There are many controversial issues in this topic. Considering them, one should speak about hypotheses existing in science. It is necessary to consistently present questions about the social system and the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs.

pay attention to question origin Slavic ethnos. Ethnos- a type of stable social grouping of people that has historically emerged, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation. The Slavic ethnos included several peoples. The ancestors of the Slavs - the Proto-Slavs lived to the east of the Germans, occupied territories from the Elbe and Oder to the Donets, Oka and Upper Volga, from the Baltic Pomerania to the Middle and Lower reaches of the Danube and the Black Sea.

In the VI century, the Eastern Slavs stand out from a single Slavic community.

Until the 6th century, Rus' was not yet a state, but a union of tribes. The Slavs lived in tribal communities, then there was a transition to a territorial (neighboring) community. Gradually, communities grow into cities, and by the 9th century, a state is being formed. This issue needs to be considered in more detail.

There are different points of view on the issue. O origin states at Slavs. Authors Norman theories I. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Schlozer, formulated in the 18th century, argued that the state among the Slavs was created by the Scandinavian Norman peoples. This point of view is based on the Tale of Bygone Years, which reported that in 862, in order to end civil strife, the Slavs turned to the Varangians with a proposal to take the princely throne. As a result, three brothers: Rurik, who settled in Novgorod, Sineus - in Beloozero and Truvor in Izborsk - laid the foundation for the Varangian dynasty. Most historians believe that Sineus and Truvor did not really exist (translated from the Old Swedish language, the words “sine hus truvor” mean “with a house and a squad”).

At the same time, a number of researchers, including anti-Normanists, admit that the legend is based on historical fact the reign of a Scandinavian in Novgorod, who laid the foundation for the Rurik dynasty, which soon assimilated with the local population (already the grandson of Rurik Svyatoslav bore a Slavic name). A violent seizure of power by the Vikings was also quite possible, followed by the execution of an act of their “voluntary” calling.

Modern historians no longer adhere to such extreme views and recognize that the Varangians were indeed the first all-Russian princes, but the state in Rus' began to take shape before the calling of the Varangians.

It is necessary to highlight background education Old Russian states: economic - the transition to arable farming, the separation of crafts from agriculture, the concentration of crafts in cities, the development of trade; political - the formation of Slavic tribal unions, the need for the tribal nobility in an apparatus to protect their privileges, a sufficient level of military organization, the threat of attack from outside; social - the change of the tribal community of the neighbor, the emergence of inequality, the similarity of customs, rituals, psychology, beliefs of the Slavic tribes.

Notice the question about political in tune Kievan Rus.

At the head of the state was the great prince of Kiev. Rurik (862-879) became the founder of the dynasty of Kievan princes. In the view of the Russian princes in the X-XII centuries, the Russian land was considered the common possession of the Rurik family, where there were senior and junior princes. The princes had a squad. The prince ruled with the help of the advice of other princes and senior warriors (boyars). Junior combatants performed the duties of officials.

The princes of individual lands and other feudal lords were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke. They were obliged to supply soldiers to the Grand Duke, to appear at his request with a squad.

During this period, the first regalia state authorities. Regalia - external signs of princely, royal, royal and imperial power. These regalia, for example, include the crown.

One of the oldest Russian medieval crowns was the "Monomakh's hat", sent, according to legend, in 988 by the Byzantine emperors to the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir the Holy on the occasion of his baptism and marriage with their sister, Princess Anna. According to another version, the "cap of Monomakh" was sent to Kyiv by the Byzantine emperor for the wedding ceremony of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh. It consisted of eight gold plates trimmed with filigree, each of which was decorated with precious stone and a few pearls. The lower part of the crown had pearl pendants, later it was trimmed with sable trim. This crown has always belonged to the eldest in the family. The first European-style crown in Russia was made in 1724 for the coronation of Catherine I.

It should be noted that the main function of the princely power was the collection of people, this was the first form of domination and subordination.

Christianity played an important role in the unification of the Slavs and the creation of the state - Kievan Rus. It is necessary to clarify the issue of reasons And conditions acceptance Christianity.

Before the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs were pagans. Each tribe had its own gods, patrons. In 988, the Great Kyiv Prince Vladimir introduced Christianity in the Orthodox version.

With the adoption of Christianity, the Julian calendar is introduced with the Roman names of the months, the seven-day week and the Byzantine designation of the era: from the creation of the world. Prior to this, the calculation of time in Rus' was carried out according to the lunisolar calendar, which was reflected in the names of the months, and the year began on March 1.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for Rus': the state power and territorial unity of the Old Russian state were strengthened; Kievan Rus became equal to European Christian countries; culture developed further.

Socio-economic system Ancient Rus'. Speaking about the socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus, it is necessary to pay attention to the multi-structural nature of the economy and the complexity of the social structure.

In the middle of the XI-XII centuries. early feudal relations are formed in Rus'. Feudal, ecclesiastical and monastic landownership is taking shape. An patrimony (hereditary land holding) is formed, both princely and boyar. The lands of the feudal lords were cultivated by dependent peasants (purchases, ryadovichi, hirelings). The non-free categories of the population included servants and serfs, as well as outcasts. Dependent peasants cultivated the land of the feudal lord and their land plots. early form feudal rent was a tribute (collection of tribute - polyudye), and then natural dues and corvée.

In the domestic historical science of the XX century. the opinion prevailed that Kievan Rus was an early feudal state, i.e. state of the transitional period from the primitive communal system to the feudal one. In the established principalities of the VIII-XI centuries. there was a process of formation of feudal relations while maintaining elements of the primitive communal system (veche, blood feud, paganism, tribal customs, etc.). IN last years the opinion is being strengthened that the social system of Kievan Rus was multi-structural, combining the features of a patriarchal, slave-owning and early feudal society.

In the XII century, Kievan Rus broke up into independent principalities. The era of the XII-XVI centuries is usually called the specific period or feudal fragmentation. 1132, the year of the death of the last powerful prince of Kyiv, Mstislav the Great, is considered to be the turn of the collapse. The result of the collapse was the emergence of new political formations on the site of the Old Russian state, a distant consequence - the formation of modern peoples: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Reasons for the collapse

Kievan Rus was not a centralized state. Like most early medieval powers, its collapse was natural. The period of disintegration is usually interpreted not simply as strife from the overgrown offspring of Rurik, but as an objective and even progressive process associated with an increase in boyar land ownership. In the principalities, their own nobility arose, which was more profitable to have its own prince protecting its rights than to support the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Crisis brewing

The first threat to the integrity of the country arose immediately after the death of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich. Vladimir ruled the country, seating his 12 sons in the main cities. The eldest son Yaroslav, planted in Novgorod, already during the life of his father refused to send tribute to Kyiv. When Vladimir died (1015), a fratricidal massacre began, ending in the death of all children except Yaroslav and Mstislav of Tmutarakan. The two brothers divided the "Russian Land", which was the core of the Rurikovich's possessions, along the Dnieper. Only in 1036, after the death of Mstislav, Yaroslav began to rule single-handedly over the entire territory of Rus', except for the isolated principality of Polotsk, where, from the end of the 10th century, the descendants of another son of Vladimir, Izyaslav, established themselves.

After the death of Yaroslav in 1054, Rus' was divided in accordance with his will among five sons. The elder Izyaslav was given Kyiv and Novgorod, Svyatoslav - Chernigov, Ryazan, Murom and Tmutarakan, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl and Rostov, the younger ones, Vyacheslav and Igor - Smolensk and Volyn. The established procedure for replacing princely tables has received the name "ladder" in modern historiography. The princes moved in turn from table to table in accordance with their seniority. With the death of one of the princes, the lower ones moved up a step. But, if one of the sons died before his parent and did not have time to visit his table, then his descendants were deprived of the rights to this table and became “outcasts”. On the one hand, such an order prevented the isolation of the lands, since the princes constantly moved from one table to another, but on the other hand, it gave rise to constant conflicts between uncles and nephews. In 1097, at the initiative of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, the next generation of princes gathered for a congress in Lyubech, where a decision was made to end the strife and a new principle was proclaimed: “everyone keeps his fatherland.” Thus, the process of creating regional dynasties was opened.

Kyiv, by decision of the Lyubech Congress, was recognized as the fatherland of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113), which meant the preservation of the tradition of inheriting the capital by the genealogical senior prince. The reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (1125-1132) became a period of political stabilization, and almost all parts of Rus', including the Principality of Polotsk, again found themselves in the orbit of Kyiv.

Mstislav transferred the reign of Kiev to his brother Yaropolk. The intention of the latter to fulfill the plan of Vladimir Monomakh and make his son Mstislav, Vsevolod, his successor, bypassing the younger Monomashichs - the Rostov prince Yuri Dolgoruky and the Volyn prince Andrei, led to a general internecine war, characterizing which the Novgorod chronicler wrote in 1134: "And the whole Russian land was torn apart."

Rise of sovereign principalities

By the middle of the XII century, Kievan Rus was actually divided into 13 principalities (according to chronicle terminology "lands"), each of which pursued an independent policy. The principalities differed both in the size of the territory and the degree of consolidation, and in the balance of power between the prince, the boyars, the emerging service nobility and the ordinary population.

The nine principalities were ruled by their own dynasties. Their structure reproduced in miniature the system that previously existed on the scale of the whole of Rus': local tables were distributed among the members of the dynasty according to the ladder principle, the main table went to the eldest in the family. The princes did not seek to occupy tables in foreign lands, and the external borders of this group of principalities were distinguished by stability.

At the end of the 11th century, the sons of the eldest grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Rostislav Vladimirovich, were assigned to the Przemysl and Terebovalsky volosts, later united into the Galician principality (which flourished during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl). From 1127, the sons of Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich ruled in the Chernigov principality (later only the Olgovichi). In the Principality of Murom that separated from him, their uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich ruled. Later, the Principality of Ryazan separated from the Murom Principality. The descendants of the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky, settled in the Rostov-Suzdal land. Since the 1120s, the principality of Smolensk has been assigned to the line of the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, Rostislav Mstislavich. In the Volyn principality, the descendants of another grandson of Monomakh, Izyaslav Mstislavich, began to rule. In the second half of the 12th century, the Turov-Pinsk principality was assigned to the descendants of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. From the 2nd third of the 12th century, the Gorodensky principality was assigned to the descendants of Vsevolodk (his patronymic is not given in the annals, presumably he was the grandson of Yaropolk Izyaslavich). The enclaved Principality of Tmutarakan and the city of Belaya Vezha ceased to exist at the beginning of the 12th century, having fallen under the blows of the Polovtsians.

The three principalities were not attached to any one dynasty. The Principality of Pereyaslav did not become a fatherland, which during the XII century - XIII centuries was owned by younger representatives of different branches of the Monomakhovichi, who came from other lands.

Kyiv remained a constant bone of contention. In the second half of the 12th century, the struggle for it was mainly between the Monomakhoviches and the Olgoviches. At the same time, the area around Kyiv - the so-called "Russian land" in the narrow sense of the word - continued to be considered as a common domain of the entire princely family, and representatives of several dynasties could occupy tables in it at once. For example, in 1181-1194 Kyiv was in the hands of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and the rest of the principality was ruled by Rurik Rostislavich Smolensky.

Novgorod also remained the all-Russian table. An extremely strong boyar class developed here, which did not allow a single princely branch to gain a foothold in the city. In 1136, Monomakhovich Vsevolod Mstislavich was expelled, and power passed to the veche. Novgorod became an aristocratic republic. The boyars themselves invited the princes. Their role was limited to the performance of some executive functions, and the strengthening of the Novgorod militia by princely combatants. A similar order was established in Pskov, which by the middle of the 13th century had become autonomous from Novgorod.

After the suppression of the dynasty of the Galician Rostislavichs (1199), Galich temporarily turned out to be among the "no man's" tables. Roman Mstislavich of Volyn took possession of it, and as a result of the unification of two neighboring lands, the Galicia-Volyn principality arose. However, after the death of Roman (1205), the Galician boyars refused to recognize the power of his young children, and a struggle broke out for the Galician land between all the main princely branches, the winner of which was Roman's son Daniel.

Decline of Kyiv

For the Kyiv land, which turned from a metropolis into a "simple" principality, a steady decrease in its political role was characteristic. The territory of the land itself, which remained under the control of the Kyiv prince, was also constantly decreasing. One of economic factors that undermined the power of the city was a change in international trade communications. "The path from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was the core of the Old Russian state, lost its relevance after the Crusades. Europe and the East were now connected bypassing Kyiv (through the Mediterranean Sea and through the Volga trade route).

In 1169, as a result of a campaign of a coalition of 10 princes, acting on the initiative of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, Kiev for the first time in the practice of princely strife was taken by storm and plundered, and for the first time the prince who took possession of the city did not remain to reign in it, putting his protege on the reign . Andrei was recognized as the oldest and bore the title of Grand Duke, but did not attempt to sit down in Kyiv. Thus, the traditional connection between the reign of Kyiv and the recognition of seniority in the princely family became optional. In 1203, Kyiv was subjected to a second defeat, this time at the hands of the Smolensk Rurik Rostislavich, who had already reigned in the city three times before.

A terrible blow was dealt to Kyiv during the Mongol invasion in 1240. At that moment, the city was ruled only by the princely governor, since the beginning of the invasion, 5 princes have changed in it. According to Plano Carpini, who visited the city six years later, the capital of Rus' turned into a town with no more than 200 houses. There is an opinion that a significant part of the population of the Kiev region went to the western and northern regions. In the 2nd floor. In the 13th century, Kyiv was ruled by the governors of Vladimir, and later by the Horde Baskaks and local provincial princes, the names of most of whom are unknown. In 1299 Kyiv lost its last attribute of the capital - the residence of the metropolitan. In 1321, in the battle on the Irpen River, the Kiev prince Sudislav, a descendant of the Olgoviches, was defeated by the Lithuanians and recognized himself as a vassal of the Lithuanian prince Gediminas, while remaining dependent on the Horde. In 1362 the city was finally annexed to Lithuania.

Unity Factors

Despite the political disintegration, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land was preserved. The most important unifying factors that testified to the commonality of Russian lands and at the same time distinguished Rus' from other Orthodox countries were:

• Kyiv and the title of the Kyiv prince as the eldest. The city of Kyiv, even after 1169, formally remained the capital, that is, the oldest table of Rus'. It was called the "aging city" and the "mother of cities". It was perceived as the sacred center of the Orthodox land. It is to the Kyiv rulers (regardless of their dynastic affiliation) that the title is used in the sources of the pre-Mongolian time "princes of all Rus'". As for the title "Grand Duke", then in the same period it was applied to both the Kievan and Vladimir princes. And with respect to the second more consistently. But in the South Russian annals, its use was necessarily accompanied by a restrictive clarification, the Grand Duke of Suzdal.
• princely family. Before the conquest of the South Russian lands by Lithuania, absolutely all local thrones were occupied only by the descendants of Rurik. Rus' was in the collective possession of the clan. Active princes during their lives constantly moved from table to table. A visible echo of the tradition of common clan ownership was the conviction that the defense of the "Russian Land" (in the narrow sense), that is, the Principality of Kyiv, is a common Russian affair. The princes of almost all Russian lands took part in major campaigns against the Polovtsy in 1183 and the Mongols in 1223.
• Church. The entire Old Russian territory constituted a single metropolis, ruled by the Kyiv metropolitan. From the 1160s he began to bear the title of "All Rus'". Cases of violation of church unity under the influence political struggle periodically occurred, but were short-lived. Their services include the establishment of a titular metropolis in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl during the triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs of the 11th century, the project of Andrei Bogolyubsky to create a separate metropolis for the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the existence of the Galician metropolis (in 1303-1347, with interruptions, etc.). In 1299 the residence of the metropolitan was transferred from Kyiv to Vladimir, and from 1325 to Moscow. The final division of the metropolis into Moscow and Kyiv took place only in the 15th century.
• United historical memory . The countdown of history in all Russian chronicles always began with the Primary Chronicle of the Kyiv cycle and the activities of the first Kyiv princes.
• Awareness of ethnic community. The question of the existence of a single ancient Russian people in the era of the formation of Kievan Rus is debatable. However, the folding of such a period of fragmentation raises no serious doubts. Tribal identification among the Eastern Slavs gave way to territorial. The inhabitants of all the principalities called themselves Russians and their language Russian. A vivid embodiment of the idea big Rus'» from Severny Arctic Ocean to the Carpathians are the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”, written in the first years after the invasion, and the “List of Russian cities far and near” (late XIV century)

Consequences of the breakup

Being a natural phenomenon, fragmentation contributed to the dynamic economic development of Russian lands: the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture. On the other hand, fragmentation led to a decrease in the defense potential, which coincided in time with the unfavorable foreign policy situation. By the beginning of the 13th century, in addition to the Polovtsian danger (which was decreasing, since after 1185 the Polovtsians did not undertake invasions of Rus' outside the framework of Russian civil strife), Rus' was faced with aggression from two other directions. Enemies appeared in the northwest: Catholic German Orders and Lithuanian tribes, which entered the stage of decomposition of the tribal system, threatened Polotsk, Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk. In 1237-1240 there was a Mongol-Tatar invasion from the southeast, after which the Russian lands fell under the rule of the Golden Horde.

Merging trends

At the beginning of the 13th century, the total number of principalities (including specific ones) reached 50. At the same time, several potential centers of unification were maturing. The most powerful Russian principalities in the northeast were Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk. To the beginning XIII century, the nominal supremacy of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest was recognized by all Russian lands, except for Chernigov and Polotsk, and he acted as an arbiter in the dispute between the southern princes over Kyiv. In the 1st third of the 13th century, the leading positions were occupied by the house of the Smolensk Rostislavichs, who, unlike other princes, did not split their principality into destinies, but sought to occupy tables outside it. With the arrival in Galich of the representative of the Monomakhoviches, Roman Mstislavich, Galicia-Volyn became the most powerful principality in the southwest. In the latter case, a multi-ethnic center was formed, open to contacts with Central Europe.

However, the natural course of centralization was crossed out by the Mongol invasion. Further gathering of Russian lands took place in difficult foreign policy conditions and was dictated primarily by political prerequisites. The principalities of northeastern Rus' during the XIV-XV centuries consolidated around Moscow. The southern and western Russian lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

 political fragmentation.
The strife that began in 972, in the XI century. have become permanent. The establishment of a ladder system of succession to the throne did not put an end to the struggle of the representatives of the Rurik dynasty for power. In 1054, in fact, there was a division of land between the Yaroslavichs - the sons of Yaroslav the Wise. Congresses of the most influential princes at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. in Lyubech, Vitichevo (Uvetichi) and at Dolobsky Lake also did not ensure peace between the brothers and the unity of the Old Russian state. On the contrary, the congress of 1097 in Lyubech legally fixed the division of lands between the princes.
Vladimir Monomakh succeeded in uniting 3/4 of the Russian lands for a short time. But after the death in 1132 of his son Mstislav the Great, Ancient Rus' finally disintegrated into independent principalities. From the 1130s Rus' entered the period political (feudal) fragmentation, which we also call Specific Rus'.
After the death of Mstislav the Great, the struggle for the title of Grand Prince of Kyiv continued for 10 years between the sons and grandsons of Monomakh and Chernigov princes. Kyiv retains the nominal status of the "capital city" for some time, and there is a stubborn struggle for it. From the middle of the XII to the middle of the XIII century. The throne of Kiev, together with the title of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, passed from hand to hand 46 times. Some of the princes ruled in Kyiv for less than a year. It happened that the Grand Duke sat in Kyiv for only a few days. For example, in 1146 Igor Olgovich was able to hold out on the throne of Kiev for only 4 days.
In 1169, Vladimir-Suzdal Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky captured Kyiv, gave it to the plunder of the squad, declared himself a Kyiv prince, but did not stay in Kiev, returned to Suzdal. According to the Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, Andrey Bogolyubsky "separated seniority from place". Kyiv is gradually losing its significance as the capital of the Russian state.

 Causes of feudal fragmentation:
 economic:
- the natural nature of the economy made it possible for individual principalities to exist economically autonomously;
- level economic development allowed local princes to maintain the administrative apparatus and military formations (teams) sufficient to solve internal (fight against unrest) and external (protection of borders and conquests) tasks;
- the presence of a central government meant for the local population and administration only double taxation - in favor of the local prince and Kyiv;
- the growth of feudal landownership;
- strengthening the city elite - princes, boyars, churchmen and merchants;
- with the decline in the significance of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the relevance of its control by the central political power disappeared. political:
- the large size of the state did not allow the Kyiv prince to directly manage all the lands-princes, which led to the emergence of governors and a management system similar to Kyiv;
- the size of the state did not allow the Kyiv prince to quickly respond to events in the lands-principalities (uprisings, attacks by neighbors). This required the maintenance by the governors of their own squads, which led to the strengthening of their independence and independence from the central government;
- unresolved dynastic issues. Established since the XI century. the ladder system of succession to the throne was too cumbersome and did not prevent new strife;
the need to maintain social order.

 Consequences of feudal fragmentation:

Feudal fragmentation is an inevitable and natural process of historical development. It contributed to the further economic and political development of society, although it damaged the unified statehood.

 Political centers of specific Rus'.
In the Russian lands developed three main centers principalities, which differed in the type of state power.
 South (Galicia-Volyn) Rus'. In the south, princely power was still strong, relying on the retinue. At critical moments, the veche took real power into its own hands, including inviting and expelling princes. It was the Galicia-Volyn land that, earlier than other Russian principalities, began to emerge from a state of political confusion, and the princely power, relying on the support of the townspeople, tried to appease the self-will of the boyar groups. The principality of Galicia reached great power in the 1160s–1180s. - during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl. Marriage to the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky Olga provided him with the support of the strong Rostov-Suzdal princes.
After the death of Yaroslav Osmomysl in 1187, the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh Roman Mstislavich (1187–1205) seized power in Galich. He managed to unite Galich and Volyn under his rule and create a single Galicia-Volyn principality. A few years later, he annexed the principality of Kiev to his possessions. On the southwestern borders of Rus', a new huge state grew up, equal in territory to the German Empire.
Outstanding statesman, a brave and talented commander was the son of Roman Mstislavich Daniil of Galicia (1221–1264), who managed to restore the unity of the Galicia-Volyn principality.
Germany, Poland, Hungary, Byzantium were considered with Galicia-Volyn Rus.
According to the type of state power, Galicia-Volyn Rus retained the main features of the early feudal monarchy.
 Northwestern Rus'. In 1136, the princely power in Novgorod ceased to exist as an independent political force. Novgorodians arrested and then expelled from the city the henchman of the Kyiv prince. Since then, the prince has become part of the administrative apparatus. His duties were limited to military matters. The voivode was in charge of law enforcement in the city. All power was concentrated in the hands of the posadnik and the bishop (since 1165 - the archbishop). Critical Issues the political life of Novgorod were decided at the veche. Including the election of officials - mayor, thousand, bishop (archbishop), archimandrite, prince. Only members of influential (aristocratic) boyar families were elected to the highest positions, for example, representatives of the Mishinichi-Ontsiforovich family.
A similar system of organizing political power existed in Pskov.
This type state structure called a feudal (veche) republic. Moreover, these republics were boyar, aristocratic.
 North-Eastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) Rus'. The region, settled by the Slavs relatively late, apparently did not have deep veche traditions. Although, up to a certain point, political management here was also based on the interaction of the city council and the princes appointed from Kyiv. In 1157, the inhabitants of Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir elected Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky, as their prince. In 1162, Andrei Bogolyubsky expelled his brothers, nephews, stepmother and paternal squad from his principality. Vladimir princes relied on "mercifuls", that is, people who depended on the mercy of the prince. Unlike warriors, for the gentry (nobles, as they began to be called from the end of the 12th century), the prince was a master, not a comrade. The service of the servants to the prince was based on principles close to the concept citizenship.
Thus, in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', the foundation was laid for the formation of unlimited despotic power (in the words of the chronicler - "autocracy") of the Vladimir prince.

 The struggle of Russian lands with invasions from the East and West
Feudal fragmentation led to the military weakening of the Russian lands. Individual principalities were unable to resist the Mongol conquest at the beginning of the 13th century. In 1206, at a kurultai - a meeting of the Mongol nobility - Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan, that is, the Supreme Khan. Genghis Khan begins the conquest of neighboring countries and peoples. Having conquered Northern China, Southern Siberia, Central and Central Asia, the Mongol army under the command of Chebe and Subede in 1223 through Transcaucasia reached North Caucasus, where he conquers the Alans and attacks the Polovtsians. The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan turned for help to his son-in-law, the Galician prince Mstislav the Udalny. Mstislav turned to other Russian princes with a call to unite and help the Polovtsy repulse their enemies. Not everyone responded. But even among the princes who brought their squads to the place of the battle, there was no unity: they could not decide which of them would lead the battle, and therefore, all the Russian squads. As a result, Mstislav of Kiev did not take part in the battle at all, which did not save his squad. The battle on the Kalka on May 31, 1223 ended with the complete defeat of the Polovtsians and Russians. 6 Russian princes died, only one in ten of the combatants returned home.
After the battle on the Kalka, the Mongols attacked the Volga Bulgaria, but suffered a series of defeats and in 1225 returned to Asia.
In 1227 Genghis Khan bequeathed the still unconquered western lands to his eldest son Jochi. In 1235, at the kurultai, a decision was made to march on the Volga Bulgaria and Rus'. The campaign was led by the son of Jochi Khan Batu (Batu). In 1237–1238 Batu made a trip to North-Eastern Rus'. In December 1237 Ryazan was taken by him. In January-February 1238 - the cities of Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal, Galich, Tver, Yuryev and others. After the capture of Torzhok, before reaching 100 miles to Novgorod, the Mongol army returned to the southern steppes. On March 4, 1238, on the Sit River, a battle took place between the troops of the great Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodovich and a large Mongol formation under the command of the temnik Burundai, which ended in the complete defeat of the Vladimir squad and the death of the prince.
The defense of the city of Kozelsk was stubborn. The Mongols managed to capture it only after a seven-week siege.
In 1239-1242 Batu makes a trip to South Rus' and Eastern Europe. In December 1240, after a three-month siege, Kyiv was taken by Batu's troops.
In the early 1240s, the ulus of Jochi took shape, which in the Russian lands was called Golden Horde. The Golden Horde established control over the Russian principalities ( Mongolian-Tatar, or Horde yoke). Russian lands were taxed ( "king", or "horde", exit). To determine the amount of tribute, a census was conducted ( "number"). The collection of tribute was carried out by the Baskaks, who annually came to Rus'. In some major cities Baskaks lived constantly, observing the state of affairs. The rights to reign of Russian princes were confirmed by special khan's letters - labels.
 Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and Horde yoke for Russian lands:
- death of the population;
- theft of artisans to the Horde;
- payment of tribute;
- economic decline, slowdown in economic development;
- conservation of feudal fragmentation;
– rupture or weakening of traditional political and cultural ties with other countries;
- slowing down the pace of cultural development.
Simultaneously with the invasion from the East to the northern Russian lands, pressure from the West is increasing. In 1202, the knightly Order of the Swordsmen was created in the Baltic states, the unification of which in 1237 with the Teutonic Order led to the creation of the Livonian Order, which threatened Pskov and Novgorod.
In 1240, a Swedish detachment landed at the mouth of the Neva, led by Jarl Birger. On July 15, 1240, the Swedes were defeated by a squad Prince of Novgorod Alexander Yaroslavich, who received the nickname Nevsky for this victory ( Neva battle).
From the summer of 1240 to the winter of 1241, the knights of the Livonian Order captured Izborsk, Pskov and Koporye. On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipus, the Suzdal-Novgorod army under the command of Alexander Nevsky defeated the Livonians ( Battle on the Ice).

 Culture of specific Rus' before the Mongol invasion
With the advent of the Slavic alphabet (Cyrillic) in Rus' after the adoption of Christianity, literacy became widespread among the population, as evidenced by the discovery in Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Russa and Moscow a large number birch bark letters written by representatives of different segments of the population. Literacy was taught not only to boys, but also to girls. Vladimir Monomakh's sister Yanka, the founder of a women's monastery in Kyiv, created a school for the education of girls at the monastery.
Chronicle develops. Own chronicles, reflecting the peculiarities of the development of their region, began to be created in various ancient Russian cities. But their basis, as a rule, remained the "Tale of Bygone Years", created by Nestor at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. Libraries were created at the monasteries, in which not only liturgical books and chronicles were stored, but also translated literature.
Common genres in ancient Russian literature were Teachings and Journeys.
The masterpieces of Old Russian literature are: “Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik (end of the 12th – beginning of the 13th century), “Message” to the priest Thomas of the Kiev Metropolitan Klimenty Smolyatich (mid-12th century), “Parable about the human soul” by Cyril of Turov (end of the 12th century ), "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (circa 1186), etc.
Architecture is evolving. In the XII century, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, the Cathedral of St. George in Yuryev-Polsky were built. During the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky, the Assumption Cathedral and the Golden Gate in Vladimir, the white-stone palace in the village of Bogolyubovo, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl were created. Under the brother of Andrei Vsevolod III, the majestic Dmitrievsky Cathedral was being built in Vladimir.
A characteristic feature of Russian architecture of that time was the stone carving decorating the buildings. Wooden carved decorations have become an invariable attribute not only of wooden churches, but also of the dwellings of townspeople and peasants.
There are local icon-painting schools, for example, Novgorod and Yaroslavl. The creations of the Novgorod painters of the XII century "The Angel of Golden Hair", "The Savior Not Made by Hands", "The Assumption of the Virgin", the icon of the Yaroslavl masters of the XIII century "Yaroslavskaya Oranta", the frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa near Novgorod, the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir, and others have come down to us.
Oral folk art is developing. The favorite characters of Russian epics are the heroes Ilya Muromets, Volkhv Vseslavich, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich.