129 BC e.

Events

Roman Republic

were born

Gnaeus Pompey Strabo - Roman statesman and military leader, father of Pompey the Great.

passed away

Attalus III - last king Kingdom of Pergamon.
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus - killed by senators.

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An excerpt characterizing the year 133 BC. e.

“Very well,” he said, “we’ll talk later.” Oh, how glad I am for you! he added.
- Well, why didn’t you cheat on Boris? the brother asked.
- That's nonsense! Natasha screamed laughing. “I don’t think about him or anyone, and I don’t want to know.
– That's how! So what are you?
- I? Natasha asked, and a happy smile lit up her face. - Have you seen Duport "a?
- No.
- Did you see the famous Duport, the dancer? Well, you won't understand. I'm what it is. - Natasha, rounding her arms, took her skirt, as if dancing, ran a few steps, turned over, made an antrash, beat her leg against her leg and, standing on the very tips of her socks, walked a few steps.
- Am I standing? behold, she said; but she couldn't stand on tiptoe. "So that's what I am!" I will never marry anyone, but I will become a dancer. But do not tell anyone.
Rostov laughed so loudly and merrily that Denisov felt envious from his room, and Natasha could not help laughing with him. - No, it's good, isn't it? she kept saying.
- Well, do you want to marry Boris anymore?
Natasha flushed. - I don't want to marry anyone. I'll tell him the same when I see him.
– That's how! Rostov said.
“Well, yes, it’s all nonsense,” Natasha continued to chat. - And why is Denisov good? she asked.
- Good.
- Well, goodbye, get dressed. Is he scary, Denisov?
- Why is it scary? Nicholas asked. - No. Vaska is nice.
- You call him Vaska - strange. And that he is very good?
- Very good.
“Well, come and drink some tea.” Together.
And Natasha stood up on tiptoe and walked out of the room the way dancers do, but smiling the way happy 15-year-old girls smile. Having met Sonya in the living room, Rostov blushed. He didn't know how to deal with her. Yesterday they kissed in the first moment of the joy of meeting, but today they felt that it was impossible to do this; he felt that everyone, both mother and sisters, looked at him inquiringly and expected from him how he would behave with her. He kissed her hand and called her you - Sonya. But their eyes, having met, said “you” to each other and kissed tenderly. With her eyes, she asked him for forgiveness for the fact that at Natasha's embassy she dared to remind him of his promise and thanked him for his love. He thanked her with his eyes for the offer of freedom and said that one way or another, he would never stop loving her, because it was impossible not to love her.

(88 - 82 BC) - between Marius and Sulla
(72 - 70 BC) - between Sertorius and Pompey
(49 - 45 BC) - between Pompey and Caesar
(43, 32 and 30 BC) - between Antony and Octavius

As you know, power in the Roman state belonged to the mobilite (nobility), whose stronghold was the senate. In the II century. BC. political struggle in Rome, in fact, it was between supporters and opponents of the Senate.

Gradually, two hostile political parties developed in Rome:

Party of Optimates(from the word "optimus" - "the best") reflected the interests of the ruling senatorial oligarchy. At the head was a noble patrician Cornelius Sulla.
Party of Popularists(from the word "populus" - "people") reflected the interests of the general population. At the head was a native from the bottom Guy Mari.

Sulla and Marius were excellent generals who became famous on the battlefields. Guy Marius carried out a military reform as a result of which the army began to depend not on the government, but on the commander. For some time, power in Rome passed from one party to another. In 82 BC real Civil War.

In 82 BC BC. Sulla's army occupied Rome by force of arms and mercilessly dealt with the populace. After Mary's death Sulla established his dictatorial power in Rome and carried out anti-democratic reforms. The people's tribunes were deprived of power. Sulla ruled Rome indefinitely for three years, until, unexpectedly for everyone, he resigned as dictator and retired to private life.

The crisis of the republic in the 70-50s. BC. I triumvirate. Caesar's dictatorship.

In 60 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus pooled their resources to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. It lasted until the death of Crassus in 53 BC. e.

The possibility of one man dominating in a democratic society has shown that The Roman Republic entered a period of crisis. For some time, Rome lived under the harsh laws of Sulla, where no one dared to raise their voices against. Nevertheless, in the Roman Republic, an unprecedented scale broke out. slave uprising led by Spartacus (74-71 BC). Since the time of Hannibal The eternal City never experienced such anxiety. The best commanders were summoned from the provinces to fight Spartacus, including Gnaeus Pompey, who became famous for his conquests in the East. From Rome itself, Praetor Mark Crassus moved with an army to suppress the uprising. In a fierce battle, the army of Spartacus was defeated, and he himself was killed. In Rome, Crassus and Pompey were greeted with triumph, and were immediately elected consuls.

The organizer of the triumvirate was Caesar, who had just returned from Farther Spain as propraetor. At the walls of Rome, he had to choose between the triumph he hoped for and the consulate. A man who entered Rome could no longer claim triumph, and remaining outside the walls of Rome, Caesar could not put forward his candidacy for consuls. Although Caesar asked the Senate to make an exception for him and allow his friends to put forward his candidacy, this was strongly opposed by Cato. But many senators were still ready to support Caesar, and so Cato made a filibuster by delivering a speech that occupied the entire session. After that, Caesar gave up trying to get both a triumph and a consulship at once, and entered Rome to put forward his candidacy for the consulship. Shortly thereafter, dissatisfied with the senate, Caesar entered into an alliance with Pompey, who was also dissatisfied with the policy of the senators, who canceled many of his decrees made during the war in Asia and thereby belittled his achievements. In addition, Caesar needed the support of a well-known person in Rome in the election of consul. However, Caesar understood that by entering into an alliance with Pompey, he would automatically make the no less powerful Crassus his enemy, and soon he managed to reconcile Crassus and Pompey, convincing them that the differences between them only strengthened the senators, that is, giving the union a pronounced anti-senate orientation. Despite the well-known circumstances of the conclusion of the triumvirate, the question of the exact time of its creation is unclear due to the initially secret nature of the agreement - whether it was the summer of 60, autumn, or even 59.

Thanks to the support of the then-famous commander Pompey and the richest of the Romans, Crassus, Caesar was elected consul for the year 59. At the same time, the protege of the Senate Mark Calpurnius Bibulus became his colleague, with whom Caesar entered into a conflict that continued until the end of their joint consulate. Caesar managed to pass a law on the division of land between the poor and on the withdrawal of colonies, and the second consul Bibulus was not even allowed to the forum - supporters of Caesar and Pompey first turned a basket of manure on his head, and his lictors broke the fascia, after which Bibulus and his supporters were thrown stones. Also, in addition to this law, a decree was adopted according to which all senators had to take an oath in the obligation to comply with the law. Then a law was passed on the division of lands in the Campaign of Cato, who strongly protested against the adoption of this law, Caesar ordered to be sent to prison, but soon he himself released him. Caesar also approved the orders made by Pompey in Asia, which the Senate had previously refused to approve. Despite the traditional principle of collegiality, Caesar actually usurped power and stopped convening the Senate, so that some even began to call the year 59 "the year of Julius and Caesar" instead of the traditional norm. However, Caesar's political weight was still insignificant at that time, and it was believed that he was carrying out his radical laws in the interests of Pompey. For example, it is known that Cicero in May 60 spoke of Pompey's intention to establish tyranny as a widely held opinion.

Caesar ensured that he, in the rank of proconsul, was entrusted with the administration of Cisalpine Gaul, Narbonne Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years. In 56, at a joint meeting of the triumvirs in Lucca, it was decided to extend the proconsulship of Caesar for another 5 years.

In 53, Mark Licinius Crassus, having gone to war with Parthia, died, and the triumvirate ceased to exist.

The Civil War (January 10, 49 - 45 BC) is a war between two great commanders and politicians of Rome, Caesar and Pompey. At this time, Pompey had a huge advantage, as he was in Rome and won the Senate over to his side, including Cicero(106 - 43 BC, senator, former consul and greatest orator of his time) and Cato. In addition to the Senate, Pompey was also supported by the eastern provinces and part of the legions. On the side of Caesar were simple Romans and his faithful and devoted legions, who went through with him all the hardships of the Gallic wars. The military glory of Caesar, combined with political connections, wealth and a superbly trained and loyal army, made Caesar very dangerous for enemies and rivals.

When the term of Caesar's proconsulship expired, the senate presented him with an ultimatum: to disband his legions and return to Rome unarmed, otherwise he would be declared an enemy of the fatherland. Caesar offered a compromise, but the senators, frightened by his military might, did not accept it. Then Caesar took an amazing step in courage and determination - January 10, 49 BC He sent his legions across the Rubicon(a small river near Rome) to Italy, starting the crossing with the words that went down in history: "Die is cast!" The Senate entrusted the defense of Rome to Pompey, who, in fear of the Gallic legions, fled east, leaving the capital to its fate. It should be noted that by this time Pompey, once a great triumphant, turned into an indecisive politician and a rather weak commander. He fled to Greece, with senators and troops loyal to him, hoping that he would defeat Caesar.

Caesar almost without a fight entered Rome and took possession of Italy. However, the civil war had just begun, so the first thing Caesar did was defeat Pompey's generals in Spain, then on August 9, 48 BC. he defeated the army of Pompey himself in the battle near the city of Pharsala (Greece), where he defeated an army twice as large as his own. Pompey fled again, but already to Egypt, where he was killed on the orders of the Egyptian king Ptolemy XIII. After that, Pompey's supporters resisted Caesar for more than two years in different provinces. In 46 - 45 years. BC. Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey in North Africa and in Spain. Caesar completely defeated his opponents. He refrained from revenge and issued a pardon to all Pompey's supporters and members of the senate who had betrayed him.

In 45 BC the Senate awarded Julius Caesar the title of dictator for life, as well as the title "Father of the Fatherland", i.e. Caesar became a ruler with unlimited power, who was not required to account for his actions. The People's Assembly lost its political significance.

Caesar behaved like a real monarch. For the first time in the history of Rome, the profile of Caesar was printed on Roman coins, which previously depicted only gods. He introduced many reforms, including the introduction of the Julian calendar. All dissatisfied with his power rallied against Caesar, especially the senators who were supporters of Pompey and fought under his banner, who were pardoned by Caesar. Among them were Brutus, Cassius and many senators who plotted to assassinate Caesar. On the Ides of March 44 BC(Ides among the Romans - the 15th of each month), during a meeting of the Senate in the curia of Pompey (the hall built by Pompey) the conspirators surrounded Caesar with a dense ring and inflicted 23 blows on him with their daggers. So after Crassus and Pompey, the last triumvir was killed.

After the assassination of Caesar, a new outbreak of struggle began between the republicans and supporters of the dictatorship. The conspirators believed that the murder of the "tyrant" would cause widespread rejoicing. They climbed Capitol Hill and announced the restoration of the Republic. However, Rome was silent, shocked by the brazen murder of his master and idol. Most Romans had long been disillusioned with the republican form of government, as they were tired of the bloody unrest caused by the clashes of parties fighting for power, and hoped for a "strong hand" that could restore order and restore peace to them. In their view, Caesar was such a hand.

Civil wars of the 40-30s. BC. II triumvirate. Fall of the Roman Republic.

Triumvirate - during the years of the fall of the Roman Republic, power twice passed from the Senate and magistrates to a trio of people (where each time the third participant was weaker than the two main rivals).

In October 43 BC. e. Mark Antony, Octavian and Mark Aemilius Lepidus, united against the assassins of Julius Caesar - Mark Junius Brutus and Gaius Longinus Cassius, accompanied by troops, met on the Reno River near the city of Bononia in Northern Italy and concluded an agreement known as second triumvirate.

This union lasted from 43-36 (formally until 31 BC), and was, unlike the First Triumvirate, approved by the comitia, and the triumvirs received emergency powers "for the organization of state affairs." Thus, the second triumvirate was not just an agreement of individuals (like the first), but a public body (usually referred to as extraordinary magistracies). They used their power to distribute provinces among themselves and organize proscriptions against political opponents. After the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), Lepidus received only Africa during the division of the provinces, and in 36 BC, after Octavian's victory over Sextus Pompey, he was completely removed from public affairs.

The union broke up as a result of contradictions between the triumvirs, mainly between Octavian and Mark Antony, which led in 31 BC. e. to a new bloody civil war. In the battle at Cape Actions on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian's general Agrippa inflicted a decisive defeat on Antony. In 30 BC, after the suicide of Anthony and his last wife, the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII, Octavian remained the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.

Annexation of Pergamon (133 BC)

In the second half of the II century. BC. Rome, not having sufficient forces and means to directly capture and occupy the Hellenistic states that were experiencing an internal crisis, such as the Seleucid power, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Kingdom of Pergamon, successfully pursued a policy in the East of provoking internal political conflicts, interfering in the struggle for power and inciting some states against others with the aim of further weakening them. Roman diplomacy did its best to help final disintegration the Seleucid powers. Weakened by endless dynastic strife, Egypt became dependent on Rome. Finally, the Pergamum kings, cherishing their alliance with the Roman Republic, strictly adhered to the Iroroman political orientation, despite the fact that after the defeat of Macedonia, the Romans undertook a number of actions aimed at weakening Pergamum. The country was flooded with Roman businessmen, merchants and usurers, who, together with the Pergamon elite, robbed the local population. Dissatisfaction with the pro-Roman policy of the kings from the Attalid dynasty 1 was ripening among the general population.

The last legitimate ruler of Pergamon was Attalus III Philometor Everget (138-133 BC). In ancient historiography, there was an extremely negative image this ruler: an absurd neurasthenic, unable to rule the country, he retired from public affairs, devoting himself entirely to botany and pharmacology, sculpture and the art of bronze casting. Attalus behaved rather extravagantly, appearing in public in rags and unshaven. Cultivating poisonous plants, the king created a variety of poisonous potions, the effect of which, as they said, he tested on his entourage. In addition, ancient authors reproached Attalus III in the murder of his friends and the execution of relatives.

In 133 BC. Attalus III died suddenly at the age of 38 (presumably from a stroke), leaving no direct heir. Simultaneously with the news of the death of the king, his subjects learned that Attalus bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. The Senate hastened to adopt a resolution on the annexation of the territory of the former Kingdom of Pergamon to the Roman Republic. However, not all former subjects of the Pergamon kings agreed with this turn of events, not to mention doubts about the authenticity of the royal will. Aristonicus took advantage of anti-Roman sentiments among the local population, the son of a faithful ally of the Romans, king Eumenes II by concubine and half-brother of Attalus III. Leading the movement of slaves and the poor, Aristonicus tried to restore political independence Pergamon. He declared himself king under the name Eumenes III (132-129 BC).

Aristonicus was able to keep a fairly large territory under control for two years. In the fight against the insurgents, the Romans won over the Greek seaside cities, as well as the rulers of Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. Aristonicus, who gathered a large army, in 131 BC. defeated in the battle near the city of Levka the army of the consul Publius Licinius Crassus Mucian (the consul himself was captured and killed). The following year, Aristonicus was defeated by the troops of the consul Mark Perperna, and a year later he was locked up by the Romans in the Carian city of Stratonikeia. Forced to capitulate, Aristonicus was captured and sent to Rome, where he was paraded in triumph by the Mania Aquilius and then strangled in prison (128 BC). The uprising after the death of Perperna was finally crushed by the consul Manius Aquilius, who ordered all sources and wells in Mysia to be poisoned in order to force the recalcitrant cities to surrender. In 129-126 years. BC. on the territory of the former Kingdom of Pergamon, by decree of the Senate, the province of Asia was created (it also included Caria, which the Romans took away from the Rhodians). Since then, the richest province of Asia has for a long time become the object of the greedy desires of the Roman pro-magistrates and publican tax-farmers (it was not for nothing that Cicero called Asia a “corrupting province”, referring to the detrimental effect of Asian luxury on the morals of not only the local population, but also the Roman administrators who operated here and merchants).

The Attalid dynasty, founded by the Macedonian Fileter, son of Attalus, ruled Pergamum in 283-133. BC.
In addition, Attalus III wrote treatises on viticulture and olive growing, studied birds, fish and insects, and also invented a plaster for healing wounds and ulcers on the skin.
In modern historiography, there is an opinion, based in particular on epigraphic data, that this repulsive image of a tyrant, psychopath and sadist is hardly true. Apparently, the attempt of Attalus III to pursue an independent political course aimed at strengthening the Kingdom of Pergamum caused irritation in Rome. Most likely, the result of the negative attitude towards Attalus of the “people dressed in togas” was the creation of a “black stereotype” in the Greco-Roman historical tradition in face of the last legitimate king of Pergamon.
By that time, there was a precedent for a royal testament in favor of Rome: in 155 BC. Ptolemy Euergetes bequeathed the Kingdom of Cyrene to the Roman Republic in the event that he died childless. In 96 BC according to the will of King Ptolemy Apion, Kyreia still got to Rome.
0 The very fact of the existence of the royal testament is confirmed by the presence of a decision of the people's assembly in Pergamon, referring to the same 133 BC. In our time, researchers believe that Attalus III bequeathed to Rome only the royal domain, and granted freedom to the cities of the Kingdom of Pergamon.
WITH late XIX V. in historiography, the theme of social utopia turned out to be closely associated with the uprising of Aristonicus. Information about the founding of Heliopolis by Aristonicus, i.e. the City of the Sun, was interpreted by some researchers in the spirit of popular turn of XIX-XX centuries socialist teachings. Thus, the theory of the creation of a state of universal equality and social justice by Aristonicus arose. In "heliopolises", i.e. In the citizens of the “State of the Sun”, the supporters of the mentioned theory saw ideological fighters for freedom against slavery and oppression. It is currently believed that Aristonicus did not have any utopian ideology. Archaeological data indicate that the actions of Aristonicus - the founding of Heliopolis and the granting of a number of privileges to its citizens (apparently former slaves) - are consistent with the traditional policy of the Pergamum kings, who founded and renamed cities, settling mercenaries there.
In the suppression of the rebellion of Aristonicus Active participation accepted by the rulers of the allied kingdoms of Rome on the territory of Asia Minor. All of them were generously rewarded: the Pontic king Mithridates V Euergetes took possession of Great Phrygia, the sons of the Cappadocian king Ari-arat V Euseb Philopator received Lycaoia and part of Cilicia, while Bithynia got a part of Phrygia.

The history of Ancient Rome begins from the moment the city was founded and traditionally dates back to 753 BC.

The place where the settlement was founded was distinguished by favorable landscape. The nearby ford made it possible to easily cross the nearby Tiber. The palatine and neighboring hills provided natural defensive fortifications for the surrounding wide fertile plain.

Over time, thanks to trade, Rome began to grow and intensify. A convenient shipping route near the city provided D.C. goods in both directions.

The interaction of Rome with the Greek colonies provided the ancient Romans with the opportunity to take Hellenic culture as a model for building their own. From the Greeks, they adopted literacy, architecture and religion - the Roman divine pantheon is almost identical to the Greek one. The Romans also took a lot from the Etruscans. North of Rome, Etruria was also in a favorable position for trade, and the ancient Romans learned the skills of trade directly from the Etruscan example.

Royal period (mid-VIII century-510 BC)

The tsarist period was characterized by a monarchical form of government. Since there is practically no written evidence of that era, very little is known about this period. Ancient historians based their writings on oral stories and legends, since many documents were destroyed by the Gauls during the sack of Rome (after the battle of Allia in the 4th century BC). Therefore, a serious distortion of events that actually took place is quite likely.

The traditional version of Roman history as told by Livy, Plutarch and Dionysius of Halicarnassus tells of seven kings who ruled Rome in the first centuries after its founding. The general chronology of their reign is 243 years, that is, on average, almost 35 years each. The kings, with the exception of Romulus, who founded the city, were elected by the people of Rome for life, while none of them applied military force to win or keep the throne. The main hallmark of the king was a purple toga.

The king was endowed with the highest military, executive and judicial powers, officially granted to him by the curate comitia (a collection of patricians of 30 curiae) after the promulgation of the Lex curiata de imperio (special law) at the beginning of each reign.

Early Republic (509-287 BC)

Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC Rome rapidly grew from an ordinary trading city into a prosperous metropolis. In 509 B.C. The seventh king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown by his rival for power, Lucius Junius Brutus, who reformed the system of government and became the founder of the Roman Republic.

Rome originally owed its prosperity to trade, but war made it a powerful force in the ancient world. Rivalry with North African Carthage unified Rome's power and helped increase the latter's wealth and prestige. Cities were constant trading rivals in the Western Mediterranean, and after Carthage was defeated in the Third Punic War, Rome gained almost absolute dominance in the region.

The plebes was outraged by the rule of the patricians: the latter, thanks to their dominance over the courts, interpreted the customs in their own interests, allowing the rich and noble to harsh arbitrariness in relation to their dependent debtors. However, unlike some Greek city-states, Rome's plebeians did not call for land redistribution, attack the patricians, or attempt to seize power. Instead, a kind of "strike" was declared - secessio plebis. In fact, the plebeians temporarily "seceded" from the state under the leadership of their elected leaders (tribunes) and refused to pay taxes or fight in the army.

twelve tables

Things remained in this state for several years before the patricians decided to make some concessions, agreeing to put the laws in writing. A commission composed of plebeians and patricians duly prepared the Twelve Tables of Laws, which were exhibited in the city's forum (c. 450 BC). These Twelve Tables formulated a rather severe set of laws, but the Romans of all classes realized their justice, thanks to which they managed to defuse social tension in society. The laws of the Twelve Tables formed the basis of all subsequent Roman law, perhaps greatest contribution in history made by the Romans.

Middle Republic (287-133 BC)

The influx of booty and tribute from conquest gave rise to a class of extremely wealthy Romans—senators who fought as generals and governors, and businessmen—equites (or horsemen) who levied taxes in the new provinces and supplied the army. Each new victory led to an influx of more and more slaves: during the last two centuries BC. the Mediterranean slave trade became a huge business, with Rome and Italy being the main destination markets.

Most of the slaves had to work on the land of the senators and other rich people, who began to develop and improve their estates with the help of new techniques. Ordinary farmers could not compete with these modern properties for those times. More and more small farmers were losing their land, ruined by wealthy neighbors. The class divide widened as more farmers left their land and headed for Rome, where they joined the growing class of landless and rootless people.

The neighborhood of great wealth and mass poverty in Rome itself poisoned the political climate - Roman politics was dominated by warring factions. These were not modern political parties representing completely different ideologies, but rather ideas around which different factions clustered. Supporters of the idea of land redistribution, who had a minority in the Senate, advocated the division and distribution of land resources among the landless poor. The supporters of the opposite idea, representing the majority, wanted to keep the interests intact " the best people', that is, themselves.

Late Republic (133-27 BC)

In the II century BC. two Roman tribunes, the Gracchi brothers, tried to hold a land and a row political reforms. Despite the fact that the brothers were killed defending their position, thanks to their efforts, legal reform was carried out, and rampant corruption in the Senate was not so obvious.

Army reform

The decline in the number of small proprietors in the Italian countryside had profound effects on Roman politics. It was the farmers who were the traditional backbone of the Roman army, buying their own weapons and equipment. This recruiting system has long been problematic, as the armies of Rome long years abroad in military campaigns. The absence of men in the home undermined the ability of the small family to maintain their farm. Thanks to the expansion of Rome's overseas military expansion and the decrease in the number of small landowners, recruitment from this class became more and more difficult.

In 112 BC In the year the Romans faced a new enemy - the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutons, who decided to move to another area. The tribes invaded territories that the Romans had occupied a couple of decades earlier. The Roman armies directed against the barbarians were destroyed, culminating in the greatest defeat at the Battle of Arausio (105 BC), in which, according to some sources, about 80 thousand Roman soldiers were destroyed. Fortunately for the Romans, the barbarians did not then invade Italy, but continued on their way through modern France and Spain.

The defeat at Arausio shocked and caused panic in Rome. The commander Gaius Marius is carrying out a military reform that prescribes compulsory military service to landless citizens. The structure of the army itself was also reformed.

The recruitment of landless Romans, as well as the improvement of service conditions in the Roman legions, had an extremely important result. This closely connected the interests of the soldiers and their generals, which was explained by the guarantee by the commanders that each legionnaire would receive a land allotment at the end of his service. Land was the only commodity in the pre-industrial world that gave the family economic security.

The commanders, in turn, could count on the personal loyalty of their legionnaires. The Roman legions of that time became more and more like private armies. Given that the generals were also the leading politicians in the Senate, the situation was even more complicated. Opponents of the generals tried to block the efforts of the latter in the distribution of land in favor of their people, which led to quite predictable results - commanders and soldiers drew closer. Not surprisingly, in some cases, generals at the head of their armies tried to achieve their goals by unconstitutional means.

First triumvirate

By the time the first triumvirate was created, the Roman Republic had reached its peak. Rival politicians in the Senate, Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, together with the young general Gaius Julius Caesar, created Triple Alliance to achieve their own goals. The rivalry for power and the ambition of all three helped keep each other in check, making Rome prosperous.

The richest citizen of Rome, Crassus was corrupt to the point that he forced wealthy fellow citizens to pay him for security. If the citizen paid, everything was in order, but if there was no money, the property of the shrew was set on fire and Crassus charged a fee for his people to put out the fire. And although the motives for the emergence of these fire fighting brigades can hardly be called noble, Crassus, in fact, created the first fire brigade, which in the future served the city well more than once.

Pompey and Caesar are famous generals, thanks to whose conquests Rome greatly increased its wealth and expanded its sphere of influence. Envying the military talents of his comrades, Crassus organized a military campaign in Parthia.

In September 54 BC. Caesar's daughter Julia, who was the wife of Pompey, died in childbirth of a girl, who also died a few days later. The news created factional divisions and unrest in Rome, as many felt that the death of Julia and the child ended Caesar and Pompey's family ties.

Crassus' campaign against Parthia was disastrous. Shortly after the death of Julia, Crassus died in the battle of Carrhae (in May 53 BC). While Crassus was alive, there was some parity between Pompey and Caesar, but after his death, friction between the two commanders resulted in civil war. Pompey tried to get rid of his rival by legal means and ordered him to appear in Rome for the trial of the Senate, which deprived Caesar of all powers. Instead of arriving in the city and humbly appearing before the Senate, in January 49 BC. e. Returning from Gaul, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his army and entered Rome.

He did not accept any accusations, and concentrated all his efforts on eliminating Pompey. Opponents met in Greece in 48 BC, where Caesar's outnumbered army defeated Pompey's superior force at the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, hoping to obtain asylum there, but was lured by deceit and killed. The news of Caesar's victory quickly spread - many of Pompey's former friends and allies quickly defected to the side of the winner, believing that he was supported by the gods.

Rise of the Roman Empire (27 BC)

After defeating Pompey, Julius Caesar became the most powerful man in Rome. The Senate declared him dictator, and this was actually the beginning of the decline of the Republic. Caesar was extremely popular among the people, and for good reason: his efforts to create a strong and stable government increased the welfare of the city of Rome.

Many reforms were carried out, the most significant of which was the reform of the calendar. The police was created and officials appointed to carry out land reforms, changes were made in tax legislation.

Caesar's plans included the construction of an unprecedented temple dedicated to the god Mars, a huge theater and a library based on the prototype of Alexandria. He ordered the restoration of Corinth and Carthage, he wanted to turn Ostia into a large port and dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Caesar was going to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, as well as avenge the defeat at Carrhae.

However, Caesar's achievements caused his death in a conspiracy in 44 BC. A group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius feared that Caesar was becoming too powerful and might simply abolish the Senate as a result.

After the death of the dictator, his relative and ally Mark Antony joined forces with Caesar's nephew and heir Gaius Octavius Furin and his friend Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Their joint army defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius in two battles at Philippi in 42 BC. Both killers of the dictator committed suicide; soldiers and officers, except for those directly involved in the conspiracy against Caesar, received forgiveness and an offer to join the victorious army.

Octavius, Antony and Lepidus formed the second triumvirate of Rome. However, the members of this triumvirate turned out to be too ambitious. Lepidus was given control of Spain and Africa, which effectively neutralized him from political claims in Rome. It was decided that Octavius would rule the Roman dominions in the west and Antony in the east.

However, Antony's love affair with the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra VII, destroyed the delicate balance that Octavius sought to maintain, and led to war. The armies of Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. BC, after which the lovers later committed suicide.

Octavius was the sole ruler of Rome. In 27 BC. e. he receives emergency powers from the Senate, the name of Octavian Augustus and becomes the first emperor of Rome. It is at this point that the history of ancient Rome ends and the history of the Roman Empire begins.

Reign of Augustus (31 BC-14 AD)

Now the emperor Octavian Augustus carried out a military reform, retaining 28 of the 60 legions, thanks to which he came to power. The rest were demobilized and settled in the colonies. Thus, 150 thousand people were created. regular army. The length of service is set at sixteen years and later increased to twenty.

The active legions were located far from Rome and from each other - the proximity of the border directed the energy of the military outward, to external enemies. At the same time, being far from each other, ambitious commanders did not have the opportunity to rally into a force capable of threatening the throne. Such caution of Augustus immediately after the civil war was quite understandable and characterized him as a far-sighted politician.

All provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial. In their dominions, the senators had civil authority, but did not have military powers - the troops were only under the control of the emperor and were stationed in regions subject to him.

The republican structure of Rome every year more and more turned into a formality. Senate, comitia and some others state institutions gradually lost their political significance, leaving real power in the hands of the emperor. However, formally, he continued to consult with the Senate, which often voiced the decisions of the emperor as a result of his debate. This form of monarchy with republican features received the conventional name "principate".

Augustus was one of the most talented, energetic and skillful administrators the world has ever known. The enormous work of reorganizing every branch of his vast empire created a prosperous new Roman world.

Following in the footsteps of Caesar, he earned genuine popularity by organizing games and spectacles for the people, building new buildings, roads, and other measures for the common good. The emperor himself claimed to have restored 82 temples in one year.

Augustus was not a talented general, but he had the good sense to admit it. And therefore, in military affairs, he relied on his faithful friend Agrippa, who had a military vocation. Most important achievement was the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. e. Then in 20 BC. managed to return the banners and prisoners captured by the Parthians at the Battle of Karrha in 53 BC. Also in the reign of Augustus, the Danube became the border of the empire in the east of Europe, after the conquest of the Alpine tribes and the occupation of the Balkans.

Julio-Claudian dynasty (AD 14-69)

Since Augustus and his wife Livia did not have common sons, his stepson from his first marriage, Tiberius, became the emperor's heir. In the will of Augustus, he was the sole heir, and after the death of the emperor in 14 AD. the succession of power passed peacefully.

Tiberius

As under Augustus, peace and prosperity reigned in the empire as a whole. Tiberius did not seek to conquer new territories, but continued to strengthen the power of Rome over the entire vast empire.

Distinguished by stinginess, the new emperor practically stopped financing the construction of temples, roads and other structures. Nevertheless, the consequences of natural disasters or fires were eliminated by means of the state treasury, and in such situations Tiberius was not greedy. The main result of the reign of Tiberius was the strengthening of imperial power, since the principate of the reign of Augustus still existed in the empire of Tiberius.

Caligula

After the death of Tiberius in 37. power passed to Caligula, who was the son of the nephew of the deceased emperor. The beginning of his reign was very promising, since the young heir was popular among the people and generous. Caligula marked his coming to power with a large-scale amnesty. However, an incomprehensible illness that happened to the emperor a few months later turned the man on whom Rome had pinned its bright hopes into a crazy monster, making him a household name. In the fifth year of his insane reign, in 41 AD, Caligula was killed by one of the Praetorian officers.

Claudius

Caligula's successor was his uncle Claudius, who was fifty years old when he came to power. Throughout the period of his reign, the empire prospered, and there were practically no complaints from the provinces. But the main achievement of the reign of Claudius was the organized conquest of the south of England.

Nero

Succeeded Claudius in 54. AD his stepson Nero, distinguished by outstanding cruelty, tyranny and depravity. On a whim, the emperor burned down half of the city in 64 and then tried to regain popularity among the people by lighting up its gardens with a public display of burning Christians. As a result of the revolt of the Praetorians in 68, Nero committed suicide, and with his death the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.

Flavian dynasty (69-96)

Within a year after the death of Nero, the struggle for the throne continued, the result of which was a civil war. And only the coming to power of the new Flavian dynasty in the person of Emperor Vespasian put an end to civil strife.

During the 9 years of his reign, uprisings that broke out in the provinces were suppressed, and the state economy was restored.

After the death of Vespasian, his own son became the heir - this was the first case of a transfer of power in Rome from father to son. The reign was short, and the younger brother Domitian, who succeeded him after his death, was not distinguished by special virtues and died as a result of a conspiracy.

Antonina (90-180)

After his death, the Senate proclaimed Emperor Nerva, who ruled for only two years, but gave Rome one of the best rulers - the outstanding commander Ulpius Trajan. Under him, the Roman Empire reached its maximum size. Expanding the borders of the empire, Trajan wanted to push the nomadic barbarian tribes as far as possible from Rome. Three subsequent emperors - Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius - acted for the benefit of Rome and made the 2nd century AD. the best era of the empire.

Sever dynasty (193-235)

The son of Marcus Aurelius Commodus did not have the virtues of his father and his predecessors, but he had many vices. As a result of the conspiracy, he was strangled in 192, and the empire again entered the period of interregnum.

In 193, a new dynasty of the Severes comes to power. During the reign of Carcalla, the second emperor of this dynasty, the inhabitants of all the provinces received the right to Roman citizenship. All the emperors of the dynasty (except the founder Septimius Severus) died a violent death.

Crisis of the 3rd century

From 235g. For 284 years, the empire is experiencing a crisis of state power, which resulted in a period of instability, economic decline and the temporary loss of some territories. From 235g. by 268 29 emperors claimed the throne, of which only one died a natural death. Only with the proclamation of Emperor Diocletian in 284 did the period of turmoil end.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

It was under Diocletian that the principate finally ceased to exist, giving way to dominance - the unlimited power of the emperor. During his reign, a number of reforms were carried out, in particular, the formal division of the empire, first into two, and then into four regions, each of which was ruled by its own “tetrarch”. Although the tetrarchy lasted only until 313, it was the initial idea of dividing into west and east that led in the future to the division into two independent empires.

Constantine I and the Decline of the Empire

By 324, Constantine becomes the only ruler of the empire, under which Christianity acquires the status state religion. The capital is transferred from Rome to Constantinople, built on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. After his death, the process of the decline of the empire becomes irreversible - civil strife and the invasion of barbarians gradually led to the decline of the once mightiest empire in the world. Theodosius I can be considered the last sovereign ruler of the Roman world, but he stayed with him for only about a year. In 395 power passes to his sons. The division into Western and Eastern empires becomes final.

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