From Ivan 3 to Ivan 4. The era of the reign of Ivan III. Expansion of the Russian state

Set up for the lesson Here the call gave us a signal, The hour has come to work. So we don't waste time and start working.

Checking homework. Who launched an open challenge to the Horde? What was this challenge? What happened in the Horde at that time? Who won this fight? When did it become known that Mamai was going with the army to Rus'? For what purpose did Dmitry Ivanovich send messengers to different directions of the Russian land? Who blessed Prince Dmitry Ivanovich to fight the enemies? On what river did the troops meet? When did the battle take place? What was the name of the field? Where did the battle start? How did the battle end? What was the name of Prince Dmitry after this battle?

Did the Russian lands gain complete independence after the defeat of Mamai's troops? No. The enemy was still strong. The raids of the Horde continued and the payment of tribute. It took another 100 years to completely get rid of the Horde dependence. Then Ivan the Third ruled in Rus' - a far-sighted, cautious and prudent person.

100 years have passed since the Battle of Kulikovo. The Moscow principality expanded and strengthened even more, annexing most of the Russian lands to itself. important event the reign of Ivan III was the accession of Novgorod to the Muscovite state.

Two years after the conquest of Novgorod, Ivan Vasilievich was forced to oppose the Tatars. He was still a tributary of the Horde, although not very serviceable, which attracted the khan's wrath. He refused to pay tribute to Khan Akhmat.

The Russian army has changed. Cannons appeared, hand firearms squeaked. The main force was the forged army - well-armed cavalry. On campaigns, she was supported by the ship's army - a foot army, which was delivered to the battlefield by boat.

In the summer of 1480, Ivan III learned that the Horde Khan Akhmat was leading his troops to Rus'. The Russian army, led by Ivan III, set out to meet the enemy. Opponents met on the river Ugra. Both armies stood opposite each other on opposite sides of the river, and no one dared to be the first to launch an offensive. This continued until October. ʹ

The frosts have arrived. The Tatars suffered from cold and hunger, horses died. And the Russian people in their native land had a reliable rear, food supplies, food for horses. Ivan III was convinced that the Tatars would not pass, he decided to withdraw his troops to winter quarters. Unexpectedly, the Tatars took to flight, deciding that if Rus' gives them the coast, it means that it wants to fight with them.

This day - November 11, 1480 - is considered to be the day of the liberation of Rus' from the Mongol- Tatar yoke.

Work according to the textbook Read the text "Journey to ancient Moscow" on pages 76-78 of the textbook. What changes in the appearance of the Kremlin took place under Ivan III?

At the end of the 15th century, the restructuring of the Kremlin began. New red brick walls and towers were erected. The towers were located one from the other at a distance of a rifle shot. Ditches were dug around the walls, connected to the Moskva River and the Neglinka River. ʹ

The best Russian and foreign architects were invited to Moscow. Cathedral Square became the center of the Kremlin.

In August 1479, the massive, graceful and slender Assumption Cathedral shone on the Kremlin hill. It became the main cathedral of the state. Kings were crowned here, the most important messages were announced.

In 1491, Italian craftsmen erected the magnificent Palace of Facets. The chamber is spacious - its space is almost 500 m, and the walls are decorated with frescoes.

In the first decade of the 16th century, the Italian architect Aleviz Fryazin built a new Archangel Cathedral, which became a necropolis - the burial place of Moscow Grand Dukes and Tsars.

The pride of Cathedral Square is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, about 80 meters high. On its tower there were 34 bells with a total weight of over 16 thousand pounds. All Moscow loved their ringing.

Work according to the textbook Read the text on p.79-81 of the textbook. Who is this text about? What interesting things did you find out about him? Why was he called the Terrible? What changes took place during his reign?

Ivan IV became the first tsar in the history of Russia. He was fierce and quick to punish. That's why he earned the nickname Terrible. Under Ivan the Terrible, Russia continued to strengthen its borders, fought against many opponents. The tsar managed to annex the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to Russia.

Work in a notebook with. 27

To summarize: What event happened in 1480? What meaning did it have? What changes in the appearance of the Kremlin took place under Ivan III?

Homework. pp.75 - 81. T. s. 26 - 28, No. 1.5

Neither Sophia nor Vasily was going to be silently satisfied with partial success, and the struggle for power in the grand duke's palace did not subside. Circumstances were now undoubtedly against Dmitri. He was still very young (born in 1483). After the fall of the Patrikeyevs and the execution of Ryapolovsky, his only potential patron among the highest officials Fedor Kuritsyn remained. However, Kuritsyn, being a clerk, was completely dependent on the location of the Grand Duke and did not have the opportunity to object to Ivan III. If he had dared to defend Dmitry openly, he could have been immediately removed from his post. The last time in the sources available to us the name of Kuritsyn is mentioned in 1500. He probably died before 1503.

Shortly after Vasily was awarded the title of Grand Duke of Novgorod and Pskov, Ivan III began to ignore Dmitry. An impossible situation arose at the court, which could not but embarrass both the boyars and the whole people. In the end, on April 11, 1502, Ivan III deprived Dmitry and his mother Elena Moldavskaya of mercy: both were put under house arrest. Three days later, having received the blessing of Metropolitan Simon, Ivan III "planted" Vasily "to the Grand Duchy of Volodimersk and Moscow and All Rus' as an autocrat"

IN Great Rus' The news was no doubt received with mixed feelings. It caused considerable anxiety abroad and gave rise to all sorts of rumors. The disgrace of Elena Moldavskaya and her son aggravated relations between Moscow and Moldova. Voivode Stefan, Elena's father, complained bitterly to his (and Ivan III's) ally, the Khan of Crimea, Mengli Giray. Through an envoy, Ivan III tried to explain to the khan his attitude towards Dmitry with the following circumstances: “I, Ivan, at first favored my grandson Dmitry, but he became rude to me. All favor him who serves well and tries to please his benefactor; there is no point in favoring a person who is rude to you.” Ivan's ambassador to Lithuania was instructed to give detailed explanations to anyone who would ask questions about the events in Moscow. In addition, the ambassador had to emphasize that Vasily, now, together with Ivan III, is the overlord of all Russian states.

After that, in some documents, Ivan III was addressed as the "great sovereign." Perhaps for this reason Herberstein called him "The Great". Indeed, it can be assumed that Ivan III, although having all the external signs of power, was forced to transfer a significant part of real power to Vasily (Sofya died on April 7, 1503). Obviously, Vasily established close contact with the leaders of the conservative group of Russian clergy. They, in turn, hoped that Basil would support the fight against heresy, and also help them repel future attempts to secularize church lands.

Under the influence of Vasily, Ivan III agreed to accept the leader of the conservative clergy, rector Joseph Sanin Volotsky. Ivan III had conversations with Joseph three times during the Easter week of 1503. We know about these meetings from Joseph’s letters to Archimandrite Mitrofan, who was Ivan III’s confessor in last years his life. Joseph wrote to Mitrofan in April 1504 - that is, about a year after meeting with Ivan III. Joseph, in all likelihood, at that time still perfectly remembered the main content of his conversations, but we cannot be sure that all his statements are true in detail. As Joseph writes, at the first meeting, Ivan admitted that he had talked with heretics and asked Joseph to forgive him. Ivan III added that the Metropolitan and the bishops absolved him of this sin. Joseph replied that God would forgive Ivan III if from now on he would fight against heresy. In the second conversation, Ivan III explained to Joseph which heresy was led by Archpriest Alexy, and which one was Fedor Kuritsyn. Ivan also admitted that his daughter-in-law Elena had been converted to heresy by Ivan Maximov. Ivan then allegedly promised to take harsh action against heresy. However, at the third meeting, Ivan III asked Joseph if it would not be a sin to punish heretics. When Joseph began to speak in favor of punishment, Ivan abruptly interrupted the conversation.

In August and September 1503, a cathedral (church council) was convened in Moscow. Josephus and his followers hoped, in all probability, that this council would permit the suppression of heresy. Ivan III, however, did not include the issue of heresy on the agenda of the council, which, under the chairmanship of Ivan III, considered some minor reforms in church administration. One of them concerned the fees that the bishops demanded from candidates for clergy at the time of ordination. This, by the way, was one of the objects of criticism of the heretics. The Council decided to abolish these fees. When the session of the council was already drawing to a close, the representative of the Trans-Volga elders, Nil Sorsky, brought a new problem to the attention of the council, saying that the monasteries should be deprived of the right to own land. It is unlikely that the Nile took this step without the consent of Ivan III.

The proposal met with fierce opposition. Metropolitan Simon, who had blessed the seizure of church lands in Novgorod three years ago, now protested against the possibility of applying such measures to all of Rus'. As we know, until the end of 1503, Simon never dared to openly contradict Ivan III. Now, however, he could count on Basil's protection. Neil's opponents did everything to reject his proposal. Iosif Sanin, who had left Moscow the day before Nil's speech, was hastily demanded back. Most of the cathedral was in opposition to the Nile. Ivan III tried three times to convince the council, but was eventually forced to retreat after Joseph and other defenders of the existing order bombarded him with quotations from the Church Fathers and Byzantine church codes, confirming their position.

The refusal of the cathedral to allow further secularization of church lands was a serious blow to the plans of Ivan III to increase the fund of local land, and through it the noble militia. Since Vasily supported the decision of the council, Ivan III could not do anything. He soon had the opportunity to strike back at one of the heretics' most active enemies, Archbishop Gennady of Novgorod. Gennady signed the council's decision abolishing payment to bishops for ordination of priests; but on his return to Novgorod he was unable to convince his secretary to stop these exactions. Complaints were immediately received in Moscow. Under other circumstances, Gennady, most likely, would have managed to get out, or at least receive only a small punishment or reprimand. Now Ivan III demanded immediate action from Metropolitan Simon, and Gennady was immediately removed from the diocese.

After the removal of Gennady, Iosif Sanin took over the leadership of the fight against heresy. In the above-mentioned letter dated April 1504 to Ivan III's confessor Mitrofan, Joseph encourages Mitrofan to use all means to convince Ivan III of the need to suppress the heresy. Joseph claims that if Mitrofan fails to cope with the task, God will punish both him (Mitrofan) and Ivan III. Basil, in turn, no doubt pushed his father to convene a new church council to stigmatize heresy. Finally Ivan III surrendered. It is worth noting that around this time (no later than June 16, 1504) Ivan III wrote a will in which he “blessed” Vasily with “all Russian grand principalities.” Vasily's younger brothers were instructed to consider Vasily "their father" and obey him in everything. Dmitry is not mentioned at all in the will. The signature was witnessed by four people: the confessor of Ivan III, Archimandrite Mitrofan; Chairman of the Boyar Duma, Prince Ivan Kholmsky; Prince Danila Vasilyevich Shchenya; and boyar Yakov Zakharyevich Koshkin.

A council against heretics met in Moscow in December 1505. This time, together with Ivan III, Vasily nominally presided, but in fact there was one chairman. The leaders of the heresy were sentenced to be burned at the stake. Three, including brother Fyodor Kuritsyn and Ivan Maksimov, were burned in Moscow on December 27. Shortly thereafter, several other heretics were executed in Novgorod. Elena of Moldavia died in prison on January 18, 1505.

The refusal of the council of 1503 to approve the secularization of church lands and the cruel punishment of heretics, appointed by the council of 1504, painfully hurt the feelings of Ivan III. Despair and melancholy overwhelmed him: he, apparently, repented of his last mistakes. However, it was now too late to change anything. Automatically, he continued to perform the duties of the Grand Duke. His vassal, the Khan of Kazan, Mohammed-Emin, rose up against Ivan III and brutally killed many Russian merchants who lived in Kazan. In September Kazan Tatars attacked Nizhny Novgorod, but were repulsed. As for family matters, on September 4, 1505, Vasily married Solomonia Saburova, the daughter of a Moscow boyar. The rite was performed by Metropolitan Simon. Ivan III was present at the wedding.

Did Ivan III think about Dmitry's return to power? Rumors about this circulated around Moscow as early as 1517, during Herberstein's first visit to Moscow. Herberstein says that when Ivan III was dying, "he ordered Dmitry to be brought to him and said -" Dear grandson, I have sinned against God and you by imprisoning them and disinheriting them. Therefore, I beg you for forgiveness Go and own it what belongs to you by right". Dmitry was touched by this speech, and he easily forgave his grandfather all the evil. Once when he left, he was seized on the orders of his uncle Gabriel (that is, Vasily) and thrown into prison. Ivan died on October 27, 1505.

To get ahead of Ahmed Khan, to be in time for the river, to occupy and strengthen all the places convenient for crossing, fords and "stiles" - that's what the Grand Duke was most concerned about.

Grand princely governors managed to do it!

Now Ivan III's "Kolomenskoye seat" has lost its meaning, and on October 1 he returned to Moscow for negotiations with the rebellious brothers. As the chronicler reports, “at that time, his brothers, princes Ondreev and princes Borisov, came to Moscow, about the world. The prince, on the other hand, favored the great brothers, let the ambassadors go, and ordered them to come to him in the borze. Ivan III thus made good use of the respite that Ahmed Khan's slowness gave him. And his bypass movement through the Lithuanian possessions, and liquidated the internal conflict: the regiments of the brothers of the Grand Duke were supposed to strengthen the Grand Duke's army.

Another purpose of the trip to Moscow was, apparently, the organization of the defense of the capital. Grand Duke“Having strengthened the city, and in the siege in the city of Moscow sat Metropolitan Gerontei, and the Grand Duchess monk Martha, and Prince Mikhail Andreevich, and the governor of Moscow, Ivan Yuryevich, and a lot of people from many cities.” There was now no need to worry about Moscow, and on October 3, Ivan III went to the army.

The Grand Duke was located in Kremenets (the village of Kremeietskoye, between Medyn and Borovsk), about five to ten kilometers behind the Russian regiments defending the banks of the Ugra River. The choice of this particular place for his own and the general reserve of stay testifies to the correct assessment by Ivan III general strategic environment, and its readiness to actively intervene in hostilities if necessary.

Historians have repeatedly drawn attention to the benefits of the Kremenets position. The Polish historian F. Pape wrote that the position of Ivan III himself under the “~Remenets village” was excellent, because it not only served as a reserve, but also shielded Moscow from Lithuania.

Additional arguments in favor of Kremenets poii are given by Soviet historian K.V. Bazilevich, noting that the mass of horsemen of the Tatars could quickly move along the coast, choosing the most convenient and worse protected places for crossing. The narrow Ugra did not present a strong natural obstacle for the enemy, so it would be unreasonable from the side of tactical requirements to keep all forces near the river itself. In this case, a breakthrough to the left bank of the Ugra would put the defending troops in a difficult position. The Kremenets position made it possible to quickly transfer troops to the threatened area.

How was the defense of the very bank of the Ugra River organized?

The main grouping of Russian troops, led by Prince Ivan Ivanovich the Less, was concentrated in the Kaluga region and covered the mouth of the Ugra. As shown further developments, the Russian governors correctly assessed the situation and covered with the main forces really the most dangerous place: it was here that the general battle took place.

Other Russian regiments, according to the chronicler, “a hundred along the Oka and along the Ugra for 60 versts”, along the Ugra itself from Kaluga to Yukhnov. Further up the Ugra there were already Lithuanian possessions, and the governors did not go there. On this sixty-verst space, the famous “standing on the Ugra” took place. The main task of the “coastal governors” was to prevent the Horde cavalry from breaking through the river, for which it was necessary to protect all places convenient for crossing. The chronicler directly points to this: “the governors came to the stash on the Ugra, and fords and stiles were taken away.”

First V In Russian military history, a significant role in repulsing the Horde was assigned to firearms, as evidenced by the miniatures of the chronicle “Face Code” (that is, an illustrated chronicle) dedicated to “standing on the Ugra”. They depict cannons and squeakers opposed to the Horde bows. The Vologda-Perm Chronicle also names “mattresses” as part of the “attire” on the Ugra River. The “mattresses” put up in advance on the “climbings” across the river were a formidable weapon at that time. Sufficient distribution was also received by hand firearms - “hands”, they were even in service with the noble cavalry. The Russian army also included numerous detachments of “pishchalniks”, which were previously used to “protect” the fords across the border rivers.

The choice of the main defensive position along the Ugra River could be determined not only by its advantageous strategic position, but also by the desire to effectively use the “outfit” and fundamentally new types of troops - “pishchalnikov” and “fiery archers”. The “outfit”, which did not yet have sufficient maneuverability, was beneficial to use not in fleeting field battles, but in positional warfare, placing guns, heavy squeaks and “mattresses” on the fords through the Ugra. Here the Horde cavalry, deprived of freedom of maneuver, was forced to advance directly on the cannons and squeaks of the Russian troops. Ivan III, thus, imposed his strategic initiative on Ahmed Khan, forced him to start the battle in conditions unfavorable for the Horde, and made the most of his superiority in firearms.

The same considerations dictated the need for strictly defensive actions. At offensive operations beyond the Ugra, the Russian army lost its most important advantage - “fiery battle”, because the “handguns” that could be taken with them did not at all compensate for the absence of a heavy “outfit”.

When organizing the defense of the Ugra, the Grand Duke showed himself to be a skilled military leader, who managed to make the most of the strengths of his troops and, at the same time, create a situation in which the advantages of the Horde could not be fully manifested. For flanking and detour maneuvers, the Horde cavalry did not have enough space, which forced them to “direct battle” on the crossings across the Ugra. In this kind of hostilities, the Russian army was stronger not only because it had firearms - the defensive weapons of the Russian soldiers were much better, and this provided them with an advantage in hand-to-hand combat. A frontal attack on cannons and "mattresses", on a close formation of dressed V The strong armor of the Russian soldiers turned out to be disastrous for the Horde, they suffered huge losses and did not succeed.

If the expression is true that a true commander wins a battle before it begins, then the Grand Duke once again confirmed this by choosing the most advantageous method of action for the Russian army and forcing the Horde to “direct battle”. Nevertheless, the creation of favorable conditions for victory is not the victory itself. Victory had to be won in fierce battles: the huge army of Ahmed Khan was inexorably advancing on the Russian borders...

The route of the Khan's campaign to the Ugra is well traced according to the chroniclers: he "went with all his forces past Mchenesk, and Lyubutesk, and Odoev." The Horde, thus, walked along the watershed between the upper reaches of the Don and the Oka, along the “Verkhovsky principalities”, then subject to Lithuania. It is significant that they did not touch the neighboring Tula region at all, where they could expect resistance, and even bypassed the Yelets principality, which was considered a Muscovite possession. Ahmed Khan clearly did not want to get involved in battles. And he crossed the Oka not where the Russian outposts stood, but above the mouth of the Ugra, again within the limits of Lithuanian possessions, where there could not be Russian governors. Then, along the other, left bank of the Oka, he moved to the Ugric mouth. In the event of a successful breakthrough through the Ugra, a large road led from here through Kaluga, Maloyaroslavets and Medyn into the depths of Russian lands.

Those historians who believed that the “narrow” Ugra, and at present it is a really narrow river, could not be a serious obstacle, are wrong. In the 15th century, the Ugra was a rather deep and wide river. Data on its measurements in the middle of the last century, when the forests along the river were not cut down, have been preserved, and the given names are about the area that interests us - from the mouth to Yukhnov. Throughout this stretch, the Ugra was navigable, had a depth of two and a half to five meters and a width of eighty to one hundred and fifty meters. It was possible to force it only along the fords. In addition, approaches to the fords were difficult due to the steepness of the banks, many ravines and rivers, swamps, and forest thickets. Geographic descriptions The Ugrians are full of notes: “the descents to the derailment are steep and difficult for carts”, “the coast is steep”, “the area is swampy”, “there is a great abundance of forests”. Separate steep sections of the coast reached a height of two hundred meters above sea level, there were often limestone cliffs, generally impregnable. Approaches to the Ugra were also hampered by many tributaries, small rivers and streams. For example, only V In Yukhnovsky district, rivers fell into Ugra: Verbilovka, Gordota, Slocha, Elenka, Livonichevka, Volsta, Sigosta, Vorovka, Zhyzhala, Vuyka, Vorya, Uzhatka, Remizh, Kunova, Sokhna, Wormwood and others.

A relatively convenient place for crossing was higher than Yukhnov, against the mouth of the Vori River, but in this case, the Horde army had to go far away from the main direction of the campaign and fell into a terrain that was difficult to move towards Moscow: the Horde would have to force several rivers - Izver, Shan, Puddle and Protva, to wade through dense forests. In the “Topographic Description of the Kaluga Viceroyalty” (1785), it was recorded that the Medynsky district “has a great abundance in the red and black forest”, and the main forests stretch “along the rivers Vora, Izvera, along the rivers Tsvetushka and Kislovka from Yukhnovsky to Gzhatsky district” , that is, exactly in those places where the Horde cavalry should have gone after the crossing. It is clear that from a military point of view, the crossing near the mouth of the Vori was inexpedient.

The place for the crossing of the main forces of Ahmed Khan, wagon trains and siege weapons had to satisfy at least three conditions: convenient approaches, low flat banks where one could turn around, and a quick exit after crossing to an important strategic direction.

John III is one of the very few Sovereigns elected by Providence to decide for a long time the fate of peoples: he is a Hero not only of Russia, but also World History. John appeared in the political theater at a time when a new state system, together with the new power of Sovereigns, arose throughout Europe on the ruins of the feudal, or local, system. Russia for about three centuries was outside the circle of the European political activity without participating in important changes civil life of peoples. Although nothing is done suddenly; although the laudable efforts of the Princes of Moscow, from Kalita to Vasily the Dark, prepared a lot for Autocracy and our inner power: but Russia under John III, as it were, emerged from the twilight of shadows, where it still had neither a solid image, nor the full being of the state.

Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich- Grand Duke of Moscow (1462-1505), sovereign of all Rus',turned out to be in the shadow of his famous grandson Ivan IV, although his merits in the creation of Russian statehood are immeasurably higher compared to the very dubious successes of the first Russian tsar. Ivan III, in fact, created Russian state laying down the principles government controlled characteristic of Russia in the 16th-20th centuries.

In the second half of the 16th century, after the horrors of the cause, the nickname of the grandfather - Ivan the Terrible - passed to his grandson, so that in the folklore of later times, many deeds of the first were "attributed" to the second.

Historians back in the 19th century appreciated the contribution of each of these sovereigns, but they could not "overcome" the stereotype that had developed by that time.

Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich did not formally proclaim himself "king", but the word "state" was first heard from his lips.

The volume of his "state" power was not at all less than that of the king.

The Moscow sovereign Ivan III Vasilievich received the nickname Great from historians. Karamzin put him even higher than Peter I, for Ivan III did a great state deed without resorting to violence against the people.
This is generally explained simply. The fact is that we all live in a state founded by Ivan III. When in 1462 In the year he ascended the Moscow throne, the Moscow principality was still surrounded by Russian specific possessions from everywhere: the lord of Veliky Novgorod, the princes of Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Ryazan. Ivan Vasilyevich subjugated all these lands either by force or by peace agreements. So at the end of his reign, in 1505 year, Ivan III had on all the borders of the Muscovite state already only heterodox and foreign neighbors: Swedes, Germans, Lithuania, Tatars.

Ivan Vasilyevich, being one of the many specific princes, even the most powerful, having destroyed or subjugated these possessions, turned into a single sovereign of an entire people.He completed the collection of Russian lands that were in the sphere of influence of the Horde. Under him, the stage of political fragmentation of Rus' ended, there was a final liberation from the Horde yoke.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible in his famous messages called his grandfather Ivan III " avenger of lies", recalled"Great Sovereign Ivan Vasilyevich, collector of Russian land and owner of many lands."

We also find a very high assessment of the activities of Ivan III in foreign sources, and they specifically emphasized the foreign policy and military successes of the Grand Duke. Even King Casimir IV, a constant opponent of Ivan III, characterized him as " leader, famous for many victories, possessing a huge treasury ", and warned against "frivolous" speeches against his power. Polish historian of the early 16th century. Matvey Mekhovsky wrote about Grand Duke Ivan III:It was the economic and useful land of his sovereign. He ... by his prudent activity subjugated and forced to pay tribute to those to whom he had previously paid it. He conquered and brought to submission the diverse tribes and multilingual lands of Asiatic Scythia, widely stretching to the east and north.

***

In the middle of the XV century. weakened Lithuania, which found itself under the blows of the Crimean and Horde khans, Hungarians, Livonians, Danes, Russians. The Kingdom of Poland strongly helped Lithuania, but the Grand Dukes of Lithuania, who dreamed of independence, were not always happy with this help. And the Poles themselves did not feel quite comfortable because of the constant onslaught from the west (from the German emperors) and from the south (from the Hungarians and the steppes). In Scandinavia, a new power began to emerge - Sweden, while dependent on Denmark, but itself controlling Finland. The time of Sweden will come in 1523, when, under King Gustav I, she will be freed from Denmark. However, already in the time of Ivan III, it influenced the course of affairs in the Baltic region. East of Moscow in the 1440s. the Kazan Khanate was created - not very strong, but young and daring. Golden Horde now controlled only insignificant territories in the lower reaches of the Don and Volga. Beyond the Black Sea, the Ottoman Turks got stronger. In 1453 they crushed the Byzantine Empire, continued their conquests in the Balkans and other parts of Eurasia. But before of Eastern Europe they will not get there so soon as to prevent Prince Ivan III from playing his diplomatic games here, on the result of which the success of the entire Russian business largely depended.

Harsh childhood

Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilievich, second son of the Grand Duke Moscow Vasily II Vasilyevich Darkborn in Moscow January 22, 1440 year and was the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, the winner in the Battle of Kulikovo. Ivan's mother is Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich Borovsky.An interesting prophetic prediction is associated with Ivan III and free Novgorod, which has always waged a stubborn struggle with Moscow for its political independence. In the 40s. In the 15th century, in the Novgorod monastery on the foothills of the Klopsk tract, blessed Michael labored, known in the paternal calendar under the name of Klopsky. It was in 1400 that the local archbishop Evfimy visited him. The blessed one said to the lord:"And today there is great joy in Moscow. The Grand Duke of Moscow had a son, who was given the name Ivan. He will destroy the customs of the Novgorod land and bring death to our cityand the ruin of the customs of our land will be from him, he will gain a lot of gold and silver, and he will become the ruler of all the Russian land.

Ivan was born in a stormy time of wars, internecine strife and unrest. It was restless on the southern and eastern borders of Rus': numerous khans of the Horde, which had disintegrated by that time, often made devastating raids on Russian lands. Especially dangerous was Ulu-Mohammed, the leader of the Great Horde. On July 7, 1445, in the battle near Suzdal, Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich himself was captured by the Tatars. On top of all the troubles, on July 14, Moscow burned to the ground: stone temples and part of the fortress walls collapsed from the fire. Because of this, the Grand Duchesses - the grandmother of our hero Sofya Vitovna and mother Maria Yaroslavna - went to Rostov with their children. Fortunately, the Tatars did not dare to go to the defenseless Russian capital.

October 1 Ulu-Mohammed, appointing a huge ransom,let Vasily Vasilyevich go home. The Grand Duke was accompanied by a large Tatar embassy, ​​which was supposed to follow the collection of ransoms in various Russian cities. Tatars got the right to manage them until they collect the required amount.

This dealt a terrible blow to the prestige of the Grand Duke, which Dmitry Shemyaka did not take advantage of. In February 1446, Vasily Vasilyevich, taking with him his sons Ivan and Yuri the Less, went on a pilgrimage to the Trinity Monastery -"to hit Sergiev's coffin with your forehead", To "patron of the Russian land and intercessor before the Lord God."In his absence, Prince Dmitry, having entered Moscow with an army, arrested the mother and wife of Vasily Vasilyevich, and also

many boyars who sided with the Grand Duke, and he himself was soon taken into custody, the conspirators in a hurry forgot about his sons, and Prince Ivan Ryapolovsky managed to hide the princes Ivan and Yuri in the monastery chambers, after which he took them to Murom.

On the night of February 17-18, on the orders of Dmitry Shemyaka, their father was blinded, after which they were sent to Uglich. Such a cruel punishment was the revenge of the new Grand Duke: in 1436, Vasily Vasilyevich dealt exactly with Vasily Kosy, who was captured by him, the brother of Dmitry Shemyaka. Soon, Ivan and Yuri followed their father to prison in the same Uglich.

Retaining power proved more difficult than winning. By autumn, a power vacuum had emerged. On September 15, 1446, seven months after the reign in Moscow, Dmitry Shemyaka released his blind rival to freedom, giving him a fiefdom in Vologda. This was the beginning of the end: soon all the opponents of the Grand Duke were drawn to the city. The abbot of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, Trifon, freed Vasily the Dark from the cross-kissing of Shemyake, and exactly a year after the blinding, the father of our hero solemnly returned to Moscow.

Dmitry Shemyaka, who fled to his patrimony, continued to fight with Vasily the Dark for several more years. In July 1453, sent by Vasily Dark people Shemyaka was poisoned with arsenic.

father's legacy

We can only guess,what feelings raged in the soul of Prince Ivan Vasilyevich in early childhood. At least three times - in 1445 and twice in 1446 - he was to be gripped by mortal fear: the Tatar captivity of his father and a fire in Moscow, flight to Murom, Uglich imprisonment - all this fell to the lot of a five-six-year-old boy.

Life forced the prince to grow up early.From the very young years Hegot in the thick political struggle, became the assistant of his blind father. He was relentlessly by his side, participated in all his campaigns, and at the age of six he was engaged to the daughter of the Tver prince, which should have meant the union of two eternal rivals - Moscow and Tver.

Since 1448, Ivan Vasilyevich has been titled in the annals as the Grand Duke, just like his father. Long before accession to the throne, many levers of power are in the hands of Ivan Vasilyevich; he performs important military and political assignments. In 1448, he was in Vladimir with an army that covered important things from the Tatars. south direction, and in 1452 he went on his first military campaign. From the beginning of the 50s. 15th century Ivan Vasilyevich, step by step, mastered the difficult craft of the sovereign, delving into the affairs of his blind father, who returning to the throne, he was not inclined to stand on ceremony not only with enemies, but in general with any potential rivals.

Public mass executions - an event unheard of before in Rus'! - the reign of the blind man ended: Vasily Vasilyevich, having learned about the intention of the service people to release Prince Vasily Yaroslavich from imprisonment, "commanded all imati, and execute, and beat with a whip, and cut their hands, and cut their legs, and cut off the heads of others" .On the evening of March 27, 1462 Vasily the Dark, who suffered from dry disease (bone tuberculosis), died, passing the great reign to his eldest son Ivan and endowing each of the other four sons with vast possessions.

With a firm hand

The father gave the young prince a fragile peace with his neighbors. It was restless in Novgorod and Pskov. In the Great Horde, the ambitious Akhmat came to power, dreaming of reviving the power of the Genghisids. Political passions overwhelmed Moscow itself. But Ivan III was ready for decisive action. At twenty-two, he already possessed a strong character, statesmanship, and diplomatic wisdom. Much later, the Venetian ambassador Contarini described it like this:“The Grand Duke looks about 35 years old. He is tall and thin, but with all that a handsome man. . Other witnesses of his life noted that Ivan III knew how to subordinate his emotions to the requirements of circumstances, he always carefully calculated all the possible consequences of his actions, was an outstanding politician and diplomat in this regard, since he often acted not so much with a sword as with a word.

Steadfast in pursuit of the intended goal, he knew how to perfectly use the circumstances and act decisively when success was assured. His main goal was to seize Russian lands and permanently annex them to Moscow. In this, he followed in the footsteps of his forefathers and for a long time left an example for his heirs to follow. The unification of the Russian land was considered urgent historical task since the time of Yaroslav the Wise. Only by squeezing all the forces into a single fist, it was possible to defend against the steppe nomads, Poland, Lithuania, German knights and Swedes.

How did the Grand Duke begin his reign?

The main task was to ensure the security of the eastern borders. For this it was necessary to establish political control over the Kazan

khanate. The ongoing conflict with Novgorod also demanded its resolution. As early as 1462, the Novgorod ambassadors "for pacification" arrived in Moscow. A preliminary peace was concluded, and Ivan III managed, in the course of a complex diplomatic game, to win over another free city, Pskov, to his side, and thereby put pressure on Novgorod. As a result of this flexible policy, Ivan III began to play the role of an imperious arbiter in disputes between Novgorod and Pskov, whose word is law. And in essence, for the first time he acted as the head of the entire Russian land.In 1463, using the diplomatic gift of the clerk Alexei Poluektov, he annexed to the Moscow State Yaroslavl, concluded peace with the prince of Tver, married the prince of Ryazan to his daughter, recognizing him as an independent prince.

In 1463-1464. Ivan III, "having shown respect for antiquity", gave Pskov the viceroy that the townspeople wanted. But when they wanted to “set aside” from the Novgorod lord and create an independent bishopric, Ivan III showed toughness, did not follow the lead of the Pskovites and ordered, “respecting the old days”, to leave everything as it was. It was not worth giving Pskov too much independence.Here at hand the Livonian Order, Lithuania, Denmark, Hanseatic merchants, Swedes ...

In 1467 The plague again visited Rus'. The people met her "with despondency and fear." Tired of people from this villain. It killed more than 250 thousand people. And then the beloved wife of Ivan III, Grand Duchess Maria, suddenly died. Ivan III was looking for a way to stir up people who are not indifferent to life, but crushed by it. In the autumn of 1467 he organized a trip to Kazan. The trip was unsuccessful. Kazan Khan Ibrahim responded in the same way - he sent a detachment to Rus', but Ivan III, having guessed about the course of the Khan, fortified the border cities.

IN 1468 the grand duke equips 3 trip to the east. The squad of Prince Semyon Romanovich passed through the Cheremis land (Vyatka region and part of modern Tatarstan), broke through the forests covered with snow, into the land of the Cheremis and engaged in robbery. The squad of Prince Ivan Striga-Obolensky drove away the Kazanians who invaded the Kostroma land. Prince Daniil Kholmsky defeated the raiders near Murom. Then detachments of Nizhny Novgorod and Murom residents themselves went to the Kazan Khanate to rob.

These operations were a kind of reconnaissance in force. Ivan III prepared large army and went to Kazan.

From a passive age-old defense, Rus' finally switched to a strategic offensive. The scope of hostilities was impressive, the persistence in achieving the goal was enormous.

The war with the Kazan Khanate ended with a convincing Russian victory in 1469., when the army of Ivan III approached the capital of the Khanate, forced Ibrahim to admit defeat and "make peace at the will of the Sovereign of Moscow". The Russians took a huge ransom and returned to their homeland all the prisoners whom the Kazanians had captured over the previous 40 years.

For some time, the eastern border of the Russian land became relatively safe: However, Ivan III understood that a decisive victory over the heirs of the Golden Horde could be achieved only after the unification of all Russian lands. And he again turned his eyes to Novgorod.

THE FIGHT OF PRINCE IVAN III WITH NOVGOROD

Ivan III did not have time to rejoice at the success, as rumors came about the free moods of the Novgorodians. Being an integral part of the Russian land, Novgorod lived for 600 years according to the laws of the veche republic. Novgorodians from time immemorial controlledthe entire north of modern European Russia, up to the Ural Range, and conducted extensive trade with the countries of the West. Traditionally subordinate to the Grand Duke of Vladimir, they retained significant autonomy, including independent foreign policy.

In connection with the strengthening of Lithuania in the XIV century, Novgorodians began to invite Lithuanian princes to reign in the Novgorod cities (Koporye, Korela). Influence

Moscow somewhat weakened, so that part of the Novgorod nobility had the idea to "surrender to Lithuania." During the election of the Novgorod archbishopMartha, the widow of the posadnik Isaac Boretsky, took matters into her own hands, possessing oratorical talent and the talent of an organizer. She and her children spoke at the veche with a call to send a new archbishop Theophilus for approval not to Moscow, but to Kyiv, and also to send ambassadors to the Polish king Casimir with a request to take Novgorod under her protection. Her wealth, as well as her stinginess, were legendary.

Gathering the nobility for feasts, she scolded Ivan III, dreamed of a free Novgorod, of a veche, and many agreed with her, not knowing, however, how to resist Moscow. Martha knew. She built diplomatic bridges with Lithuania, wanted to marry a noble Lithuanian, to own Novgorod after its annexation to the Principality of Lithuania,tear off Novgorod from Moscow...

Ivan III showed composure for a long time. Novgorodians grew bolder, “seized many incomes, lands and waters of the Princes; they took an oath from the inhabitants only in the name of Novgorod; they despised John's Vicegerents and Ambassadors... offended the Muscovites." It seemed that it was time to rein in the boyars. But Ivan III said to an official who appeared in Moscow: “Tell the people of Novgorod, my fatherland, that they, having admitted their guilt, correct themselves; they did not intervene in my lands and waters, they kept my name honestly and menacingly in the old days, fulfilling the vow of the cross, if they want patronage and mercy from me; say that patience comes to an end, and that mine will not continue. The freedom-lovers laughed at Ivan III and were proud of the "victory" . They didn't expect a trick. Martha sent her sons to the veche. They showered the Moscow prince with verbal mud, spoke convincingly, ending their speech with an appeal: “We don’t want Ivan! long live Casimir! And in response, like an echo, voices answered: “May Moscow disappear!”

The veche decided to ask Casimir to become the ruler of the Lord of Veliky Novgorod. Master of the Lord!

Ivan III, gathering the troops of the allies, sent Ivan Fedorovich Tovarkov to the city. He read out to the townspeople an appeal, not much different from what the Grand Duke had recently said to an official. This ostentatious slowness is called indecision by some historians. Martha was decisive. It was her determination that killed her. Tovarkov, who returned to Moscow, told the Grand Duke that only "The sword can humble the Novgorodians." Ivan III hesitated, as if he doubted his success. No! He did not doubt. But knowing that a lot of blood of his compatriots would be shed, he wanted to share the responsibility for the troubles with everyone he relied on: with his mother and metropolitan, brothers and archbishops, with princes and boyars, with governors and even with common people. In the course of a complex diplomatic game, Ivan III managed to win over another free city, Pskov, to his side, and thereby put pressure on Novgorod. As a result of this flexible policy, Ivan III began to play the role of an imperious arbiter in disputes between Novgorod and Pskov, whose word is law. And in essence, for the first time he acted as the head of the entire Russian land. Ivan III sent a letter to Novgorod, where he considered it necessary to emphasize that the power of the Grand Dukes was of an all-Russian character. He urged the people of Novgorod not to deviate "from antiquity", elevating it to Rurik and Vladimir the Holy. "Old" in his eyes meant the unity of the Russian land under the rule of the Grand Duke. This is a fundamentally important point in the new political doctrine of Ivan Vasilyevich: understanding the Russian land as a single whole.The prince gathered the Duma, reported on the betrayal of the Novgorodians, heard unanimously: “Sovereign! Take up arms!"- and after that he did not hesitate. Ivan III acted prudently and cautiously, but, having weighed everything and gathered almost all the princes (even Mikhail of Tver), he announced in the spring 1471 Novgorod Republic war. And a huge army moved to Novgorod. The townspeople did not expect such a turn of affairs. In the Novgorod land, where there are many lakes, swamps, rivers, it is difficult to fight in the summer. The unexpected offensive of the enemy puzzled the supporters of Marfa Boretskaya. The army marched in several columns. The Pskov squad capturedVyshegorod.

Daniil Kholmsky took and burned Russu. Novgorodians started talking about peace, or at least about a truce. But Martha convinced fellow citizens that the indecisive Ivan could be defeated. The war continued. King Casimir never came to the aid of the Novgorodians. Many commoners did not want to fight with Moscow. Daniil Kholmsky defeated an army of Novgorodians that suddenly attacked him near Korostyn, consisting of handicraft people. Many militias were taken prisoner. The winners cut off the unfortunate noses and lips and sent them to Novgorod.The warriors of Kholmsky did not take the weapons and uniforms of the Novgorod traitors!

Ivan III ordered Prince Daniil Kholmsky to approach Sheloni, and on July 14 a decisive battle took place here. With a cry of "Moscow!" the soldiers of the Grand Duke rushed into battle, whose squad was 8-10 times smaller than the rati of Novgorod. As V. O. Klyuchevsky writes, "Novgorod hastily put on horses and moved into the field forty thousand rabble, potters, carpenters and other artisans who had never even been on a horse." There were only four and a half thousand Muscovites. Nevertheless, this military rati was enough to utterly smash the Novgorod crowd, putting up to 12 thousand of the enemy on the spot. The victory was complete and unconditional.The victors dealt ruthlessly with the vanquished. Many boyars were taken prisoner, and the draft treaty on the annexation of Novgorod to Lithuania ended up in the hands of the Muscovites.But with the rest of the prisoners, Ivan III acted gently, realizing that they were only an instrument in the hands of traitors. He did not rob and destroy Novgorod, he resisted the temptation.

The squads of Kholmsky and Vereisky robbed the Novgorod land itself for several more days, Ivan III controlled the fate of the captives. He cut off the head of Dmitry, the son of Martha Boretskaya, put someone in dungeons, let someone go to Novgorod.

Under an agreement dated August 11, Novgorodians were obliged to pay a gigantic indemnity for those times in the amount of 15.5 thousand rubles, to give to Moscow Volok And Vologda and completely stop relations with the Polish-Lithuanian state.Ivan made peace by declaring his mercy: "I give away my dislike, calm the sword and the thunderstorm in the land of Novgorod and let go full without payback." But from that day on, Novgorodians swore allegiance to Ivan III, recognized him as the highest judicial instance, and their city as the patrimony of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

On the same days Moscow army mastered Dvina land, its inhabitants swore allegiance to Ivan III. The victory did not turn the head of the Grand Duke. The treaty did not correspond to the military successes of Moscow. Ivan III did not mention Marfa Boretskaya in it, as if forgiving the woman for her misdeed. In the Treaty of Shelon, Perm was included in the Novgorod land, although the Moscow princes had long dreamed of rich Ural territories. Several months have passed. The people who arrived in Moscow reported that they, the poor fellows, were offended by the inhabitants of Perm. Ivan III immediately sent an army to the offenders. Fedor Motley, who led the squad, defeated the Permian army, raided the surrounding area, captured many governors, and Permian swore allegiance to Ivan III in 1472. In the same year, the Golden Horde Khan Akhmat invaded the Russian land. The Russians did not let him go further than the Oka. Akhmat retreated, but did not change his mind about fighting Russia.

Second marriage

April 22 1467 years Ivan Vasilievich was widowed. His wife, Maria Borisovna, daughter of the Grand Duke of Tver, was apparently poisoned: her body was terribly swollen after her death. The Grand Duke found the wife of the clerk Alexei Poluetovich guilty of witchcraft and removed him from his post.

Now he had to get a new wife. In 1469, an embassy came from Rome with a marriage proposal to Ivan III: would the Grand Duke wish to marry a Greek princess?Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog? Sophia was the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, who was killed by the Turks on the walls of Constantinople in 1453. Her father, Thomas Palaiologos, the ruler of the Morea, with his family, retinue, jewelry and the last riches of the empire, as well as with the shrines of the Orthodox Church, appeared to Pope Sixtus IV, received a monthly salary, lived comfortably, died in Rome, leaving sons Andrew and Manuel and daughter Sophia in the care of the new Pope - Paul II. Sons, receiving a stable salary, lived like careless, rich heirs.

Only Sophia grieved in Rome. She could not find a worthy spouse in Europe. The bride was stubborn. She did not marry the king of France, she refused the Duke of Milan, showing hostility towards Catholics, surprising for her position.

Finally, it was decided to try their luck at the court of the Moscow prince. The assignment was undertaken by a certain "Greek Yuri", in whom one can recognize Yuri Trakhaniot, a confidant of the Paleologus family. Arriving in Moscow, the Greek praised Ivan III the nobility of the bride. her commitment to Orthodoxy and unwillingness to go into "Latinism". Negotiations about the Moscow marriage lasted three years.

In June 1472, in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, Ivan Fryazin became engaged to Sophia on behalf of the Moscow sovereign, after which the bride, accompanied by a magnificent retinue, went to Rus'.In October of the same year, Moscow met its future empress. A wedding ceremony took place in the still unfinished Assumption Cathedral. Greek princess became Grand Duchess Moscow, Vladimir and Novgorod. A reflection of the thousand-year-old glory of the once mighty empire lit up young Moscow.

In Italy, they hoped that the marriage of Sophia Palaiologos would ensure the conclusion of an alliance with Russia for the war with the Turks, who threatened Europe with new conquests,Italian diplomats formulated the idea that Moscow should become the successor of Constantinople.This alliance strengthened Rus''s ties with the West, but above all demonstrated to the whole world that Princess Sophia was transferring the hereditary sovereign rights of Byzantium to Moscow, to the new Constantinople.For Russians, Byzantium was for a long time the only Orthodox kingdom, a stronghold of the true faith, and, having become related to the dynasty of its last "basileus" - emperors, Rus', as it were, claimed its rights to the heritage of Byzantium, to a majestic spiritual role, religious and political vocation.

After the wedding, Ivan III commanded the Moscow coat of arms depicting George the Victorious, striking a snake, combined with a double-headed eagle - the ancient coat of arms of Byzantium.

St. George was a model of class honor: in Byzantium - for the military nobility, in Western Europe- for chivalry, in Slavic countries - for princes.

In the XI century, he came to Kievan Rus, primarily as the patron of the princes, who began to consider him their heavenly intercessor, especially in military affairs. One of the first Christian princes, Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise (in baptism, George), did a lot to glorify his patron saint: in Kiev he built a chapel in his honor in the church of St. The face of St. George also adorned silver coins issued in Novgorod - srebreniki ("Yaroslavl's silver").

George the warrior was always depicted with a weapon: with a shield and a spear, sometimes with a sword.

So, Moscow becomes the heir of the Byzantine Empire, and Ivan III himself, as it were, became the heir to the Byzantine basils - emperors. Ivan III, following the model of Byzantium, introduced for himself, as the supreme ruler of Rus', a new title: "John, by the grace of God sovereign of all Rus' and the Grand Duke of Vladimir, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Ugra, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and others.

Attributes royal power at the ceremony of crowning the kingdom, Monomakh's hat with barm became (church wedding with the sacrament of chrismation was also first introduced by Ivan III).

In the course of diplomatic relations with Livonia and German cities, Ivan III called himself "Tsar of All Rus'", and Danish king called him "emperor". Later, Ivan III in one of the letters called his son Vasily "the autocrat of all Rus'."

The idea that originated in Russia at that time about global role "Moscow - the third Rome" led to the fact that Ivan III many educated people began to be regarded as "the king of all Orthodoxy", and the Russian Orthodox Church as the successor of the Greek Church.This idea was established and strengthened under Ivan III, although the monk Philotheus first expressed it two decades before his birth: "Like two Romes are fallen, and the third is standing, and the fourth will not happen". What did his words mean? The First Rome, corroded by heresy, fell in the 5th-6th centuries, giving way to the Second Rome - the Byzantine city of Constantinople, or Constantinople. This city became the guardian of the Orthodox faith and experienced many clashes with Mohammedanism and paganism. But its spiritual end came in the middle of the 15th century, when it was conquered by the Turks. And after the death of Byzantium, it is Moscow - the capital of Rus' - that becomes the center of Orthodoxy - the Third Rome.

The liberation of Rus' from the Tatar yoke, the unification of scattered small destinies into a large Muscovite state, the marriage of Grand Duke Ivan III to Sophia Paleolog, the conquest of the kingdoms of Kazan and Astrakhan - all this justified in the eyes of contemporaries the idea that Moscow had the right to such a role.

The "Great Greek" Sophia Paleolog, put a lot of effort into this dynastic marriage to strengthen Muscovy, contributing to its conversion to the Third Rome,

contrary to the aspirations of the Vatican, to turn the Moscow sovereign through his young wife to the Union of Florence. She not only brought with her Byzantine regalia and ideas about the power of power, not only advised to invite Italian architects in order to make Moscow equal in beauty and majesty to European capitals, but insisted that Ivan III stop paying tribute to the Horde Khan and free himself from his power, inspiredGrand Duke for a decisive struggle against the Tatars and the overthrow of Horde yoke.

She was the first to change the attitude towards women in Rus'. The Byzantine princess, brought up in Europe, did not want to look at the world from the window.
The Grand Duke allowed her to have her own council of members of the retinue and arrange diplomatic receptions in her half, where she received foreign ambassadors and had a conversation. For Rus', this unheard-of innovation was the first in a long series that would end with the assemblies of Peter I, and the new status of the Russian empress, and then serious changes in the position of women in Russia.

On August 12, 1479, a new cathedral was consecrated in Moscow in the name of the Assumption of the Mother of God, conceived and built as an architectural image of a unified Russian state. “But that church was wonderful in grand majesty and height, lordship and sonority and space, such as it had never happened before in Rus', other than (besides) the Vladimir church ...”- exclaimed the chronicler. Celebrations on the occasion of the consecration of the cathedral, which is the creation of Aristotle Fiorovanti, lasted until the end of August. Tall, slightly stooping Ivan III stood out in the smart crowd of his relatives and courtiers. Only his brothers Boris and Andrey were not with him. However, less than a month had passed since the beginning of the festivities, as a formidable omen of future troubles shook the capital. On September 9, Moscow suddenly caught fire. The fire quickly spread, approaching the walls of the Kremlin. Everyone who could, went out to fight the fire. Even the Grand Duke and his son Ivan the Young put out the flames. Many who were timid, seeing their great princes in the scarlet reflections of the fire, also took up extinguishing the fire. By morning, the storm had been brought to a halt.Did the tired Grand Duke then think that in the glow of the fire the most difficult period of his reign began, which would last about a year?

massacre

It is then that everything that has been achieved over decades of painstaking government work will be put at stake. Moscow heard rumors of a brewing conspiracy in Novgorod. Ivan III again went there "in peace". On the banks of the Volkhov, he spent the rest of the autumn and most of the winter.

One from the results of his stay in Novgorod was the arrest of the archbishop of Novgorod Theophilus. In January 1480, the disgraced bishop was sent under escort to Moscow.The rebellious nobility locked themselves in Novgorod. Ivan III did not destroy the city, realizing that the famine would complete the work. He made demands: "We, the Grand Dukes, want our state, as we are in Moscow, so we want to be in our fatherland, Veliky Novgorod." As a result, he took the oath of all the townspeople, and also received half of all the monastic lands. Since then, the Novgorod veche no longer met. Ivan III returned to Moscow, carrying with him the veche Novgorod bell. This age-old symbol of the boyar republic was erected on the Kremlin Square, in the heart of the Russian land, and henceforth, together with other bells, beat off a new historical time - the time of the Russian state.

The Novgorod opposition was dealt a tangible blow, but the clouds over the Grand Duke continued to thicken. For the first time in many years, the Livonian Order attacked the lands of Pskov with large forces. Vague news came from the Horde about the preparations for a new invasion of Rus'. At the very beginning of February, another bad news came - Ivan's brothers III princes Boris Volotsky and Andrei Bolshoy decided on an open rebellion and got out of obedience. It was not difficult to guess that they would look for allies in the person of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the King of Poland, Casimir, and perhaps even Khan Akhmat, the enemy from whom the most terrible danger to the Russian lands came. Under the circumstances, Moscow's assistance to Pskov became impossible. Ivan III hastily left Novgorod and went to Moscow. The state, torn apart by internal unrest, was doomed in the face of external aggression. Ivan III could not but understand this, and therefore his first movement was the desire to settle the conflict with his brothers. Their dissatisfaction was caused by the systematic attack of the Moscow sovereign on the appanage rights of semi-independent rulers that belonged to them, rooted in times of political fragmentation. The Grand Duke was ready to make big concessions, but he could not cross the line beyond which the revival of the former appanage system began, which had brought so many disasters to Rus' in the past. The negotiations that began with the brothers came to a standstill. Princes Boris and Andrei chose Velikiye Luki, a city on the border with Lithuania, as their headquarters and negotiated with Casimir IV. On joint actions against Moscow agreed with Kazimir and Akhmat.

In the spring of 1480 it became clear that no agreement could be reached with the brothers. Besidesthe boyar elite of the Muscovite state split into two groups: one advised Ivan III to flee; the other advocated the need to fight the Horde. Perhaps the behavior of Ivan III was influenced by the position of the Muscovites, who demanded decisive action from the Grand Duke.In the same days, terrible news came - the khan of the Great Horde, at the head of a huge army, began a slow advance to Rus'. “The same summer,” the chronicle narrates, “the evil-named Tsar Akhmat ... went to Orthodox Christianity, to Rus', to the holy churches and to the Grand Duke, boasting of destroying the holy churches and capturing all Orthodoxy and the Grand Duke himself, as if under Batu Besh (was)" . It was not in vain that the chronicler remembered Batu here. An experienced warrior and an ambitious politician, Akhmat dreamed of a complete restoration of Horde domination over Russia.In a series of bad news, one that came from the Crimea was encouraging. There, at the direction of the Grand Duke, Ivan Ivanovich Zvenets Zvenigorodsky went, who was supposed to conclude an alliance treaty with the militant Crimean Khan Mengli Giray at any cost. The ambassador was tasked with obtaining a promise from the khan that, in the event of Akhmat's invasion of Russian territory, he would hit him in the rear, or at least attack the lands of Lithuania, diverting the king's forces. The purpose of the embassy was achieved. The treaty concluded in Crimea became important achievement Moscow diplomacy. A gap was made in the ring of external enemies of the Muscovite state. The approach of Akhmat presented the Grand Duke with a choice. It was possible to lock oneself in Moscow and wait for the enemy, hoping for the strength of its walls. In this case, a huge territory would have been in the power of Akhmat, and nothing could have prevented the connection of his forces with the Lithuanian ones. There was another option - to move the Russian regiments towards the enemy. This is exactly what Dmitry Donskoy did in 1380. Ivan III followed the example of his great-grandfather.The situation was becoming critical.

Standing on the river Ugra. The end of the Horde yoke.

At the beginning of the summer, large forces were sent south under the command of Ivan the Young and brother Andrei the Less, loyal to the Grand Duke. Russian regiments deployed along the banks of the Oka, thereby creating a powerful barrier on the way to Moscow. On June 23, Ivan III himself set out on a campaign. On the same day, the miraculous icon of the Vladimir Mother of God was brought from Vladimir to Moscow, with whose intercession the salvation of Rus' from the troops of the formidable Tamerlane in 1395 was associated. During August and September, Akhmat looked for a weak point in the Russian defense. When it became clear to him that the Oka was tightly guarded, he undertook a roundabout maneuver and led his troops to the Lithuanian border.Akhmat's troops moved freely across Lithuanian territory and, accompanied by Lithuanian guides, through Mtsensk, Odoev and Lubutsk to Vorotynsk. Here the khan expected help from Casimir IV, but did not wait for it. Crimean Tatars, allies of Ivan III, diverted the Lithuanian troops by attacking Podolia. Knowing that Russians are waiting for him on the Okaregiments, Akhmat decided, having passed through the Lithuanian lands, to invade Russian territory through the Ugra River. Ivan III, having received information about such intentions, sent his son Ivan and brother Andrei the Less to Kaluga and to the banks of the Ugra.Ivan III urgently left for Moscow "for advice and thought" with the Metropolitan and

boyars. A council took place in the Kremlin. Metropolitan Gerontius, the mother of the Grand Duke, many of the boyars and the higher clergy spoke in favor of decisive action against Akhmat. It was decided to prepare the city for a possible siege.Ivan III sent his family and treasury to Beloozero.Moscow suburbs were burned, and their inhabitants were resettled inside the fortress walls. No matter how difficult this measure was, experience suggested that it was necessary: ​​in the event of a siege, wooden buildings located next to the walls could serve as fortifications for the enemy or material for the construction of siege engines. On the same days, ambassadors from Andrei the Great and Boris Volotsky came to Ivan III, who announced the end of the rebellion. The Grand Duke granted forgiveness to the brothers and ordered them to move with their regiments to the Oka. Then he again left Moscow. Meanwhile, on October 8, Akhmat tried to force the Ugra, but his attack was repulsed by the forces of Ivan the Young.For several days, the battles for the crossings continued, which also did not bring success to the Horde. Soon the opponents took up defensive positions on opposite banks of the river.Skirmishes broke out every now and then, but neither side dared to launch a serious attack. In this situation, negotiations began, as a result of which the Russian sovereign found out that the khan was not at all confident in his abilities. But he himself did not want bloodshed, because, as the true owner of the Russian land, he was its builder, and any war leads to devastation.

Mengli Giray, fulfilling his promise, attacked southern lands Grand Duchy of Lithuania. On the same days, Ivan III received a fiery message from the Archbishop of Rostov, Vassian Rylo. Vassian urged the Grand Duke not to listen to the crafty advisers who "they don't stop whispering in your ear... deceitful words and advise... not to oppose adversaries", but to follow the example of former princes,"who not only defended the Russian land from the filthy (i.e., not Christians), but also subordinated other countries." “Just take heart and be strong, my spiritual son,” the archbishop wrote, “like a good warrior of Christ, according to the great word of our Lord in the Gospel: “You are the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep...”

The cold was coming. Ugra froze and every day more and more turned from a water barrier into a strong ice bridge connecting the warring

sides. Both the Russians and the Horde governors began to noticeably get nervous, fearing that the enemy would be the first to decide on a surprise attack. The preservation of the army became the main concern of Ivan III. The cost of reckless risk was too great. In the event of the death of the Russian regiments, Akhmat opened the road to the very heart of Rus', and King Casimir IV would not fail to seize the opportunity and enter the war. There was no certainty that the brothers and the recently subordinate Novgorod would remain loyal. And the Crimean Khan, seeing the defeat of Moscow, could quickly forget about his allied promises. Having weighed all the circumstances, Ivan III in early November ordered the withdrawal of Russian forces from the Ugra to Borovsk, which in winter conditions was a more advantageous defensive position. And then the unexpected happened! Akhmat, deciding that Ivan III was giving him the coast for a decisive battle, began a hasty retreat, similar to a flight. Small Russian forces were sent in pursuit of the retreating Horde.Khan Akhmat, for no apparent reason, suddenly turned back and went into the steppe,having plundered Kozelsk, which belonged to Lithuania, on the way back.What frightened or stopped him?For those who watched from the sidelines how both armies turned back almost simultaneously (within two days), without bringing things to a battle, this event seemed either strange, mystical, or received a simplified explanation: the opponents were afraid of each other, were afraid to accept battle. Contemporaries attributed this to the miraculous intercession of the Mother of God, who saved the Russian land from ruin.

The Russians later named the river Ugra "the belt of the Virgin", believing that, through her prayers, the Lord delivered Russia from the Tatars. And there are legends that Akhmat once saw a huge angelic army led by the Virgin Mary on the other side of the sky - this is what shocked him so much that he made the horses turn back.Ivan III with his son and the whole army returned to Moscow, "And all the people rejoiced, and rejoiced with great joy."
On January 6, 1481, Akhmat was killed as a result of a sudden attack by the Tyumen Khan Ibak on the steppe headquarters, in which Akhmat retired from Sarai, probably fearing assassination attempts,sharing the fate of another unfortunate conqueror of Rus' - Mamai.Civil strife began in the Great Horde.

It actually broke up into parts already at the end of the 15th century into several completely independent khanates - Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Siberian, Nogai Horde.

This was the end of the Horde yoke. Moscow welcomed the returned sovereign as its savior: ".. The great prince Ivan Vasilievich came to Moscow ... and all the people rejoiced with joy, great big." But here we must take into account not only the military success of Ivan III, but also his diplomatic strategy, which was part of the general plan of the defensive campaign. Standing on the Ugra can be recognized as an exemplary plan for victory, which both the military and diplomatic history of our country can be proud of.. The strategic plan for the defense of Russian lands in 1480 was well thought out and clearly implemented. The diplomatic efforts of the Grand Duke prevented Poland and Lithuania from entering the war. The Pskovites also contributed to the salvation of Rus', stopping the German offensive by autumn. Yes, and Rus' itself was no longer the same as in the 13th century, during the invasion of Batu, and even in the 14th century. - in the face of the hordes of Mamai. In place of semi-independent principalities at war with each other, a strong, although not yet completely strengthened internally Muscovite state, came. Then, in 1480, it was difficult to assess the significance of what had happened. Many recalled the stories of their grandfathers about how, just two years after the glorious victory of Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field, Moscow was burned by the troops of Tokhtamysh. However, history, which loves repetition, this time took a different path. The yoke that weighed over Russia for two and a half centuries is over.“From now on, our History accepts the dignity of a truly state, describing no longer senseless princely fights, but the deeds of the Kingdom, acquiring independence and greatness. The disagreement disappears along with our citizenship to the Tatars; a strong power is formed, as if new to Europe and Asia, which, seeing it with surprise, offer her a famous place in their political system, - wrote N. M. Karamzin.

During the celebration of the 500th anniversary of standing on the Ugra River in 1980, a monument was unveiled on the banks of the legendary river in honor of the significant event Russian history, which occurred in 1480 within the Kaluga region.

Conqueror

In early February 1481, Ivan Vasilievich sent a 20,000-strong army to help the Pskovites, who had been fighting with their own forces for a long time.

Livonia. In a severe frost, the Russians "captured and burned the whole German land from Yuryev to Riga" and, according to the Pskov chronicler, "revenge by the German for his own in twenty or more." On September 1 of the same year, Ivan III, on behalf of the Novgorodians and Pskovians, concluded a 10-year peace with Livonia, which for some time brought peace in the Baltics.

Later, in the summer of 1492, on the right bank of the Narva, Ivan III began the construction of the Ivangorod fortress opposite the German city of Rugodiv (Narva). The purpose of the construction of the fortress was to protect the Novgorod land from its western neighbors.

In the spring of 1483, the Russian army, led by Ivan Saltyk Travin, set off on a big campaign to the east - against the Voguli (Mansi). Reaching with battles first to Irtysh, the Russians plunged into the ships and moved to Obi, and then along this mighty river - up to its lower reaches. Having subjugated the local Khanty (Ugra), they managed to safely return to their homeland by the onset of winter.

Conquest of Tver and Vyatka

Five years after "standing on the Ugra", Ivan III took another step towards the final unification of the Russian lands: Tver Principality. Long gone are the days when the proud and brave princes of Tver argued with those of Moscow about which of them should collect Rus'. History resolved their dispute in favor of Moscow. However, Tver remained one of the largest Russian cities for a long time, and its princes were among the most powerful.

Lithuania became the last hope of Mikhail Tverskoy. In 1484, he concluded an agreement with Casimir that violated the points of the agreement reached earlier with Moscow. The spearhead of the new Lithuanian-Tver union was unambiguously directed towards Moscow. In response to this, in 1485 Ivan III declared war on Tver. Moscow troops invaded the Tver lands. Casimir was in no hurry to help his new ally. Unable to resist alone, Mikhail vowed that he would no longer have any relationship with the enemy of Moscow. However, soon after the conclusion of peace, he broke his oath. Upon learning of this, the Grand Duke in the same year gathered a new army. Moscow regiments approached the walls of Tver. Michael secretly fled the city. The Tverichi, led by their boyars, opened the gates to the Grand Duke and swore allegiance to him. The independent Grand Duchy of Tver ceased to exist. In 1489, Vyatka was annexed to the Russian state- a remote and largely mysterious land beyond the Volga for modern historians. With the annexation of Vyatka, the collection of Russian lands that were not part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was completed. Formally, only Pskov and the Grand Duchy of Ryazan remained independent. However, they were dependent on Moscow. Located on the dangerous frontiers of Rus', these lands often needed military assistance from the Grand Duke of Moscow. The authorities of Pskov have not dared to argue with Ivan III for a long time. In Ryazan, the young prince Ivan ruled, who was the grand nephew of the Grand Duke and was obedient to him in everything.

Successes in the foreign policy of Ivan III

The Grand Duke led an active foreign policy. His important achievement was the establishment of allied relations with the German emperors - first with Frederick II, and then with his son Maximilian.Extensive ties with European countries helped Ivan III develop court ceremonial and National emblem Russia.

By the end of the 80s. Ivan finally accepted the title of "Grand Duke of All Rus'". The named title has been known in Moscow since the 14th century, but it was during these years that it became official and turned from a political dream into reality. Two terrible disasters - political fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar yoke - are a thing of the past. Achieving the territorial unity of the Russian lands was the most important result of the activities of Ivan III. However, he understood that he could not stop there. The young state needed to be strengthened from within. It was necessary to ensure the security of its borders.

In 1487, the grand ducal rati made a campaign against Kazan Khanate- one of the fragments of the disintegrated Golden Horde. Kazan Khan recognized himself as a vassal of the Muscovite state. Thus, for almost twenty years, calm was ensured on the eastern borders of the Russian lands.

The children of Akhmat, who owned the Great Horde, could no longer gather an army under their banners comparable in number to the army of their father. Crimean Khan Mengli Giray remained an ally of Moscow, he fettered the forces of both the Great Horde and the Polish-Lithuanian state, and friendly relations with him were even stronger after in 1491, during the campaign of Akhmat's children to the Crimea, Ivan III sent Russian regiments to help Mengli. The relative calm in the east and south allowed the Grand Duke to turn to solving foreign policy problems in the west and northwest.

The central problem here remained relations with Catholic Lithuania,which from time to time increased the pressure on its Orthodox subjects, infringed on the rights of the Orthodox and propagated the Catholic faith.As a result of two Russian-Lithuanian wars (1492-1494 and 1500-1503), dozens of ancient Russian cities were included in the Moscow state, among which were such large ones as Vyazma, Chernigov, Starodub, Putivl, Rylsk, Novgorod-Seversky, Gomel, Bryansk, Dorogobuzh, etc. Title "Grand Duke of All Rus' "was filled in these years with new content. Ivan III proclaimed himself sovereign not only of the lands subject to him, but of the entire Russian Orthodox population, who lived on the lands that were once part of Kievan Rus. It is no coincidence that Lithuania refused to recognize the legitimacy of this new title for many decades.

By the beginning of the 90s. 15th century Russia has established diplomatic relations with many states of Europe and Asia. And with the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and with the Sultan of Turkey, the Grand Duke of Moscow agreed to talk only as an equal. The Muscovite state, the existence of which few people in Europe knew a few decades ago, quickly gained international recognition. Note that in the reign of Ivan III, a merchant from Tver, Afanasy Nikitin, made and described his Journey beyond the three seas.

Internal conversions

Inside the state, the remnants of political fragmentation gradually died out. The princes and boyars, who until recently had enormous power, were losing it. Many families of the old Novgorod and Vyatka boyars were forcibly resettled to new lands. In the last decades of the great reign of Ivan III, the specific principalities finally disappeared. After the death of Andrei the Lesser (1481) and great uncle Grand Duke Mikhail Andreevich (1486), the Vologda and Vereysko-Belozersky appanages ceased to exist. Sad was the fate of Andrei the Great, the appanage prince of Uglich. In 1491 he was arrested and charged with treason. The elder brother remembered him both the rebellion in 1480, which was difficult for the country, and his other "non-corrections". There is evidence that Ivan III subsequently repented of how cruelly he treated his brother. But it was too late to change anything - after two years of imprisonment, Andrei died. In 1494, the last brother of Ivan III, Boris, died. He left his Volotsk inheritance to his sons Fedor and Ivan. According to the will drawn up by the latter, most of the paternal inheritance due to him in 1503 passed to the Grand Duke. After the death of Ivan III, the specific system in its former meaning was never revived. And although he endowed his younger sons Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon and Andrei with lands, they no longer had real power in them. The destruction of the old appanage-princely system required the creation of a new order of government. At the end of the XV century. central government bodies began to form in Moscow - " orders", which were the direct predecessors of Peter's "collegia" and ministries of the 19th century.

In the provinces, the governors, who were appointed by the Grand Duke himself, began to play the main role. The army also underwent a change. Regiments consisting of landowners came to the place of the princely squads. The landowners received from the state for the duration of their service populated lands, which brought them income. These lands were called "estates". Guilt or early termination of service meant the loss of the estate. Thanks to this, the landowners were interested in honest and long service to the Moscow sovereign. In 1497 Sudebnik was published- the first national code of laws since the time of Kievan Rus. Sudebnik introduced uniform legal norms for the whole country, which was important step to strengthening the unity of Russian lands.

In 1490, at the age of 32, the son and co-ruler of the Grand Duke, a talented commander, died Ivan Ivanovich Young. His death led to long dynastic crisis, which overshadowed the last years of the life of Ivan III. After Ivan Ivanovich, the young son Dmitry remained, representing the senior line of the descendants of the Grand Duke. Another contender for the throne was the son of Ivan III from his second marriage, the future sovereign of all Rus'. Vasily III(1505-1533). Behind both applicants stood dexterous and powerful women- widow of Ivan the Young Wallachian princess Elena Stefanovna and the second wife of Ivan III, the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog. The choice between a son and a grandson turned out to be extremely difficult for Ivan III, and he changed his mind several times, trying to find an option that would not lead to a new series of civil strife after his death. At first, the “party” of supporters of Dmitry the grandson took over, and in 1498 he was crowned according to the previously unknown rank of grand ducal wedding, somewhat reminiscent of the wedding ceremony for the kingdom of Byzantine emperors. Young Dmitry was proclaimed co-ruler of his grandfather. On his shoulders were laid royal "barmas" (wide mantles with precious stones), and on his head - a golden "hat" However, the triumph of the "Grand Duke of All Rus' Dmitry Ivanovich" did not last long. The very next year, he and his mother Elena fell into disgrace. Three years later, the heavy doors of the dungeon closed behind them.

Prince Vasily became the new heir to the throne. Ivan III, like many other great politicians of the Middle Ages, once again had to sacrifice both his family feelings and the fate of his loved ones to state needs. Meanwhile, old age was creeping up on the Grand Duke. He managed to complete the work bequeathed by his father, grandfather, great-grandfather and their predecessors, the work, in the sanctity of which Ivan Kalita believed, - " collecting "Rus.

His state

In summer 1503 The Grand Duke had a stroke. It's time to think about the soul. Ivan III, who often dealt harshly with the clergy, was nevertheless deeply pious. The sick sovereign went on a pilgrimage to the monasteries. Having visited Trinity, Rostov, Yaroslavl, the Grand Duke returned to Moscow.

There was no longer the ardor and daring of the first Moscow princes in him, but behind his prudent pragmatism the lofty goal of life was clearly guessed. He was formidable and often terrified those around him, but he never showed thoughtless cruelty and, as one of his contemporaries testified, he was "kind to people", did not get angry at a wise word spoken to him in reproach.

October 27, 1505 Ivan III, "by the grace of God, the Sovereign of All Rus' and the Grand Duke Volodimirsky, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugorsky, and Vyatka, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and others" diedin Moscow, 65 years old and was buried in the tomb of the great Moscow princes and tsars, the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

The reign of Ivan III lasted 47 years. Sophia Paleolog has been married to him for 30 years. She bore him five sons, the eldest of whom soon became the Grand Duke of Moscow. Basil IV and four daughters.

By the end of his life, Grand Duke Ivan Vasilievich had the opportunity to visually see the fruits of his labors. Over the four decades of his reign, half-fragmented Rus' turned into a powerful state that instilled fear in its neighbors.

The territory of the state expanded rapidly, military victories followed one after another, relations with distant countries were established. The old dilapidated Kremlin with small cathedrals already seemed cramped, and on the site of the dismantled ancient fortifications rose powerful walls and red brick towers. Vast cathedrals rose within the walls. The new princely towers shone with the whiteness of the stone. The Grand Duke himself, who took the proud title of "Sovereign of All Rus'", dressed in gold-woven robes, and solemnly laid on his heir richly embroidered shoulders - "barmas" - and a precious "hat", similar to a crown. But, in order for everyone - be he a Russian or a foreigner, a peasant or a sovereign of a neighboring country - to realize the increased importance of the Muscovite state, external splendor alone was not enough. It was necessary to find new concepts - ideas, which would reflect the antiquity of the Russian land, and its independence, and the strength of its sovereigns, and the truth of its faith. This search was undertaken by Russian diplomats and chroniclers, princes and monks. Collected together, their ideas constituted what in the language of science is called ideology. The beginning of the formation of the ideology of a unified Moscow state refers to the period of the reign of Grand Duke Ivan III and his son Vasily (1505-1533). It was at this time that two main ideas were formulated that remained unchanged for several centuries - ideas of God's chosenness and independence of the Muscovite state. Now everyone had to learn that a new and strong state had appeared in the east of Europe - Russia. Ivan III and his entourage put forward a new foreign policy task - to annex the western and southwestern Russian lands that were under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In politics, not everything is decided by one military force. The rapid rise of the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow led him to the idea of ​​the need to look for worthy justifications for his actions.

It was necessary, finally, to force Lithuania to admit that it owns the ancient Russian lands "not in truth", illegally.

That golden key, which the creators of the ideology of a unified Russian state picked up to several political "locks" at once, was the doctrine of the ancient origin of the power of the Grand Duke. This was thought about before, but it was under Ivan III that Moscow loudly declared from the pages of annals and through the mouths of ambassadors that the Grand Duke received his power from God himself and from his Kiev forefathers, who ruled in the 10th-11th centuries. throughout the Russian land. Just as the metropolitans who led the Russian Church lived first in Kiev, then in Vladimir, and later in Moscow, so the Kiev, Vladimir and, finally, Moscow grand dukes were placed by God himself at the head of all Russian lands as hereditary and sovereign Christian sovereigns. . This is what Ivan III referred to when addressing the recalcitrant Novgorodians in 1472: "This is my patrimony, people of Novgorod, from the beginning: from grandfathers, from our great-grandfathers, from the Grand Duke Vladimir, who baptized the Russian land, from the great-grandson of Rurik, the first Grand Duke in your land. And from that Rurik and to this day you knew the only kind of those Grand Dukes, first of Kiev, and up to the Grand Duke Dmitry-Vsevolod Yurievich of Vladimir himself (Vsevolod the Big Nest, Prince of Vladimir in 1176-1212), and from that Grand Duke to me ... we own you ... " Thirty years later, during peace negotiations with the Lithuanians after the successful war of 1500-1503 for Russia, the embassy clerks of Ivan III emphasized: "The Russian land from our ancestors, from antiquity, our fatherland ... we want to stand for our fatherland, how God will help us: God is our helper and our truth!""Old" clerks remembered not by chance. In those days, this concept was very important.

That is why it was very important for the Grand Duke to declare the antiquity of his kind, to show that he was not an upstart, but the ruler of the Russian land according to "old times" and "truth". No less important was the idea that the source of grand ducal power is the will of the Lord himself. This raised the Grand Duke even more above his under

The eldest son of Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark took part in the internecine war of 1452. Due to the blindness of his father by Vasily Kosym, Ivan III was early involved in the process of governing the state (since 1456). Grand Duke of Moscow since 1462. Continuing the policy of expanding the territories of the Moscow principality, Ivan III, with fire and sword, and sometimes through diplomatic negotiations, subjugated the principalities: Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka land (1489), etc. In 1471 made a trip to Novgorod and defeated opponents in the Battle of Shelon, and then in 1478 finally destroyed the independence of the Novgorod Republic, subordinating it to Moscow. During his reign, Kazan also became loyal to the Moscow prince, which was an important achievement of his foreign policy.

Ivan III, having entered the great reign, for the first time since the time of the Batu invasion, refused to go to the Horde to receive a label. In an attempt to re-subjugate Rus', which had not paid tribute since 1476, Khan Akhmat in 1480 moved a large army against the Moscow principality. At this moment, the forces of Moscow were weakened by the war with the Livonian Order and the feudal rebellion of the younger brothers of the Grand Duke. In addition, Akhmat enlisted the support of the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir. However, the forces of the Poles were neutralized thanks to the peace treaty between Ivan III and the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray. After Akhmat's attempt to force the river. Ugra in October 1480, accompanied by a 4-day battle, "standing on the Ugra" began. "Ugorshchina", during which the forces of the parties were located on different banks of the Oka tributary, ended on November 9-11, 1480 with the flight of the enemy. Thus, the victory on the river. Ugra marked the end of the 240-year Mongol-Tatar yoke.

No less important was the success in the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1487-1494; 1500-1503), thanks to which many western lands went to Rus'.

As a result of victories over external enemies, Ivan III was able to destroy most of the destinies and thereby greatly strengthen the central power and the role of Moscow.

Moscow, as the capital of a new large state, greatly changed during the reign of Ivan III: a new Assumption Cathedral was erected and a new Archangel Cathedral was laid, the construction of a new Kremlin, the Faceted Chamber, and the Annunciation Cathedral began. An important role in the construction of the renovated capital was played by Italian foreign craftsmen. For example, Aleviz Novy, Aristotle Fioravanti.

The new large state, which became the Moscow principality under Ivan III, needed a new ideology. Moscow as a new center of Christianity was presented in Metropolitan Zosima's Narration of Paschalia (1492). The monk Philotheus proposed the formula "Moscow is the third Rome" (already after the death of Ivan III). The basis of this theory was the fact that the Muscovite state (after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453) remained the only independent Orthodox state in the world, and the sovereign who headed it was the only intercessor of all Orthodox Christians on earth. Ivan III also had formal reasons to consider himself the heir of Byzantium, since he was married by a second marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog.

The strengthening of the central government made it necessary to create new organs of state administration - orders. At the same time, the legislative code of united Rus' appeared - the Sudebnik of 1497, which, unfortunately, has come down to us in only one copy. In order to enlist the support of service people, the Grand Duke guaranteed their economic well-being by regulating the transfer of peasants from one owner to another: the peasants received the right to transfer only once a year - a week before the autumn St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after.

The reign of Ivan III is also associated by modern historians with the beginning of the Europeanization process, which ensured the country's defense capability and economic prosperity.