familiar yavl. objects, actions and phenomena, i.e. any material objects, cat. may substitute for one reality or another. Sign is a bilateral unit, a carrier of social information. A linguistic sign - a chain of phonemically dissected sounds - also means a concept attached to it - a signified.

Language signs are distributed in three groups:

1. natural languages (phonetic);

2. artificial languages (graphically written language, manual speech of the deaf and dumb);

3. signs associated with phonetic language(intonation, gestures, facial expressions, pauses).

The peculiarity of the linguistic sign zakl. in that it is a primary non-conventional sign, objectively formed in the process of evolution of human and human society in general. Among other types of signs used in human society, the linguistic sign occupies a special place:

1. its material and ideal nature;

2. the originality of its genesis, i.e. origin, evolution and functioning;

3. functions performed;

4. the form of its existence or expression;

5. their role in the life of society and many others. other signs.

Main. sign properties in general and linguistic sign in particular.

1. substitution function (any sign means something);

2. communication (any sign is a medium of communication);

3. sociality (any signs arise and exist in society);

4. systemic (any Z. is an element of some system);

5. materiality (any sign must be accessible to sensory perception - to feel, see, feel).

The peculiarity of language as a sign system zakl. in universality (linguistic Z. use in all areas of human activity); primacy in relation to other sign systems; in constant development and perfection; in polysemy.

Types of sign systems

Signs are usually distinguished from signs (symptoms). The latter are not means of purposeful transmission of information by someone. In them, the plane of expression (signifier, exponent) and the plane of content (signified) are in a causal relationship (for example, puddles of water on the ground as evidence of recent rain). In the actual signs used for the purposeful transmission of information, the connection between the two parties is not due to natural, cause-and-effect relationships, but is often subject to the principle of convention (conventionality) or the principle of arbitrariness (arbitrarity). However, as already noted, numerous cases of one or another motivation of signs are possible, which are allowed by this system.

People use a wide variety of sign systems, which can be classified primarily based on the communication channel (the environment in which they are transmitted). So, we can talk about signs of sound (vocal, auditory), visual, tactile, etc. People have, in addition to the sound language as the main communication system, gesticulation, facial expressions, phonation means, which are a special use of the voice, etc. They have at their disposal both natural (spontaneously occurring) and artificial, created by them communication systems (letter; signaling with the help of technical devices and other means: traffic lights, ways of designating military distinctions etc., symbol systems in logic, mathematics, physics, chemistry, engineering, languages like Esperanto, programming languages, etc.). In some communication situations, there is a simultaneous transmission of signs of various kinds, the use of different media (multimedia communication).

Question

linguosemiotics

Semiotics is the science of sign systems in nature and in society. ground floor-com yavl. Pier. Directions in S-ke:

1. biosemiotics (studies natural signs that function in the animal world).

2. ethnosemiotics (studies the signs associated with a certain ethnos - habits, customs, traditions).

3. linguosemiotics(focused on the study of natural language with its style and associated sign systems).

Sign yavl. objects, actions and phenomena, i.e. any material objects, cat. can replace this or that reality. A sign is a 2-sided unit, a carrier of social information. A linguistic sign - a chain of phonemically dissected sounds - also means a concept attached to it - a signified.

1 type of signs, copies or images (iconic). This type of signs retains the similarity with the designated objects. Type 2 - signs, signs or symptoms (index) - carry information about the subject, a consequence of natural and causation with him. Type 3 - signs of signals - carry information by agreement. Type 4 - signs-symbols - carry information about the subject in abstraction from the subject of any properties (eg Dove - a symbol of peace).

The originality of the language sign in the fact that it is a primary non-conventional sign, objectively formed in the process of evolution of human and human society in general. Among other types of signs used in human society, the tongue sign occupies a special place. The originality of the language as a sign system zakl. in universality (language sign is used in all areas of human activity); primacy in relation to other sign systems; in constant development and perfection; in polysemy.

linguosemiotics- the science of the communicative function of language. The essence of this function is that the language is a means of conveying the speaker's thoughts and feelings to the listener. This function is carried out due to the sign nature of the language.

The identification of the sign nature of a language becomes possible when the language begins to be studied along with other sign systems - the alphabet for the deaf and dumb, the system of road signs, etc. These systems are studied by semiotics - the science of signs. Semiotics occupies an intermediate position between internal linguistics and semiotics. Hence its two-root name. The founder of modern linguistic semiotics is F. de Saussure.

The main goal of linguosemiotics is to reveal the sign nature of language. This goal can be achieved if the language system is compared with other sign systems. Such a comparison makes it possible to characterize the language as special system signs.

The identification of the originality of the language in comparison with other sign systems can be carried out on different levels:

physical level. From point of view physical characteristics sign, and consequently, from the point of view of their perception by the senses, all systems are divided into four groups: tactile, visual, auditory and olfactory. A person uses visual signs extremely actively. Visual signs also include human language in its written form. In its oral form, human language belongs to auditory sign systems.

biological level. Physiological mechanisms speech activity in humans are special. This is especially evident in the absence of symmetry between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. It has been noted that in right-handed people (in left-handed people, on the contrary), the left hemisphere is specialized as speech (verbal), and the right hemisphere is specialized as non-verbal (non-verbal). Brain asymmetry is absent in animals. It is an anatomical and physiological result of human speech evolution.

Psychological level. The mental foundations of human speech activity are undoubtedly much more complex than similar mechanisms of any other sign activity in humans or animals. The explanation is simple: human language is a much more complex entity than any other sign system. If a system of hierarchically organized levels of various units is distinguished in a language, then the composition of sign units included in non-linguistic sign systems is limited.

cultural level. originality language system signs lies in the fact that it is used in all areas of culture, while other signs have narrow, special areas of application. The universal use of language testifies to the much greater communicative possibilities of human language in comparison with other sign systems.

language sign

According to F. de Saussure, a linguistic sign is not a connection between a thing and its name, but a combination of a concept and an acoustic image.

A concept is a generalized, schematic image of an object in our minds, the most important and character traits of the given object, as it were, the definition of the subject. For example, a chair is a seat with a support (legs or leg) and a back.

The acoustic image is the sound ideal equivalent of the sound in our mind. When we say a word to ourselves without moving our lips or tongue, we reproduce an acoustic image of a real sound.

Both of these sides of the sign have a psychic essence, i.e. ideal and exist only in our minds.

The acoustic image in relation to the concept is to some extent material, since it is associated with real sound.

The argument in favor of the ideality of the sign is that we can talk to ourselves without moving our lips or tongue, make sounds to ourselves.

Thus, the sign is a two-sided psychic entity, consisting of the signified and the signifier.

concept- signified (fr. signifié)

acoustic image- signifier (fr. signifiant).

The sign theory assumes 4 components of the designation process.

In the following example, the following components are involved:

The real, material, real tree itself, which we want to designate with a sign;

An ideal (mental) concept as part of a sign (denoted);

Ideal (mental) acoustic image as part of a sign (denoting);

The material embodiment of the ideal sign: the sounds of the spoken word tree, the letters denoting the word tree.1. Denotation (referent) 2. Concept 3. Acoustic 4. Embodiments

[´djεrеve] Tree, Tree

Trees can be different, there are no two absolutely identical birches, we also pronounce the word tree in different ways (in different tones, with different timbres, loudly, in a whisper, etc.), we also write differently (with a pen, pencil, chalk, different handwriting , on a typewriter, computer), but the two-sided sign in our minds is the same for everyone, since it is ideal.

English linguists Charles Ogden (1889-1957), Ivor Richards (1893-1979) in 1923 in the book "The Meaning of Meaning" visually presented the sign relation in the form of a semantic triangle (triangle of reference):

Sign (Symbol), i.e. a word in a natural language;

Referent (Referent), i.e. the subject to which the sign refers;

Attitude, or reference (Reference), i.e. thought as an intermediary between a symbol and a referent, between a word and an object.

The base of the triangle is shown with a dashed line. This means that the connection between the word and the subject is not obligatory, conditional, and it is impossible without a connection with thought and concept.

However, the sign relationship can also be expressed in the form of a square, if we take into account that the second member of the triangle - thought - can consist of a concept and a connotation. The concept is common to all native speakers of a given language, and connotation, or connotation (Latin connotatio - “meaning”) is an associative meaning, individual for each person.

For example, a “brick” for a bricklayer may be associated with his work, and for an injured passerby, with an injury.

Signs of a language sign:

1. Conditional connection between the signified and the signifier. In the word itself there is no indication of the subject.

2. Linear character. (Speech has duration in time and space - we pronounce words sequentially, linearly, letter by letter.)

3. Variability / non-variability. (Changeability (variance):

b) The signifier remains the same, but the signified changes. A change in the signified can lead to either an improvement or a deterioration in the meaning. For example, the word "girl" in the XVIII-XIX centuries. did not have a negative connotation, but today we use it in expressions like "walking girl". The word "guy" possessed in the XVIII-XIX centuries. negative derogatory connotation; in the 20th century, the word "young man" almost fell into disuse, and the word "guy" took its place.)

4. Agreement.

5. Asymmetry: one signifier can have several signifieds (as, for example, in homonymy). Also, one signifier can have several signifiers. This phenomenon is called synonymy.

Properties (principles) of a linguistic sign. The difference between a linguistic sign and other types of signs

Properties of a linguistic sign: 1. A linguistic sign is material and ideal at the same time; represents the unity of the sound shell - the signifier (form), and what it denotes - the signified (content). The signifier is material (sound, letters), the signified is ideal (what is embedded in our metaconsciousness). 2. The linguistic sign is primary, the signs of other sign systems are secondary. 3. Arbitrariness. 4. Motivation - the presence of logical connections between the signifier and the signified. 5. Changeability (variance):

a) The signifier changes, but the signified remains unchanged; for example, earlier the month "February" was called "February", over time this name was transformed into the familiar "February"; also "brow" - "forehead".

6. Asymmetry: one signifier can have several signifieds (as, for example, in homonymy). Also, one signifier can have several signifiers. This phenomenon is called synonymy.

7. The linear nature of the signifier. Speech has a duration in time and space - we pronounce words sequentially, linearly, letter by letter.

8. Significance. Significance can only be revealed in the system by comparing a linguistic sign with other linguistic signs.

Several types of signs are used in society. The most famous signs-signs, signs-signals, signs-symbols and linguistic signs. Signs-signs carry some information about the object (phenomenon) due to a natural connection with them: smoke in the forest can inform about a fire, a splash on the river - about fish playing in it, a frosty pattern on the window glass - about the temperature outside. Signs-signals carry information according to the condition, by agreement and have no natural connection with the objects (phenomena) they inform about: a green rocket can mean the beginning of an attack or the beginning of some kind of festival, two stones on the shore show the place of the ford, a blow to gong means end of work. Signs-symbols carry information about an object or phenomenon based on the abstraction from it of some properties and signs, perceived as representatives of the entire phenomenon, its essence; these properties and signs can be recognized in signs-symbols (a drawing of hands joined in a mutual shake is a symbol of friendship, a dove is a symbol of peace).

Language signs occupy a very special place in the typology of signs.

A linguistic sign connects not a thing and not a name, but a concept and an acoustic image. Only meaningful units can be considered linguistic signs: a word (lexeme) and a morpheme.

Language is a universal sign system. It serves a person in all areas of his life and activity and therefore must be able to express any new content that needs to be expressed. Artificial systems are special systems with narrow tasks that serve a person only in certain areas, in certain types of situations.

Moreover, language is a system internal structure much more complex than artificial systems. The complexity of the structure of the language is manifested in the fact that the language has not only a tier that lies "above" the sign, a tier of sentences and free (variable) phrases, but also a tier that lies "below" the sign, the tier of "non-signs", or "figures". ”, from which the exponents of signs are built (and with the help of which they are distinguished).

1. The sign character of the language

The language that a person uses in everyday communication is not only a historically established form of culture that unites human society, but also a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of the language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules for its use.

The words of the human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main characters in the language. Other units of the language are also signs.

A sign is a substitute for an object for the purposes of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke in the mind of the interlocutor the image of an object or concept.

The sign has the following properties:

o the sign must be material, accessible to perception;

o the sign is directed to the value;

o a sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system.

· The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements of the culture of speech.

o Firstly, the speaker (writer) must make sure that the signs of his speech (sounding words or writing signs) are convenient for perception: they are quite clearly audible, visible.

o Secondly, it is necessary that speech signs express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech.

o Thirdly, it must be borne in mind that the interlocutor may be less aware of the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which only in the opinion of the speaker is already contained in the spoken words.

o Fourth, it is important to ensure that the sounds oral speech and the letters of the letter were quite clearly distinguished from each other.

o Fifthly, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, keep in mind the associative links of words.

Thus, knowledge from the field of semiotics (the science of signs) contributes to the improvement of speech culture.

· A language mark can be a code mark and a text mark.

o Code signs exist in the form of a system of units opposed in the language, connected by a significance relation that determines the content of signs specific to each language.

o Text characters exist as a formally and semantically linked sequence of units. The culture of speech implies the attentive attitude of the speaker to the coherence of the spoken or written text.

Meaning is the content of a linguistic sign, which is formed as a result of the reflection of extralinguistic reality in the minds of people. The value of a language unit in the language system is virtual, i.e. determined by what the unit can stand for. In a specific utterance, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes relevant, since the unit is related to a specific object, to what it actually means in the utterance. From the point of view of speech culture, it is important for the speaker to clearly direct the interlocutor's attention to the actualization of the meaning of the statement, to help him correlate the statement with the situation, and for the listener it is important to show maximum attention to the speaker's communicative intentions.

Distinguish between subject and conceptual meaning.

o Objective meaning consists in correlating a word with an object, in designating an object.

o The conceptual meaning is used to express a concept that reflects an object, to specify a class of objects denoted by a sign.

2. Natural and artificial languages

Signs that are part of languages as means of communication in society are called signs of communication. Communication signs are divided into signs of natural languages and signs of artificial sign systems (artificial languages).

The signs of natural languages consist of both sound signs and the corresponding signs of writing (handwritten, typographic, typewritten, printer, screen).

In natural languages of communication - national languages- in a more or less explicit form, there are rules of grammar, and the rules of meaning and use - in an implicit form. For writing speech, there are also spelling and punctuation rules fixed in codes and reference books.

In artificial languages, both the rules of grammar and the rules of meaning and usage are set explicitly in the corresponding descriptions of these languages.

Artificial languages arose in connection with the development of science and technology, they are used in professional activity specialists. Artificial languages include systems of mathematical and chemical symbols. They serve as a means of not only communication, but also the derivation of new knowledge.

Among artificial sign systems, one can single out code systems designed to encode ordinary speech. These include Morse code, marine flag signaling of letters of the alphabet, and various ciphers.

special group constitute artificial languages designed to control the operation of computer systems - programming languages. They have a strict system structure and formalized rules for correlating code signs and meaning, providing for the computer system to perform exactly those operations that are required.

Signs of artificial languages can themselves constitute texts or be included in written texts in natural language. Many artificial languages have international usage and are included in texts in various natural national languages. Of course, it is appropriate to include signs of artificial languages only in texts addressed to specialists familiar with these languages.

The natural spoken language of humans is the most complete and perfect of all communication systems. Other human-made sign systems embody only some of the properties of natural language. These systems can significantly enhance the language and surpass it in one or more respects, but at the same time be inferior to it in others (Yu. S. Stepanov. Language and method. - M .: 1998, p. 52).

So, for example, the system of mathematical symbols surpasses the natural language in the brevity of information recording, the minimality of code signs. Programming languages are characterized by clear rules and unambiguous correspondence between meaning and form.

In turn, natural language is much more flexible, open and dynamic.

Natural language is applicable to describe any situations, including those that have not yet been the object of description using this language.

Natural language allows the speaker to generate new signs that are understandable to the interlocutor, as well as to use existing signs in new meanings, which is impossible in artificial languages.

The natural language is known within the entire national society, and not only to a narrow circle of specialists.

Natural language quickly adapts to the diverse needs of interpersonal interaction between people and therefore is the main and generally indispensable means of human communication.

3. Basic functions of the language

"Being the most important means communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, coordinates their practical activities, participates in the formation of worldview systems and national images of the world, ensures the accumulation and storage of information, including information related to the history and historical experience of the people and personal experience individual, dismembers, classifies and consolidates concepts, forms the consciousness and self-consciousness of a person, serves as material and form artistic creativity"(N.D. Arutyunova. Functions of the language. // Russian language. Encyclopedia. - M .: 1997. P. 609).

The main functions of the language are:

o Communicative (communication function);

o Thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thought);

o Expressive (the function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);

o Aesthetic (the function of creating beauty by means of language).

The communicative function is the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of the participants in communication.

Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.

From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function involves the installation of participants in speech communication on the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.

Achieving the functional effectiveness of communication is impossible without knowledge and compliance with the norms of the literary language.

The thought-forming function lies in the fact that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of the language is organically connected with the categories of thinking.

"The word, which alone is able to make the concept an independent unit in the world of thoughts, adds to it a lot of itself," wrote the founder of linguistics W. von Humboldt (W. Humboldt. Selected writings in linguistics. M.: 1984. S. 318).

This means that the word singles out and shapes the concept, and at the same time, a relationship is established between the units of thinking and the sign units of the language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that “language should accompany thought. Thought, not lagging behind language, should follow from one of its elements to another and find in language a designation for everything that makes it connected” (ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, "in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, by its structure must correspond to the internal organization of thinking" (ibid.).

Speech educated person is distinguished by the clarity of presentation of one's own thoughts, the accuracy of retelling other people's thoughts, consistency and informativeness.

Semiotics - the science of signs and sign systems. This interdisciplinary science arose at the intersection of linguistics, information theory, psychology, biology, literature, and sociology. There are three sections in general semiotics:

syntactics - the study of the objective laws of the structure of sign systems, as well as the relationship between the elements of the language, the rules for their formation and combination;
semantics is the study of meanings, i.e. relations between signs and meanings, rules of designation and understanding;
pragmatics is the study of the relationship of subjects using a sign system to this system, in other words, the relationship between the language and the user and the rules for using the language.

The semiotics of culture is the symbolic means of culture, as well as the consideration of all cultural phenomena as texts. In this case, it is assumed that a necessary component of any culture is information that is always stored and transmitted with the help of signs that together make up the text. At the same time, "text" is called not only written messages, but any artifact considered as a carrier of information. Language is also understood in a broad sense - not only as a natural language (primary modeling systems), but also as a secondary modeling system. The languages of culture are called modeling systems, since they are the means by which a person learns, explains and tries to change the world around him.

Secondary simulation systems called languages of culture or cultural codes. These include all types of cultural texts, except for natural language, art, social activity, behavior patterns, traditions, customs, religious beliefs, etc. They are built on the model of natural language, they function with the help of codes (agreements) that are known to members of one or another social group. Unlike natural language, which has the same code for all members of the community, the codes of secondary modeling systems are different, and mastering them requires special training.

From the point of view of semiotics, the main structural unit of the language of culture are sign systems.

Sign- this is a material object (phenomenon, event), objectively replacing some other object, property or relationship and used to acquire, store, process and transmit messages (information, knowledge). There are six types of signs and sign systems: natural, functional, iconic, conventional, verbal, notation systems.

Under natural familiar things and phenomena of nature are understood in the case when they point to some other objects or phenomena and are considered as a carrier of information about them. Natural signs are sign-signs, for example, smoke is a sign of fire. To understand natural signs, you need to know what they are a sign of, and be able to extract the information contained in them.

Functional signs- these are things and phenomena that have a direct pragmatic purpose, and they become signs, because they are included in human activity and carry information about it. These are also signs-signs, for example, production equipment, since any mechanism or part can act as a sign containing information about the entire technical system of which it is an element, for example, the actions of a teacher moving his finger over the list of students in a journal become a sign of an incipient survey. Functional signs often have secondary meanings attributed to them by analogy, which is especially well seen in superstitions: a horseshoe - fortunately, a woman with empty buckets - unfortunately, etc.

Iconic signs - signs-images, appearance which reflect the appearance of the things they designate. As a rule, they are created artificially, although occasionally natural objects can be used if they are similar to the object they want to designate. So, in music, thunder, sea waves, etc. are imitated; in this case, the signs are similar to the designated objects in terms of material. Artistic images created by writers, painters or sculptors describe people, animals or events very accurately, although they are more or less arbitrary.

Conventional (conventional) signs- artificially created signs to which people agreed to ascribe a certain meaning. They may not be at all similar to the object that they designate (although this is not excluded), for example school bell. a red cross on an ambulance car, a zebra at a pedestrian crossing, etc. There are three main types of conventional signs - signals, indices and symbols.

Signals - notice or warning signs, such as traffic light colors.

Indices - conventions objects or situations that have a compact form and are used to distinguish these objects and situations from among others. Sometimes (but not necessarily) they try to select them so that their appearance suggests what they mean, for example, instrument readings, conditional icons in diagrams, graphs, etc.

Symbols- signs that not only point to some object, but also carry an additional meaning. If the meanings of any other signs refer either to things and objects of the real physical world, or to phenomena of mental and spiritual life (concepts, ideas, feelings, etc.), then the meanings of the symbols indicate the significance, value of these phenomena as for an individual person ( individual symbols), so for small and large groups of people, peoples, states, humanity as a whole. Examples of characters are state emblems, flags, anthems are symbolic signs of the dignity of states.

Symbols are not only conventional, but also iconic. The signifying side of a symbol is always connected in some way with what it denotes, has some resemblance to it, sometimes very indirect, associative. For example, scales can be a symbol of justice, as they contain the idea of balance. Depending on the nature of the value value, different types of symbols are distinguished: historical (Borodino field as a symbol of the glory of Russian weapons), religious (cross, icons), mythological (Gaia - Earth, Kronos - time, etc.), ideological and propaganda (programs , constitutions, slogans), moral (white color - purity), artistic (works of art).

Verbal sign systems - These are spoken languages, of which there are several thousand in the world. It is they who form the basis of the culture of the people speaking it. This system is formed on the basis of the psycho-physiological capabilities of a person, inherent in his biological nature (the structure of the brain, larynx, organs of hearing, etc.). However, language has a social nature. It is formed and developed by people only thanks to their joint activities and communication.

natural language - it is an open sign system. Unlike artificial formalized languages, it is capable of unlimited development. The history of the development of culture is reflected in the history of the development of language. So, new phenomena in people's lives, discoveries in science and technology replenish lexicon language (radio, electron, computer, etc.), and outgoing processes and phenomena lead to the obsolescence and disappearance of words (sexual - a servant in a tavern, a spring - a spring, etc.). At the same time, the basic vocabulary (words denoting parts of the human body, the Sun, Moon, stars, simple verbs and numbers up to ten, as well as personal pronouns) remains unchanged for a very long time, for hundreds of years.

Sign systems of notation- letter, notes, etc. - appeared rather late in the history of mankind. They arose on the basis of other sign systems - spoken language, music, etc. and secondary to them. The emergence and development of writing played a particularly important role in the history of culture. Without writing, the development of science, technology, law, etc. is impossible. The advent of writing marked the beginning of civilization.

Basic letter sign is not a word, as in colloquial language, but a more objective and abstract unit - a letter. The number of basic signs in the system is significantly reduced and becomes visible. Thanks to this, the logic of using the sign system changes radically, qualitatively new ways of processing, perceiving and transmitting information become possible.

Recording creates an opportunity to artificially increase the vocabulary of the language. If in unwritten languages little-used words simply disappear, then the record allows you to accumulate words. With the advent of writing, language norms and rules begin to take shape and, accordingly, a normalized language is created. literary language, enriched and improved ways of expressing thoughts, conveying its nuances. Writing opened the way to the transmission of information across time and distance, and made it possible to preserve those thoughts and ideas that were not understood by contemporaries, but later turned out to be in demand. The most important step in the development of culture was the emergence of typography-replication of texts. All this created the conditions for creativity, mass education and enlightenment of peoples. One of the important directions in the development of recording systems is the creation of artificial, formal languages, characterized by a strict formalization of the rules of construction; such languages are widely used in logic, mathematics, computer science.

| 8 classes | Lesson planning for the academic year (according to the textbook by N.D. Ugrinovich) | Sign systems

Lesson 4
Sign systems

§ 1.2. Coding information using sign systems

1.2.2. Sign systems

The sign system is based on a set of characters called the alphabet. These signs have a certain physical nature. You are well acquainted with some sign systems and constantly use them (languages, numbers, road signs), you will get acquainted with others in this paragraph.

Each sign system is built on the basis of a certain alphabet (set of characters) and rules for performing operations on signs.

natural languages. A person widely uses sign systems, which are called languages, to represent information. Natural languages began to form in ancient times in order to ensure the exchange of information between people. Currently, there are hundreds of natural languages (Russian, English, Chinese, etc.).

In oral speech, which is used as a means of communication in the direct communication of people, various sounds (phonemes) are used as signs of the language.

At the core writing lies the alphabet, i.e., a set of signs (letters) that a person distinguishes by their pattern. Most modern languages letters correspond to certain sounds of oral speech. The alphabet of the Russian language is called Cyrillic and contains 33 characters, English language uses the Latin alphabet and contains 26 characters.

On the basis of the alphabet, according to the rules of grammar, the main objects of the language are formed - words. The rules according to which sentences are built from the words of a given language are called syntax. It should be noted that in natural languages, the grammar and syntax of the language are formulated using a large number rules from which there are exceptions, since such rules have evolved historically. In addition, natural languages allow many options for conveying the meaning of messages by signs. The same information can be conveyed in different sentences.

formal languages. In the process of development of science, formal languages were developed (number systems, algebra language, programming languages, etc.), which differ from natural languages in the existence of a limited number of strict grammar and syntax rules and in the unambiguous notation of the meaning of the message with signs.

For example, the decimal number system can be considered as a formal language that has an alphabet (numbers) and allows you to name and write objects (numbers) and perform arithmetic operations on them according to strictly defined rules.

There are formal languages that do not use letters and numbers as characters, but other symbols, such as designations chemical elements, musical notes, images of elements of electrical or logical circuits, road signs, dots and dashes (Morse code).

The physical realization of signs in natural and formal languages can be different. For example, text and numbers can be printed on paper, displayed on a computer monitor screen, recorded on a magnetic or optical disk.

Genetic alphabet. It is used by living organisms to build a unified system for storing and transmitting hereditary information.

Genetic information is stored in the cells of living organisms in special molecules. These molecules consist of two long chains twisted together in a spiral, built from four different types of molecular fragments. These fragments form the "genetic alphabet" and are usually denoted by Latin capital letters(A, G, C, T) (Fig. 1.10).

Rice. 1.10. Model of a DNA molecule containing the genetic code

Just as words in languages are written using letters, so genes are made up of the characters of the genetic alphabet. In the process of evolution from the simplest organisms to humans, the number of genes has constantly increased, since it was necessary to encode an increasingly complex structure and functionality of living organisms.

Binary sign system. In the processes of storing, processing and transmitting information in a computer, a binary sign system is used, the alphabet of which consists of only two characters (O, 1). Physically, the signs are realized in the form of electrical impulses (there is no impulse - 0, there is an impulse - 1), as well as the states of RAM cells and sections of information carrier surfaces (one state - 0, another state - 1).

It is the binary sign system that is used in the computer, since existing technical devices can reliably store and recognize only two different states (signs).

In the 60s of the XX century in the USSR, scientists of the Moscow state university them. M. V. Lomonosov was developed and put into production of the Setun computer (a total of 50 copies were produced) (Fig. 1.11). "Setun" used ternary coding of information and, accordingly, consisted of devices capable of being in one of three possible states.

Rice. 1.11. Computer "Setun"

Control questions

1. Give examples of sign systems. What could be the physical nature of signs?

2. What is the difference between natural and formal languages?

3. Do they have genetic code plants? Animals? Human?

4. Why do computers use a binary character system to encode information?

Tasks for self-fulfillment

1.1. Question with a detailed answer. Fill in the table: enter the alphabet and list the possible physical nature of signs for various sign systems.

Man has always faced the problem of finding the most convenient way of communicating information and identifying certain actions, events or objects. In order to facilitate many life processes were created various options transmission of messages both in time and space, and in direct contact with the carrier of this message. For example, sound, light or color signals have always been used to communicate danger. WITH childhood a person gets used to the fact that red is a warning of danger.

Of course, verbally (that is, verbally) you can very accurately and correctly communicate something important. However, this entails a number of problems. First of all, this is a language barrier. If, due to some circumstances, you find yourself in another country or in a society of people whose language of communication you do not know, then it becomes very, very difficult to find out what is happening. You can use gestures. And if you need to communicate something at a certain distance, the situation can become completely deadlocked. The second important problem in the transmission of information has always been time. There are often situations in which seconds count. Therefore, the problem arises of finding the most convenient way to send a message, which will allow you to do it quickly. The third problem is the ease of transmission of this message. So there are three main starting points in finding a solution to the problem described above: quickly, simply and without additional complex factors (for example, a foreign language).

A person quickly and easily receives information visually. Therefore, it is most convenient to put any information in a pictorial form. At the same time, the image should be quite simple, understandable, not requiring excessive time for recognition. Such an image can become a sign. A sign can be considered a graphic embodiment of a certain semantic content. For example, the easiest way to communicate that you have received an important message is to draw a postal envelope. Signs surround us every day. These are pointer signs, pictogram signs, bookmarks, company or trademarks.

Signs-pictograms.

Company logo.

If a group of signs is required for a certain type of activity, then we are talking about creating a sign system. A sign system can be considered a group of signs united by a common purpose and style of a graphic solution. Road signs or signs on a computer monitor can be considered classic examples of sign systems.

Road signs accepted for use on the territory of the Russian Federation (partially presented).

The sign system of the virtual environment.

It should be noted that the concept of a sign system is related only to the graphic forms of signs and does not affect the area of sign-information functioning of other classes of artificial systems.

A. Chapurina Sign system for learning activities. Academic work

In theory, any sign was considered from the point of view of the formal structure of its internal organization as a relationship: a graphic medium - a semantic content. Depending on the nature of this relationship, signs are divided into three types:

Iconic signs - quite concretely conveying the image of the underlying content;

Signs-indexes - graphically abstract and displaying conventionally embedded content;

Signs-symbols - display complex deep symbolic content (graphically they can be both iconic and indexes).

The science of SEMIOTICS deals with the study of signs and sign systems.

Not every image may be familiar. First of all, it must meet the fundamental requirements. These include: autonomy, distinguishability, memorability and visual activity. Let's describe each in detail.

Autonomy is such a construction of a sign, in which the image will be independent, independent and visually isolated from the external environment and its possible influences. Autonomy implies compositional isolation of the graphic structure of the sign. The property of the autonomy of a sign ensures the constancy (constancy) of its perception, regardless of the environment in which it may be.

Distinctness allows you to distinguish a sign from other signs and does not allow it to "get lost" among other sign structures. The sign must have the individuality of the structure of the graphic structure, have hallmarks, distinguishing from a number of similar iconic forms.

The memorability of a sign is determined by the clarity, clarity of the construction of its form. This is achieved due to the extreme generalization, sufficient conciseness, integrity of the composition and the optimal complexity of all its elements.

The visual activity of a sign form involves the use of an arsenal of means of formal compositional expressiveness of building an image, which will allow influencing the sensory perception of a person. The sign should evoke an emotional reaction as to a certain signal, a call to action.

In addition to the fundamental requirements, each sign must meet the requirements that ensure its functionality. These requirements include the following:

Readability. In relation to a sign, readability can be understood as the possibility of easy reading, shape recognition. If the image is replete with small details, too complex a pattern, then this will automatically remove it from the category of signs. As mentioned above, the sign is designed to quickly and simply convey the message, the meaning inherent in it. Therefore, it should be simple enough, contrasting in graphics, which will allow the viewer to easily "read" the image.

internal scale. The concept of internal scale involves the construction of a sign structure in such a way that the form does not lose its readability when it is repeatedly reduced or enlarged. Any sign can be business card, where its possible dimensions are quite small, and on a huge billboard or in an interior, where the image can be quite large. Therefore, during the development process, the sign is specially checked for internal scale. If the details or elements of the sign are not clearly read, then a change should be made to the drawing of the image.

Manufacturability. This requirement implies such qualities of the sign that will not lose readability when applied to various surfaces. Printing on paper is a "comfortable" environment for the sign. The surface makes it easy to apply the form without losing its recognition. However, the sign can be applied to wood, leather, metal and other materials, the surface of which can be quite corrugated, which means that it can lead to the loss of some image details. Modern design paper is extremely diverse in its texture - corrugated, corrugated, with various inclusions, etc. Therefore, acceptable complexity is thought out in the graphics of the sign. Of course, it is not possible to predict all situations. But when developing a sign, the degree of possible risk should be minimized.

For each type of signs, they also apply Additional requirements. For example, some signs are built on a modular basis. Considering each specific situation, such requirements will be discussed separately.

Compliance of the sign with the listed requirements will allow it not only to correspond to the concept of signness, but also provide it long life among various kinds project graphics.

Control questions.

1. What is a sign?

2. What is a sign system?

3. What types of signs are divided into?

4. What science studies signs and sign systems?

5. What fundamental requirements must the sign meet?

6. What is readability in relation to a sign?

Test questions.

Test question.

The internal scale with respect to the sign is:

A. Building a sign on a grid?

B. Preservation of the readability of the sign when reducing and increasing?

Q. Changing the sign depending on the placement situation?

D. Applying the sign to different surfaces?

The manufacturability of the iconic form implies:

A. Conciseness of the structure of the sign form?

B. Readability, both in color and in black and white?

Q. Compliance with the requirements of the further technological process of printing when designing a sign?

G. Preservation of the readability of the sign when applied to various surfaces?

The visual activity of the sign form presupposes:

A. Bright colors?

B. Original graphic solution?

IN. Provoking an emotional reaction from the viewer?

D. Dynamic composition?

Practical task.

Develop a sign system for educational activities, including the following: lecture, practice, test, vacation. Signs must meet the requirements of sign, be as simple and concise as possible. Since we are talking about a system, the images must be made in the same style. Signs can be enclosed in a shape (in a circle, square, etc.) or have free solution. Form and structure - at the choice of the author. The solution can be either black and white or in color.