The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917 (November 7-8, New Style). This is one of greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.
The October Revolution began as a result of a number of facts:
- in 1914-1918 Russia was involved in, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities;
- national conflicts;
- heat of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action;
- the fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, which was unable to solve the problems of society;
- the Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems;
- the prevalence of socialist ideas in society.
The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the October 25, 1917 revolution, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks under the leadership of V.I. Lenin. They took over Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional Government.
On the evening of October 25, at the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, it was announced that power was transferred to the 2nd Congress of Soviets, and in the localities - to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.
On October 26, decrees on peace and land were adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the Council of People's Commissars, which included Lenin (chairman), L.D. Trotsky ( People's Commissar By foreign affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia was introduced, which stated that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed.
Eventually October revolution The Bolsheviks were victorious and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. Class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, plants, mines - into the hands of the workers.
As a result of the October Revolution, millions of people died, many emigrated to other countries. The Great October Revolution influenced the subsequent course of events in world history.
Causes of the October Revolution of 1917:
- war weariness;
- industry and Agriculture countries were on the verge of complete collapse;
- catastrophic financial crisis;
- the unresolved agrarian question and the impoverishment of the peasants;
- delaying socio-economic reforms;
- the contradictions of the dual power became a prerequisite for a change of power.
On July 3, 1917, unrest broke out in Petrograd demanding the overthrow of the Provisional Government. Counter-revolutionary units, by government decree, used weapons to suppress the peaceful demonstration. Arrests began, the death penalty was restored.
The dual power ended with the victory of the bourgeoisie. The events of July 3-5 showed that the bourgeois Provisional Government did not intend to fulfill the demands of the working people, and it became clear to the Bolsheviks that it was no longer possible to seize power by peaceful means.
At the VI Congress of the RSDLP (b), which took place from July 26 to August 3, 1917, the party took a guide to the socialist revolution through an armed uprising.
At the August State Conference in Moscow, the bourgeoisie intended to announce L.G. Kornilov as a military dictator and time the dispersal of the Soviets to coincide with this event. But the active revolutionary uprising frustrated the plans of the bourgeoisie. Then Kornilov on August 23 moved troops to Petrograd.
The Bolsheviks, carrying out great agitation work among the working masses and soldiers, explained the meaning of the conspiracy and created revolutionary centers for the struggle against Kornilovism. The rebellion was suppressed, and the people finally understood that the Bolshevik Party is the only party that defends the interests of the working people.
In mid-September, V.I. Lenin worked out a plan for an armed uprising and ways to carry it out. The main goal of the October Revolution was the conquest of power by the Soviets.
On October 12, the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) was created - a center for preparing an armed uprising. Zinoviev and Kamenev, opponents of the socialist revolution, gave the terms of the uprising to the Provisional Government.
The uprising began on the night of October 24, the day the II Congress of Soviets opened. The government immediately succeeded in isolating it from the armed units loyal to it.
October 25 V.I. Lenin arrived at Smolny and personally led the uprising in Petrograd. During the October Revolution, the most important objects such as bridges, telegraph, government offices were seized.
On the morning of October 25, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee announced the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the transfer of power to the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. On October 26, the Winter Palace was captured and members of the Provisional Government were arrested.
The October Revolution in Russia took place with the full support of the masses of the people. The alliance between the working class and the peasantry, the defection of the armed army to the side of the revolution, and the weakness of the bourgeoisie determined the results of the October Revolution of 1917.
On October 25 and 26, 1917, the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets was held, at which the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) was elected and the first Soviet government, the Council of People's Commissars (SNK), was formed. V.I. was elected Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. Lenin. He put forward two Decrees: the "Decree on Peace", which called on the warring countries to stop hostilities, and the "Decree on Land", expressing the interests of the peasants.
The adopted Decrees contributed to the victory of Soviet power in the regions of the country.
On November 3, 1917, with the capture of the Kremlin, Soviet power also won in Moscow. Further, Soviet power was proclaimed in Belarus, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, in the Crimea, in the North Caucasus, in Central Asia. The revolutionary struggle in Transcaucasia dragged on until the end of the civil war (1920-1921), which was a consequence of the October Revolution of 1917.
The Great October Socialist Revolution divided the world into two camps - capitalist and socialist.
Revolution of 1917 in Russia
The history of the October Socialist Revolution is one of those topics that have attracted and continue to attract the greatest attention of foreign and Russian historiography After all, it was precisely as a result of the victory of the October Revolution that the position of all classes and strata of the population, their parties, radically changed. The Bolsheviks became the ruling party, leading the work to create a new state and social system.
On October 26, a decree on peace and land was adopted. Following the decree on peace, on land, the Soviet government adopted laws: on the introduction of workers' control over the production and distribution of products, on an 8-hour working day, and the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia." The Declaration proclaimed that from now on in Russia there are no dominant nations and oppressed nations, all peoples receive equal rights to free development, to self-determination up to secession and the formation of an independent state.
The October Revolution marked the beginning of profound, all-encompassing social change throughout the world. The landlords' land was transferred free of charge into the hands of the working peasantry, and factories, mills, mines, railways into the hands of the workers, making them public property.
Causes of the October Revolution
On August 1, 1914, the First World War began in Russia, which lasted until November 11, 1918, the cause of which was the struggle for spheres of influence in conditions when a single European market and legal mechanism had not been created.
Russia was on the defensive in this war. And although the patriotism and heroism of the soldiers and officers was great, there was neither a single will, nor serious plans for waging war, nor a sufficient supply of ammunition, uniforms and food. This instilled uncertainty in the army. She lost her soldiers and suffered defeats. The Minister of War was put on trial, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief was removed from his post. Nicholas II himself became commander-in-chief. But the situation has not improved. Despite continuous economic growth (the production of coal and oil, the production of shells, guns and other types of weapons grew, huge reserves were accumulated in case of a prolonged war), the situation developed in such a way that during the war years Russia found itself without an authoritative government, without an authoritative prime minister. minister, and without an authoritative Headquarters. The officer corps grew educated people, i.e. intelligentsia, which was subject to oppositional moods, and everyday participation in the war, which lacked the most necessary, gave food for doubts.
The growing centralization of economic management, carried out against the backdrop of a growing shortage of raw materials, fuel, transport, qualified work force, accompanied by the scope of speculation and abuse, led to the fact that the role of state regulation increased along with the growth negative factors economy (History of the domestic state and law. Part 1: Textbook / Edited by O. I. Chistyakov. - M .: BEK Publishing House, 1998)
Queues appeared in the cities, standing in which was a psychological breakdown for hundreds of thousands of workers and workers.
The predominance of military production over civilian production and the rise in food prices led to a steady increase in prices for all consumer goods. At the same time, wages did not keep pace with rising prices. Discontent grew both in the rear and at the front. And it turned primarily against the monarch and his government.
Considering that from November 1916 to March 1917 three prime ministers, two ministers of internal affairs and two ministers of agriculture were replaced, then the expression of the convinced monarchist V. Shulgin about the situation that developed at that time in Russia is really true: “autocracy without autocrat” .
Among a number of prominent politicians, in semi-legal organizations and circles, a conspiracy was ripening, and plans were discussed to remove Nicholas II from power. It was supposed to seize the tsar's train between Mogilev and Petrograd and force the monarch to abdicate.
The October Revolution was a major step towards the transformation of a feudal state into a bourgeois one. October created a fundamentally new, Soviet state. The October Revolution was caused by a number of objective and subjective reasons. First of all, the class contradictions that aggravated in 1917 should be attributed to the objective ones:
The contradictions inherent in bourgeois society are the antagonism between labor and capital. The Russian bourgeoisie, young and inexperienced, failed to see the danger of coming class friction and did not take sufficient measures in time to reduce the intensity of the class struggle as much as possible.
Conflicts in the countryside, which developed even more acutely. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of taking away the land from the landowners and driving them away themselves, were not satisfied with either the reform of 1861 or the Stolypin reform. They frankly longed to get all the land and get rid of old exploiters. In addition, from the very beginning of the 20th century, a new contradiction escalated in the countryside, connected with the differentiation of the peasantry itself. This stratification intensified after the Stolypin reform, which attempted to create a new class of owners in the countryside through the redistribution of peasant lands associated with the destruction of the community. Now, in addition to the landowner, the broad peasant masses also had a new enemy - the kulak, even more hated, since he came from his environment.
National conflicts. national movement, not too strong in the period 1905-1907, aggravated after February and gradually increased by the autumn of 1917.
World War. The first chauvinistic frenzy that gripped certain sections of society at the beginning of the war soon dissipated, and by 1917 the overwhelming mass of the population, suffering from the many-sided hardships of the war, longed for the speediest conclusion of peace. First of all, this concerned, of course, the soldiers. The village is also tired of endless sacrifices. Only the upper class of the bourgeoisie, which made huge amounts of money on military supplies, stood up for the continuation of the war to a victorious end. But the war also had other consequences. First of all, it armed the vast masses of workers and peasants, taught them how to handle weapons and helped overcome the natural barrier that forbids a person to kill other people.
The weakness of the Provisional Government and the entire state apparatus created by it. If immediately after February, the Provisional Government had some kind of authority, then the further, the more it lost it, being unable to solve the pressing problems of society, primarily questions about peace, bread, and land. Simultaneously with the decline in the authority of the Provisional Government, the influence and importance of the Soviets grew, promising to give the people everything they craved.
Along with objective factors, subjective factors were also important:
Widespread popularity in the society of socialist ideas. Thus, by the beginning of the century, Marxism had become a kind of fashion among the Russian intelligentsia. He found a response in wider popular circles. Even in Orthodox Church At the beginning of the 20th century, a movement of Christian socialism, albeit a small one, emerged.
The existence in Russia of a party ready to lead the masses to revolution - the Bolshevik Party. This party is not the largest in number (the Socialist-Revolutionaries had more), however, it was the most organized and purposeful.
The fact that the Bolsheviks had a strong leader, authoritative both in the party itself and among the people, who managed to become a real leader in a few months after February - V.I. Lenin.
As a result, the October armed uprising won victory in Petrograd with greater ease than February Revolution, and almost bloodless precisely as a result of a combination of all the factors mentioned above. Its result was the emergence of the Soviet state.
The legal side of the October Revolution of 1917
In the autumn of 1917, the political crisis intensified in the country. At the same time, the Bolsheviks were actively working to prepare the uprising. It started and went according to plan.
During the uprising in Petrograd, by October 25, 1917, all key points in the city were occupied by detachments of the Petrograd garrison and the Red Guard. By the evening of that day, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies began its work, proclaiming itself the highest authority in Russia. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee, formed by the First Congress of Soviets in the summer of 1917, was re-elected.
The Second Congress of Soviets elected a new All-Russian Central Executive Committee and formed the Council of People's Commissars, which became the government of Russia. ( The World History: Textbook for universities / Ed. G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. - M .: Culture and Sport, UNITI, 1997) The Congress was of a constituent nature: it created the governing state bodies and adopted the first acts that had constitutional, fundamental significance. The Decree on Peace proclaimed the principles of long-term foreign policy Russia - peaceful coexistence and "proletarian internationalism", the right of nations to self-determination.
The Decree on Land was based on peasant mandates formulated by the soviets as early as August 1917. A variety of forms of land use were proclaimed (household, farm, communal, artel), confiscation of landowners' lands and estates, which were transferred to the disposal of volost land committees and county councils of peasant deputies. The right to private ownership of land was abolished. The use of hired labor and the lease of land were prohibited. Later, these provisions were enshrined in the Decree “On the Socialization of the Land” in January 1918. The Second Congress of Soviets also adopted two appeals: “To the Citizens of Russia” and “To the Workers, Soldiers and Peasants”, which spoke of the transfer of power to the Military Revolutionary Committee , the Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and locally - local councils.
- January
- February
- April
- August
- September
- October
- November
- December
January Strikes in Petrograd, rescue of Riga and the suffragette at the White House
Revolution January 22 (January 9, old style), on the anniversary Bloody Sunday, the largest strike during the war began in Petrograd, more than 145 thousand workers of the Vyborg, Narva and Moscow regions took part in it. The demonstrations were dispersed by the Cossacks. Strikes also took place in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov and other major cities Russian Empire; in total, more than 200,000 people went on strike in January 1917.
War On January 5 (December 23, 1916, old style), the Russian army launched an offensive on the Northern Front in the Mitava region (modern Jelgava in Latvia). An unexpected blow made it possible to break through the line of fortifications of the German army and move the front from Riga. The initial success of the Mitav operation could not be consolidated: the soldiers of the 2nd and 6th Siberian Corps rebelled and refused to take part in the hostilities. In addition, the command of the Northern Front refused to provide reinforcements. The operation was terminated on January 11 (December 29).
Picket at the gates of the White House. Washington, January 26, 1917 Library of CongressOn January 10, a suffragist movement known as the "Quiet Guards" began picketing outside the White House in Washington. For the next two and a half years, six days a week, women picketed the residence of the American president, demanding equal voting rights with men. During this time, they were repeatedly beaten, detained for “obstructing traffic”, and tortured during arrests. The picket ended on June 4, 1919, when both houses of Congress passed the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution: "The right to vote of the citizens of the United States shall not be denied or restricted by the United States or by any state on account of sex."
February Submarine Warfare, Duma Opposition, and the Mexican Constitution
Revolution On February 27 (14), the first meeting of the State Duma in 1917 opened. It was supposed to take place in January, but at the beginning of the year, by decree of the emperor, it was postponed to a later date. A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace, many deputies at the meeting demanded the resignation of the government. The leader of the Trudovik faction, Alexander Kerensky, called for fighting the authorities not only by legal means, but also with the help of “physical elimination”.
War
German submarine U-14. 1910s Library of Congress On February 1, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. German submarines easily overcame barriers and attacked both military convoys and civilian ships. During the first week of February, 35 ships were sunk in the English Channel and on the western approaches to it. For the whole month, the German fleet lost only 4 submarines out of 34, and the British troops were cut off from supplies due to constant attacks on merchant ships in the strait and in the Atlantic.
World On February 5, Mexico published the text of the Constitution adopted in January by the Constituent Assembly. The new basic law transferred all land to the state, reduced the powers of the church to a minimum, separated the branches of government and established an eight-hour working day. Thus, the revolutionaries achieved the fulfillment of all their demands. However, the armed struggle between the government and the rebel leaders continued even after that. The revolution began in 1910 with the struggle against the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz. Then the peasants joined the movement, and land reform became the main goal.
March Renunciation in Pskov, the capture of Baghdad and the first jazz record
Revolution March 8 (February 23), International Women's Day, another strike began, which grew into a general one. Workers from the Vyborg side broke through to Nevsky Prospekt, the strike turned into a political action. March 11 (February 26) as a result of clashes, demonstrators were killed, guards regiments began to go over to the side of the rebels, the unrest could not be extinguished. On March 15 (2) in Pskov, Nicholas II signed an act of renunciation; in Petrograd, a Provisional Government was formed, headed by the leader of the Zemsky Union, Prince Georgy Lvov.
War
British troops enter Baghdad. March 11, 1917 Wikimedia Commons On March 11, British troops took Baghdad, forcing the Ottoman army to retreat. Great Britain took revenge for the defeat at El Kut in early 1916, when the defenders of the fortress were forced to capitulate after a long siege. In January 1917, British troops first recaptured El Kut and then moved north, delivered a surprise blow to the Ottoman army and entered Baghdad. This allowed the British to gain a foothold in Mesopotamia, and Ottoman Empire lost control of another territory.
"Livery Stable Blues" performed by the Original Dixieland Jass Band. 1917On March 7, the first commercial jazz recording goes on public sale - the single "Livery Stable Blues" by the white orchestra of the Original Dixieland Jass Band. With the release of this record, an explosion in the popularity of jazz is associated. 1917 also saw the birth of future jazz musicians Ella Fitzgerald (April 25), Thelonious Monk (October 10), and Dizzy Gillespie (October 21).
April Lenin's Theses, Wilson's War and Gandhi's Nonviolent Protest
Revolution
Sketch of the "April Theses". Manuscript of Vladimir Lenin. 1917 RIA News" On April 9 (March 27), the Provisional Government sent a note to France and Great Britain, in which it assured the allies that Russia would not withdraw from the war and would not conclude a separate peace. In response, the Petrograd Soviet, which consisted of Bolsheviks and Socialist-Revolutionaries, led soldiers and workers to an anti-war demonstration. The April crisis led to a split between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. At the same time, Lenin published his "April Theses" - the Bolsheviks' program of action: ending the war; refusal to support the Provisional Government; new, proletarian revolution.
War On April 6, the United States entered the First world war. Up to this point, the United States had remained neutral, but American ships were increasingly becoming victims of the submarine war that Germany had been waging since February. The reason for the war was also a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann, in which he asked the German ambassador to the United States to achieve an alliance with Mexico. The British intercepted the telegram, deciphered it, and presented it to US President Woodrow Wilson, who made it public. Shortly thereafter, with several more American ships sunk in the Atlantic, Congress declared war on Germany.
World On April 10, 47-year-old lawyer and social activist Mohandas Gandhi launched the first civil disobedience campaign in India. Gandhi called this form of protest Satyagraha (from Sanskrit "satya" - "truth", and "agraha" - "firmness"). In the Champaran district, he began to fight against the colonial authorities, who forced the peasants to grow indigo and other commercial crops instead of cereals that could be eaten. The main goal was the independence of India from the British Empire. The first stage of peaceful resistance ended with Gandhi's arrest. Thousands of people demanded his release, calling him Mahatma - the Great Soul, and the police had to release Gandhi a few days later.
May Coalition Government, Commander-in-Chief Pétain and the Birth of Surrealism
Revolution The April crisis, above all, the statement of the Minister of Foreign Affairs Milyukov about the "war to a victorious end", led to a change of government. The new coalition included six socialists: the Socialist-Revolutionary Kerensky became the Minister of War and the Navy, the leader of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party Viktor Chernov became the Minister of Agriculture, the Mensheviks Irakli Tsereteli and Matvey Skobelev, Trudovik Pavel Pereverzev and People's Socialist Alexei Peshekhonov also entered the coalition.
War On May 15, General Henri Philippe Pétain became commander-in-chief of the French army. After the battle of Verdun, which lasted almost the entire year 1916, Pétain became one of the most revered generals of the soldiers. In the spring of 1917, Commander-in-Chief Robert Nivel sent troops to break through the German front, losses French army reached 100 thousand people killed and wounded. A crisis began in the army - the soldiers rebelled. Pétain calmed the troops, promised to give up suicidal attacks, and shot the instigators of the rebellion. Later, in 1940, he would head the government of the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Nazis.
Leonid Myasin as a Chinese magician. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917
Horse. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
American manager. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Acrobat. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
American baby. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
French manager. Costume designed by Picasso for the ballet "Parade". Photograph by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
On May 18, the term "surrealism" appeared. The poet Guillaume Apollinaire applied this definition to the ballet Parade. The performance with music by Eric Satie, script by Jean Cocteau, costumes by Pablo Picasso and choreography by Leonid Myasin, based on a parade of circus performers, caused a real scandal. The audience whistled, critics after the premiere called the production a stain on the reputation of Sergei Diaghilev's Ballets Russes and a blow to French society. Apollinaire ardently defended the ballet in his manifesto "Paradade and the New Spirit", explaining that this combination of scenery, costumes and choreography "led to a kind of sur-réalisme" in which the New Spirit could begin to take off.
June All-Russian Central Executive Committee, abdication of Constantine I and Act on espionage
Revolution On June 16 (3) the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened in Petrograd. The majority on it were Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. Lenin's "April theses" on ending the war and transferring power to the Soviets were rejected. Following the results of the congress, the deputies elected their leadership - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (All-Russian Central Executive Committee), headed by the Menshevik Nikolai Chkheidze.
War On June 11, King Constantine I of Greece abdicated under pressure from the Entente. From the beginning of the war, the monarch remained neutral, despite opposition from the government. Constantine I was married to the sister of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, which gave rise to reproaches for the pro-German position of the king. Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos approved the British landing in Thessaloniki, was dismissed, but then formed the opposition Provisional Government of National Defense. Dual power arose in the country, and as a result, Constantine I abdicated and left for Switzerland, passing the throne to his son Alexander, who had no real power as a king.
Winsor McKay. Cartoon of the Espionage Act from the New York American. May 1917 Library of Congress On June 15, the U.S. passed the Espionage Act. the federal law which was intended to reinforce national security country that had just entered the First World War, but was immediately perceived as an attack on freedom of speech. It specifically forbids the dissemination of information that could harm the US military or advance its enemies. The Espionage Act is still in use today - in particular, its violation is blamed on Edward Snowden, who made public the data on how American intelligence agencies monitor people around the world.
July Government crisis, failed offensive and execution of Mata Hari
Revolution On July 17-18 (4-5) in Petrograd, demonstrations of anarchists and Bolsheviks lead to clashes with government troops. The armed uprising failed, the Bolshevik leaders Lenin and Zinoviev had to flee the capital. At the same time, a crisis is also taking place in the Provisional Government: first, the Cadets leave it in protest against the granting of broad powers to the Ukrainian Central Rada, and then the chairman of the government, Prince Georgy Lvov, also resigns.
War At the end of June, the Russian army began preparations for a large-scale strategic offensive. On July 1 (June 18), the offensive began on the Southwestern Front in the direction of Lvov. In the first two days, the troops advanced significantly, which allowed Kerensky, Minister of War and Marine, to declare "the great triumph of the revolution." On July 6 (June 23), the 8th Army of General Lavr Kornilov attacked the positions of the Austro-Hungarian troops. But a week later, the impulse dried up: fermentation began in the army, military committees decided to abandon hostilities. Meanwhile, the Austro-German command transferred additional forces to this sector of the front. The counteroffensive turned to Russian army catastrophic: entire divisions fled from the front.
Mata Hari in stage costume. Postcard. 1906Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand
Mata Hari on the day of his arrest. 1917 Wikimedia Commons
On July 24, the trial of the Dutch dancer Marga-re-ta Gertrude Zelle, better known by her stage name Mata Hari, began in France. She was accused of spying for Germany and passing on to the Germans information that caused the death of several divisions of soldiers. The very next day, the court sentenced Mata Hari to death. She was shot on October 15, 1917, she was 41 years old.
August Mustard, the Bolshevik Congress and the miraculous appearance of the Virgin
Revolution On August 6 (July 24), a second coalition government was formed, already led by. The Provisional Government after the July days returned the death penalty and announced its intention to liquidate the Soviets. In Moscow, at the initiative of the government, a State Conference was convened with the participation of all political forces, except for the Bolsheviks, demanding the gradual liquidation of military committees, a ban on rallies and meetings, and the return death penalty. The Bolsheviks, in turn, held a party congress in Petrograd, at which they announced the need for an armed uprising.
War In August, the most difficult stage of the battle of Passchendaele in Belgium (the third battle of Ypres) began, which had been going on since July 11. British troops decided to break through the German front, the main goal was the base of German submarines. On the third day of the battle german army used a new poison gas - mustard gas: it affected the skin and eyes, the losses from it were greater than from any other chemical weapon during the war. In August, due to the rains, the area turned into an impenetrable swamp, in which the armies fought. The tanks got stuck in the mud. The British did not manage to overcome the German fortifications, and only in October they were able to move forward.
Lucia Santos, Francisco Marta and Jacinta Marta. Fatima, Portugal, 1917 Wikimedia Commons From May to October 1917, every 13th day, the Virgin Mary appeared to three children from the Portuguese city of Fatima - Lucia Santos and her cousins Francisco and Jacinta Marta. The exception was August 13, when the children were arrested by a local official and journalist, Artur Santos, a well-known anti-clerical and anti-monarchist in the district. He tried to get them to admit that they had not actually seen any miracles, but in vain. Coming out from under arrest, the children witnessed another appearance of the Virgin on August 19. The field on which this took place, back in 1917, became a place of mass pilgrimage.
September Kornilov rebellion, surrender of Riga and bacterial viruses
Revolution September 8 (August 26) The Supreme Commander presented an ultimatum to the Provisional Government. He demanded to give him full power before the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. In response, Kor-nilov was called a rebel. Troops loyal to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief moved to Petrograd, but under the influence of agitators they stopped at the approaches to the capital. After the failure of the rebellion, the government collapsed: the Cadets, who supported Kornilov's speech, left it. During the transitional period, the highest authority was formed - the Directory, headed by Kerensky.
War
German infantry in Riga. September 1917© IWM (Q 86949)
Kaiser Wilhelm II and Leopold of Bavaria on the banks of the Western Dvina (Daugava). Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 70272)
Russian prisoners of war. Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 86680)
On September 1, German troops began shelling the positions of the Russian army near Riga. This was followed by a massive offensive, the purpose of which was to encircle the 12th Army. In two days Russian troops lost 25 thousand people killed and already on September 3 left Riga. However, the 12th Army left the encirclement. The city was one of the main targets of the German army on the Eastern Front. After the capture of Riga, fears arose that the Germans would be able to occupy Petrograd. Panic arose in the Russian capital and preparations began for evacuation.
World On September 3, French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle, who works at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, published a paper describing bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria. This is one of the most ancient and numerous groups of viruses, which is now used in medicine as an alternative to antibiotics, and in biology as one of the tools of genetic engineering. Initially, bacteriophages were described in 1915 by the Englishman Frederick Twort (calling them bacteriolytic agents), but his research went unnoticed, and d'Herelle made his discovery on his own.
October Attack on Petrograd, the capture of the Moonsund Islands and the navel of Cleopatra
Revolution On October 8 (September 25), the composition of the third coalition government was announced, with Kerensky remaining chairman. At this time, in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks began preparing an armed uprising. They received a majority in the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and on October 29 (16) the proposal of the head of the Petrograd Soviet, Lev Trotsky, to create a Military Revolutionary Committee was approved, formally - to protect against the Kornilovites and the German troops approaching the capital. After that, the Petrograd garrison came under the control of the Petrograd Soviet.
War On October 12, German troops launched an operation to capture the Russian-owned Moonsund Islands in the Baltic Sea. The operation was a combi-ni-ro-bath: the ground forces, the navy, and aviation (airplanes and airships) participated in it. The German Navy unexpectedly encountered fierce resistance from the Russian fleet. Only by October 17 did the German dreadnoughts manage to get to the archipelago and gain control over it.
Theda Bara in Cleopatra (1917)On October 14, Cleopatra, the most expensive film of its time, is released, with a budget of $500,000 (almost $10 million today). The title role was played by Theda Bara, one of the main sex symbols of the 1910s. The film was subjected to significant censorship - for example, during screenings in Chicago, a scene was cut from the first part in which Cleopatra stands in front of Caesar with a "bare navel" and "ambiguously bows" to the Roman ruler. The last two complete prints of the film burned down in a fire at Fox Studios in 1937, in currently it is considered lost, only minor fragments have survived.
November The Bolshevik coup, the battle from Farewell to Arms! and Jews in Palestine
Revolution November 7 (October 25) Petrograd was almost completely in the hands of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which issued an appeal "To the citizens of Russia!", Reporting that power had passed to the Petrograd Soviet. On the night of November 7-8 (October 25-26), the Bolsheviks and their political allies took the Winter Palace and arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government. The next day, the Second Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies formed the authorities and adopted decrees on peace and land.
War
The retreat of the Italian army during the Battle of Caporetto. November 1917 Italian Army Photographers/Wikimedia Commons On November 9, the active phase of the Battle of Caporetto in northeastern Italy ended. It began on October 24, when the 14th Army under the command of General Otto von Belov, consisting of German and Austro-Hungarian divisions, broke through the Italian front. The Italian army, demoralized by the chemical attack, began to retreat. The Entente allies transferred additional forces to this sector, but the German-Austrian troops continued to move forward. By November 9, the Italian army was forced to withdraw across the Piave River. Ernest Hemingway described this retreat in A Farewell to Arms. The defeat at Caporetto led to the resignation of the Italian government and commander-in-chief Luigi Cadorna, the army of the kingdom lost more than 70 thousand people killed and wounded.
World On November 2, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent an official letter to Lord Walter Rothschild, representative of the British Jewish community, for onward transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The purpose of the letter was to enlist the support of not only British, but also American representatives of the diaspora, so that they would contribute to more active participation USA in World War I. Minister Balfour declared that the government was "considering with approval the question of establishing in Palestine a national home for the Jewish people." This document was called the Balfour Declaration and became the basis for the post-war settlement in Palestine and for the UK to obtain a mandate over the territories, and in the future for the creation of the State of Israel.
December Peace talks, Cheka and NHL
Revolution By mid-December, the left SRs entered the new government, the Council of People's Commissars, and the highest authority, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. On December 20 (7), the Council of People's Commissars created the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (VChK). And on December 26 (13) in Pravda, Lenin's "Theses on the Constituent Assembly" appeared, which stated that the composition of the assembly (where the Right SRs had a majority) did not correspond to the will of the people.
War
Meeting of the delegation of the RSFSR at the station in Brest-Litovsk. Early 1918 Wikimedia Commons On December 3 (November 20), negotiations begin in Brest-Litovsk between Germany and Soviet Russia about a truce. Having adopted, on the one hand, the Decree on Peace at the Second Congress of Soviets and hoping for an early revolution in the countries Central Europe- on the other hand, the Bolsheviks initiated these negotiations, but tried their best to drag them out. Three months later, on March 3, despite the desperate internal party struggle Bolsheviks, peace was concluded, but even the main supporter Vladimir Lenin called it "obscene": Russia agreed to pay huge reparations and lose the western territories with a total area of 780 thousand square kilometers with a population of more than 50 million people. The Entente called the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk a "political crime". However, Russia, in fact, did not have to comply with his conditions: in November 1918, Germany was defeated in the First World War. Part of the seized territories became part of the USSR following the results of the Civil War, part was occupied Soviet Union at the start of World War II.
World On December 19, the first match in the history of the National Hockey League took place, which arose as a result of disagreements within the National Hockey Association that existed since 1909. The Toronto Arenas and Montreal Wanderers played in the NHL opening game. Two more Canadian teams participated in the first championship - the Montreal Canadiens and the Ottawa Sena Torz, which, unlike the first two clubs, still exist. Toronto became the champion of the first season. The NHL predicted an imminent collapse: in the third year of the war, many hockey players went to the front. However, the league proved to be a successful project and soon attracted clubs not only from Canada, but also from the United States.
Lenin proclaims Soviet power
Great October Socialist Revolution- the process of the revolutionary establishment of Soviet power on the territory of Russia from October 1917 to March 1918, as a result of which the bourgeois was overthrown, and power was transferred.
The Great October Socialist Revolution was the result of internal conflicts that accumulated in Russian society at least from the middle of the 19th century, the revolutionary process generated by them, which later developed into the First World War. Her victory in Russia provided a practical opportunity for a global experiment in building in a single country. The revolution had a global character, actually completely changing the history of mankind in the twentieth century, and led to the formation of political map world that exists to this day and daily demonstrates to the whole world the advantages of the socialist system over.
Causes and background
From the middle of 1916, a decline in industrial and agricultural production began in Russia. The representatives of the liberal-bourgeois opposition, who had gained a foothold in the Duma, zemstvos, city dumas, and military-industrial committees, insisted on the creation of a Duma and a government that would enjoy the confidence of the country. Right-wing circles, on the contrary, called for the dissolution of the Duma. The tsar, realizing the detrimental consequences of carrying out radical, political and other reforms in the course of a war that required political stability, was in no hurry, however, to “tighten the screws”. He hoped that the success of the Entente troops' offensive against Germany planned for the spring of 1917 from the east and west would bring peace to minds. However, such hopes were no longer destined to come true.
February bourgeois-democratic revolution and the overthrow of the autocracy
On February 23, 1917, rallies, strikes, and demonstrations of workers began in Petrograd due to food difficulties. On February 26, the authorities tried to suppress popular uprisings by force of arms. This, in turn, caused disobedience in the spare parts of the Petrograd garrison, who did not want to be sent to the front, and an uprising of some of them on the morning of February 27. As a result, the rebellious soldiers united with the striking workers. On the same day, the Provisional Committee was formed in the State Duma State Duma headed by Duma Chairman M. V. Rodzianko. On the night of February 27-28, the Committee announced that it had taken power "into its own hands to restore state and public order." On the same day, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' Deputies was created, calling on the people to finally overthrow the old government. By the morning of February 28, the uprising in Petrograd had won.
On the night of March 1-2, by agreement of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma with the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, it was formed headed by the Chairman of the Main Committee of the All-Russian Zemstvo Union, Prince G. E. Lvov. The government included representatives of various bourgeois parties: the leader of the Cadets P. N. Milyukov, the leader of the Octobrists A. I. Guchkov and others, as well as the socialist A. F. Kerensky.
On the night of March 2, the Petrograd Soviet adopted order No. 1 for the Petrograd garrison, which spoke of the election of soldiers' committees in units and subunits, subordination military units in all political speeches to the Council, the transfer of weapons under the control of the soldiers' committees. Similar orders were established outside the Petrograd garrison, which undermined the combat capability of the army.
On the evening of March 2, Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne. As a result, dual power arose in the country on the part of the bourgeois Provisional Government ("power without power") and the Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies ("power without power").
Period of dual power
The Union State was formed on the basis of the Ukrainian and Byelorussian SSR. Over time, the number of union republics reached 15.
Third (Communist) International
Almost immediately after the announcement Soviet power in Russia, the leadership of the RCP(b) took the initiative to form a new international in order to unite and rally the working class of the planet.
In January 1918, a meeting of representatives of leftist groups from a number of European and American countries was held in Petrograd. And on March 2, 1919, the First Constituent Congress of the Communist International began its work in Moscow.
The Comintern set itself the task of supporting the working-class movement throughout the world in order to carry out a world revolution that would finally replace the world capitalist economy with the world system of communism.
In many ways, it was thanks to the activities of the Communist International that communist parties were formed in many countries of Europe, Asia and America, which ultimately led to their victory in China, Mongolia, Korea and Vietnam and the establishment of a socialist system in them.
Thus, the Great October Revolution, which created the first socialist state, marked the beginning of the collapse of the capitalist system in many countries of the world.
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Research
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- Igritsky Yu. I. Myths of bourgeois historiography and the reality of history. Modern American and English historiography of the Great October Socialist Revolution. - M.: Thought, 1974. - 274 p.
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- October socialist revolution in Udmurtia. Collection of documents and materials (1917-1918) / Ed. I. P. Emelyanova. - Izhevsk: Udmurt book publishing house, 1957. - 394 p.
- October Revolution and Civil War in North Ossetia. - Ordzhonikidze: Ir Publishing House, 1973. - 302 p.
- Foreign Literature on the October Revolution / Ed. I. I. Mints. - M.: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1961. - 310 p.
- Seventieth Anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution. Joint ceremonial meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR November 2–3, 1987: Verbatim report. - M.: Politizdat, 1988. - 518 p.
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- Salov V. I. German historiography of the Great October Socialist Revolution. - M.: Sotsekgiz, 1960. - 213 p.
