241 BC. e . This military conflict lasted 23 years without interruption. It must be said that the ancient historians called this war exactly "Punic", and not "Carthaginian" or "Roman-Carthaginian". The point here is that the Romans called the Carthaginians in their own way "Punians". And therefore, in ancient sources there is not a single record in which the Carthaginians would be mentioned; they were characterized as Punians.
Start of the First Punic War
Most of Sicily was under the control of Carthage. Only Syracuse had complete independence. After the death of Agatholk, the tyrant of Syracuse, in 289 B.C. e., political unrest and unrest began on the island. Their cause was the Mamertines (sons of Mars). This is what the mercenaries of Agafolk called themselves. After his death, they were sent home. But the mercenaries knew nothing but how to fight. They captured the city of Messina and proclaimed it their republic.
Messina has become a den of robbers. They began to raid the interior of the island and took control of the entire north-east of Sicily. In Syracuse, Hieron II was king. This person, depending on political situation, sympathized with Carthage, then Rome. In 266 BC. e. he defeated the Mamertines and liberated from them all the lands except Messina.
The robbers panicked and turned to Rome for help. He decided to take the Mamertines under his protection, which caused dissatisfaction with Carthage. He sent his fleet under the command of Hanno to Messina. The soldiers of Hanno occupied the city fortress, and the Mamertines and Hieron II concluded a truce.
In the spring of 264 BC. e. Gaius Claudius, an envoy from the Roman Republic, arrived in Messina. However, the Mamertines declared that they no longer needed Rome's help. But the Romans, interested in the city, decided to turn the tide. Gaius Claudius gathered the inhabitants in the city square. Hanno also came to this meeting. The Romans treacherously seized him and under torture forced him to give the order to withdraw the Carthaginians from the city.
The Carthaginian garrison left Messina, and the Roman legionaries settled in and took control. It was these events that provoked the First Punic War, since Carthage did not want Rome to gain a foothold in Sicily.
A large Carthaginian army was sent to Messina, which, in alliance with Hieron II, began the siege of the city. The Romans also sent their army to the island. As a result of the fighting, the Punians lifted the siege of Messina and left. The Romans laid siege to Syracuse, but this siege ended unsuccessfully for them. The Roman army left Sicily, which did not mean the end of the war.
The course of hostilities
Sicily is a hilly island of volcanic origin with a complex topography. Therefore, large-scale battles were not fought on the island. Everything was limited to small battles and skirmishes. The siege of cities was mainly practiced, and seaports became the main targets. The belligerents considered them as bases on which troops could be landed and food delivered.
War in Sicily
In 263 BC. e. 4 Roman legions were transported to the island. Impressed by such power, Hieron II entered into an alliance with Rome and undertook to supply food to the legionnaires. The Romans captured several dozen cities in eastern Sicily, but the invasion of western part islands ended in defeat.
At the same time, Carthage formed a large mercenary army of Ligurians, Celts and Iberians. It consisted of 50 thousand infantry, 6 thousand cavalry and 60 elephants. It was planned to throw this force against the Roman legionnaires, relying at the same time on well-fortified cities. Infantry, elephants, cavalry were concentrated in the city of Akragante in southwestern Sicily.
The Romans approached there and began a 6-month siege, as a result of which the city fell. For Carthage, this was a serious defeat. But he had a fleet that was vastly superior to that of the Romans. This prompted Rome to build its fleet as soon as possible. He began to successfully resist the Carthaginian squadron, thanks to boarding practice. Military operations on land continued with varying degrees of success.
In 260 BC. e. a naval battle took place, which went down in history as the Battle of Mily. In it, the Carthaginian fleet was defeated, and Rome after that became a real maritime power. After that, the Romans launched an offensive to the west of Sicily and advanced towards the city of Therma. However, they were defeated by the Carthaginians and driven back.
Only in 258 BC. e. The Romans managed to seize the initiative again. They captured several cities in the central regions of Sicily and reached Palermo, but could not take it. After that, the Romans came to the conclusion that the war in Sicily could drag on for a long time and not bring any results. Therefore, it was decided to start a military company in Africa.
Military company in Africa
For this, in 256 BC. e. The Roman Republic completed the fleet with 330 warships. This naval force met at Cape Ecnomus with a Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships. In a naval battle, the fleet of Carthage was defeated. After that, the Romans landed in Africa, and the First Punic War continued in the lands that belonged to the Phoenicians since ancient times.
The Romans were commanded by Mark Regulus. He devastated the lands of Carthage. The situation was aggravated by the uprising of the Libyans who supported the invaders. To save the situation, the Carthaginians transferred a strong contingent of troops from Sicily, consisting of infantry and cavalry. This military unit entered into battle with the Roman legions. It went down in history as the battle of Adis in 255 BC. e. Mark Regulus utterly defeated the enemy, and Carthage sued for peace.
Negotiations began, but Regulus, inspired by the victory, wanted too much. As a result, the negotiations ended in nothing, and hostilities continued. But this time, Carthage decided to use the services of mercenaries from Greece, commanded by the Spartan Xanthippus. He led the entire army of the Punians and in the battle near the city of Tunet in 255 BC. e. defeated the legions of Marcus Regulus. War elephants played a big role in the victory, crushing the ranks of the Roman infantry. Regulus himself and another 500 soldiers were captured.
To save the remnants of their military contingent in Africa, the Romans equipped a new fleet of 350 ships. They managed to defeat the Carthaginian fleet and save their defeated African units. But on the way back to Italy, a storm broke out, destroying almost the entire Roman fleet. And the Punians suppressed the uprising of the Libyans and burned the city of Acragas in Sicily, since they did not hope to keep it. Thus ended the African campaign of the Roman Republic. However, the First Punic War, in spite of everything, did not stop.
Further military action
We must pay tribute to the Roman Republic. She quickly regained her strength and created a new fleet of 140 ships. After this, the strategy of capturing the Carthaginian cities in Sicily continued.
The Romans tried to capture Marsala from the sea, which was the center of Carthaginian power on the island. An attempt was also made to re-land a military unit in Africa. But all these efforts ended in failure.
However, the Roman legions achieved success in northern Sicily. Their main goal was Palermo. In 251 BC. e. the city fell after fierce resistance from the Carthaginians. After that, many cities in western Sicily made peace with the Romans. Among them were Ietas, Solus, Tyndaris, Petra.
Encouraged by the victory, the Roman legions made an attempt to capture Marsala. They gathered a large army near the city and besieged it for a long time. But they couldn't take it. And in 249 BC. e. The naval battle of Drepane took place. In it, the Roman fleet was completely defeated, and Carthage regained dominance at sea.
After that, there was a decline in hostilities, as both warring parties were extremely exhausted. In 247, Hamilcar (father of Hannibal) became the commander-in-chief of the Carthaginians in Sicily. He skillfully repelled the attacks of the Romans and struck back. For his successful and swift attacks, he received the nickname Barca (lightning). But this commander failed to turn the tide of the war.
Rome by 242 built a new large fleet of lightweight ships. And in 241, this flotilla met with the naval forces of Carthage in the battle of the Aegates Islands. The Punic fleet was completely defeated, and Rome again began to dominate the sea. Thus, the army of Hamilcar Barca was cut off from Carthage. As a result, interruptions began in the supply and payment of salaries to mercenaries.
Rome and Carthage after the First Punic War on the map
In Carthage itself, meanwhile, landowners-aristocrats gained power. They opposed the continuation of the war and reduced the cost of the fleet. These men instructed Hamilcar Barca to begin peace negotiations with the Roman Republic.
They ended in 241 BC. e., and the First Punic War ended there. Rome won, but on fairly acceptable terms for Carthage. The latter lost Sicily and the Aegadian Islands, and had to pay a large indemnity for 10 years. He was forbidden to attack Syracuse and their allies. Both sides pledged not to fight each other in the future. At the same time, Corsica, Sardinia and North Africa remained under the complete control of Carthage.
Both powers after the 23-year war were extremely exhausted. During the hostilities, Rome lost 700 ships, and Carthage 500. As for the number of people, the losses were measured in tens of thousands on both sides, but there is no exact data. The Roman Republic became a great maritime power, but the war did not reconcile Carthage with Rome. Differences between states faded only for a while. And as you know, a smoldering spark can turn into a flame at any moment..
The First Punic War - the first war between Rome and Carthage, which lasted 23 years (264-241), and ended with the victory of Rome.
Starting small, the Romans, by energetic efforts over a number of centuries, gradually subjugated all the peoples of Italy to their power, until at last the sea, which appeared before them in all directions, put an end to the success of their weapons. In these almost constant wars, Rome became a powerful power, and therefore it could not be expected that the obstacle that had arisen would force her to idly lay down her hands.
The Romans see that only a narrow strait separates their state from beautiful Sicily, which cannot be regarded as a land completely separate from Italy, and which, in powerful foreign hands, can pose a threat to the security of this latter. Meanwhile, the Carthaginians, or Punes, as the Romans usually called them, were already preparing to take possession of all of Sicily - the same Carthaginians who had already discovered their claims to Tarentum, and took possession of the entire western coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
It was a Phoenician colony, which was founded, according to legend, in 888 by Dido, the daughter of the king of Tyre, who fled from the oppression of her mercenary brother. The city was located in the Gulf of Tunis, in the fertile region of North Africa, and had a wonderful harbor. The fertility of the soil, which the Carthaginians cultivated with great diligence and skill through their slaves in the manner of today's plantations, and even more - a brisk industry and an extensive trade favored by the location, soon made Carthage a flourishing city, eventually outstripping all the numerous colonies of the Phoenicians on the coasts. and islands of the western sea and even metropolitan cities.
But the rich trading population, contrary to the Phoenician custom, became a military point. The Phoenicians were not a warlike people and thirsty for political freedom; their only aspiration was to trade and profit as much as possible.
For the unimpeded realization of these goals, they voluntarily sacrificed their freedom and paid the most burdensome taxes. Only in the most extreme cases did they defend their lives and property with all the fury of despair. The Greeks, who gradually pushed them out of the eastern Mediterranean with their trade, offered little resistance. However, when the Greeks made their way further and established themselves in Sicily and various points of the African, Gallic, Spanish coast, then the Phoenicians faced the prospect of complete displacement from these places, in the absence of any other outcome or shelter; to avoid this fate, they had only one thing to take up arms.
Thus, Carthage became the vanguard of the Phoenicians in the fight against their national enemy, the Greeks. As a result, he acquired military force and took advantage of it to spread his conquests to subjugate to his domination the rest of the Phoenician colonies and the surrounding Libyan tribes, whom he forced to pay tribute to him and supply people for military service, Carthage became the capital of a powerful North African state, which held in its hands the western part of the Mediterranean Sea with its islands, as well as exploiting the wealth of its coastal countries, especially Spain.
After the removal of Pyrrhus, the Carthaginians remained the dominant people on the island, and it seemed that soon all power over it would be concentrated exclusively in their hands. But then the Roman “Stop!” was heard in front of them. When Pyrrhus was leaving Sicily, he looked for the last time from the ship at the wonderful island and said to his friends; "What a battlefield we leave to the Carthaginians and Romans!"
12 years after the utterance of these prophetic words, the Roman legions crossed the Strait of Sicily to face off against Carthage on a new battlefield.
The forces of both states at the beginning of the First Punic War were almost equal. At sea, the Carthaginians far surpassed the power of their opponents: they possessed the most significant fleet of that era and managed the ships even better than the Greeks. When the Carthaginian commander Ganion advised the Romans not to start a war, he said to them, among other things: "Without our consent, you will not wash your hands in the sea."
In terms of money, the Romans were also largely inferior to the Carthaginians, since Carthage, according to Polybius, was the richest city of that time. In Rome, compared with Carthage, simply poverty prevailed. The Carthaginian envoys, who had been in Rome before the start of the war, told with mockery, returning to their homeland, that the atmosphere of the Roman senators was extremely patriarchal, that the only silver table service was recognized as sufficient for the entire senate, and that in all the houses where they were visiting, they were served the same silver service.
Equally with individual Roman families, the Roman state treasury was also poor compared to Carthage; however, the Romans needed less money to wage war than Carthage. The Romans were a warlike people, from their own citizens they could form an army twice the size of the Carthaginian, and most of their wars were fought with the help of this army; as for their Italian subjects, who were reinforcements of their national army, then for the most part they were in such a favorable position that they fought for the inviolability of the Roman state in the form of preserving their own interests.
Although the Carthaginians could put 40 thousand citizens in the field, the Carthaginian citizen was disgusted with military service, and the state waged wars for the most part through hired soldiers, which cost it quite dearly. Moreover, at a critical moment, these mercenaries could not always be assembled and they seemed much less reliable than the soldiers of Rome, who at any moment could be called under the banner.
The reason for the outbreak of the first Punic War was the following circumstance. Campanian mercenary troops of the Syracusan tyrant Agathocles after his death (289) captured Messana. They killed men, divided women, children and property among themselves, and founded a robber state here. Since these people won the right to life by the sword, they called themselves the sons of Mars, the Mamertines.
Through the conquest of other cities, the Mamertines gradually spread their dominion over the island, so that after some time they occupied the third place in Sicily after the Carthaginians and Syracusans. But these latter saw them as uncomfortable and hated neighbors. In Syracuse, usurpers-mercenaries placed at that time at the head of the government young man from the surname of the tyrant Gelon, Hieron, son of Hierocles, who had already distinguished himself in many campaigns.
He alienated those mercenaries to whom he owed his rise, he again gave weapons to the citizens, and thus organized a new mercenary army, on which he could rely more faithfully than on the former. With this army, Hiero marched against the Mamertines to punish them for the many crimes they had committed against the Sicilian Greeks.
A brilliant victory, which gave him the royal title from his fellow citizens, forced the Mamertines to withdraw beyond the walls of the city. Seeing that they could not cope with Hieron, and fearing his bloody revenge, they began to think about which of the foreigners to turn to for help; some advised to transfer the city to the Carthaginians, others to the Romans. The majority decided in favor of Rome, and an embassy was sent there with instructions to invite the Roman government to take possession of Messana.
The Roman Senate was indecisive. He realized that it would be a political mistake to allow the Carthaginians, dangerous to Rome, to take possession of such an important fortress, the third city of Sicily; but, on the other hand, did it not seem shameful for a venerable state to conclude a friendly alliance with a band of robbers, friends of those very Rhegium rebels whom Rome itself had not long before punished in the most bloody way?
Moreover, the occupation of Messana would inevitably lead to a war with Carthage, the outcome of which could not be predicted. Since the senate did not know what to decide on, the consuls, who wanted war, transferred the matter to the consideration of the people's assembly, and the people, guided by the right political instinct, did not hesitate to decide to provide the requested assistance and start a war. The necessary measures were taken immediately. The legions moved to Rhegium, where the ships of the Greek allied cities of Southern Italy had gathered in order to transport the Roman troops.
When the military tribune Appius Claudius arrived at Rhegium with the vanguard of the Roman militia, news came to him from Messana that the Carthaginians had intervened in Messanian affairs and made peace between the Mamertines and Hieron, that the Carthaginian fleet was stationed in the Messanian harbor, and the Carthaginian garrison was in the fortress there.
The deputies from the party of the Mamertine population that let the Carthaginians into the city came to the Roman commander and expressed gratitude for the help they no longer needed. The tribune, a proud, courageous man and thirsty for glory, paid no attention to the statements of the embassy and prepared to continue his journey. Despite the fact that the strait was barred by the Carthaginians, he moved in a boat to Messana, appeared at the national assembly and there, in the presence of the Carthaginians, announced to the Mamertines that Rome was taking on the role of delivering them from the Carthaginian yoke; the silence that the frightened Mamertines discovered at this, the tribune recognized as an expression of their consent, that they really wanted the help of Rome.
Then he returned again to Rhegium and, ignoring the contrary wind, set sail. But the wind scattered his ships and drove some of them into the Carthaginian fleet, cruising in the strait. The Carthaginians wanted to avoid a war with Rome, and their commander Hanno politely dismissed the ships with a request to refrain from going to Messana. Claudius proudly rejected this courtesy, and with the few troops he had left, he arrived at Messana.
There he convened a popular assembly and invited Hanno to it under the pretext that he wanted to end the dispute between Rome and Carthage by means of a peaceful explanation. After a long and bitter debate between both sides, a Roman soldier suddenly seized the Carthaginian commander and, to the cries of approval of the Mamertines, dragged him out of the assembly. Then Hanno was imprisoned, and shamefully bought his freedom by the fact that, at the request of Claudius, he ordered his garrison to clear the city. The Carthaginians put him to death for this.
Thus Messana, the cornerstone of Sicily, came under the rule of Rome (264). However, soon a strong Carthaginian fleet appeared in its harbor under the command of another Hanno, the son of Hannibal. While these ships cruised in the strait in order to block the passage of the Roman army, the Carthaginian land army that landed on the shore besieged Messana from the north side.
Hieron, on the other hand, camped on the south side. But on one of the dark nights, the consul Appius Claudius Caulex crossed the strait with his army and entered the city. After that, he first defeated Hieron, and then the Carthaginians, and freed the city from the siege. Roman courage won, Messana was in the power of Rome. While Carthage began new preparations for war, Hiero, both in this year and in the following year, was placed in such an embarrassing position that he found it necessary, in his own interests, to make peace with the Romans. From that time on, during his long reign, he remained their most faithful ally.
The Carthaginians continued the war alone. Their preparations were completed only in 262, and then they brought 50 thousand people under the command of Hannibal, the son of Giscon, into the large, strongly fortified city of Agrigent (Akragas). Both Roman consuls laid siege to the city and starved it into a desperate situation; they utterly defeated the numerous army that came to the rescue under the command of Hanno, and when, after this battle, Hannibal, taking advantage of the darkness and fatigue of the enemy, withdrew along with the garrison, the Romans took possession of the city. Agrigent was subjected to a terrible robbery, all the inhabitants were sold into slavery. Subsequently, the Romans rebuilt the city.
The greater part of the island was now in the hands of Rome; the Carthaginians held out only in their fortified coastal cities. To expel them from these shelters and secure the conquests made, as well as the coast of Italy, the Romans needed a navy.
But how to build a fleet? When the treasury was devastated by a long, painful war, and although, in the words of Polybius, the warlike spirit urged the Romans to war, they had no means for this. But the “generosity and love for the motherland” of the first people of the state saved the situation. The senators decided on something that they would never have dared to know Carthage: they built ships at their own expense.
In the decisive battle of Drepan, the consul Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginian fleet. The Carthaginian rulers then clothed Hamilcar Barca with unlimited powers - to make peace or continue the war. Hamilcar realized that the war was lost. He turned to the Roman consul with peace proposals. It should be noted that the forces of the Romans themselves were running out.
Peace was concluded on the following terms: the Carthaginians paid an indemnity to the Romans, renounced all of Sicily, and promised never again to attack either the Sicilians themselves or their allies. Thus ended the age-old struggle for Sicily, and the Romans succeeded in what neither Dionysius nor Agathocles succeeded. This war, Polybius concludes, "lasted uninterruptedly for 24 years and was longer, more stubborn and more important than all the wars known to us in history." With regard to valor, the victorious wreath, according to him, was acquired by the Romans, but the greatest leader of that era in intelligence and courage was Hamilcar Barca.
Causes of the war
Remark 1
The First Punic War was caused by controversy over the island of Sicily. The accepted agreement that Rome could not own lands in Sicily, and Carthage - in Italy, constantly sought to violate both sides. The entry of the Carthaginian military fleet into the harbor of Tarentum was the reason for the start of an armed clash.
The army of Rome by that time was larger in number and went through the schools of war with Pyrrhus. The advantage of the Carthaginian army was an experienced and combat-ready fleet, which Rome almost did not have.
Chronicle of war
264 BC - in the city of Messina, captured by the Carthaginians, the Roman fleet went to help. The first battle has taken place. The Carthaginian fleet won, some of the Roman ships were captured. The commander of the Punic garrison, invited to the city meeting, was captured. He was forced to give the order for the retreat of the army. The order was carried out by the garrison. After this incident, Carthage declared war on Rome, and the siege of Messina began. Rome won the first victory.
263 BC - The Romans increased the number of their troops to 4 legions and conquered 50 cities.
262 BC - The Carthaginians replenished their army in Sicily. The Romans laid siege to the stronghold of Carthaginian domination, the city of Akragas. After six months of siege, the city surrendered. Rome won, but a strong enemy fleet plundered cities in Italy.
260 BC - the first naval battle between the Romans and the Carthaginians. The Roman fleet used boarding tactics and achieved victory.
256 BC - the transfer of hostilities to Africa. The naval battle at Cape Eknom ended with the victory of the Romans. The land battle near the city of Klupei brought the destruction of 18 thousand Punians.
255 BC - Battle of Tunepa. The new commander Xanthippus applied a new tactic of battle with the Romans (he tried to fight on the plain) and won. The Roman fleet, which came to the rescue, defeated the Carthaginians at Cape Hermes. But on the way to Italy it was almost completely destroyed by a storm. fighting again moved to Sicily.
251 BC - Battle of Panorma. The defeat of the Carthaginians, who lost about 20 thousand soldiers.
250 BC - the siege of the city of Lilibey, which ended unsuccessfully for the Romans: the city never surrendered.
249 BC - Battle of Drepan. The Roman fleet is destroyed. The time has come for the balance of the parties and a small respite in the war.
241 BC - Naval battle near the Aegates Islands. The fleet of Carthage was destroyed. There were no more forces and means to wage war. Carthage sued for peace.
Results of the First Punic War
The Carthaginian commander Hamilcar Barke received the authority to negotiate. They were successful and were not difficult. Carthage was obliged:
- leave Sicily;
- to pay 3,200 talents in the form of an indemnity over ten years;
- ransom their armies from Sicily for a purely nominal fee.
The main contradiction between Rome and Carthage was not resolved. It foreshadowed new war. Both sides were ready for it. The Roman militia gained experience, became combat-ready. One negative remained: the annual change of consuls. Acting as commander-in-chief of the army. The Carthaginian army of mercenaries showed the shortcomings of such an organization: lack of experience among commanders, unreliability, multilingualism. But the transformations that had continued since the pre-war period began to give results: professional generals, new ways of using infantry, cavalry and elephants.
