Usually, an ecosystem is understood as a natural phenomenon in which living organisms interact with an inanimate environment according to certain laws. These laws can be ecological, physical or chemical in nature, they are inherent in the system itself and cannot be changed by people. At the same time, society and the environment are so interconnected that it is very often difficult to separate them from each other.
Ecosystems that include humans are called human ecosystems. At the same time, the human ecosystem reflects the values and goals human society, and the main driving forces in these systems are of a social nature. However, it is necessary to realize that the laws inherent in natural systems do not lose their force for human ecosystems, therefore their general behavior depends on the interaction of all its elements, including both living organisms and inanimate nature. It would be wrong to assume that the functioning of human ecosystems can be understood in any way without taking into account the influence of these laws. But no less delusion would be an attempt to consider human ecosystems without understanding the values, needs and relations of the human society that manages this ecosystem.
The concept of "ecosystem" is primarily associated with nature. People, as well as plants and animals, are an integral part of the ecosystem in which they live, but at the same time, human ecosystems have several fundamental differences from natural ecosystems proper. Human ecosystems are determined by human activities. In the language of ecology, humans are the dominant species in human ecosystems. But there is a significant difference in the dominance of humans from the dominance of wolves in the taiga ecosystem (or the dominance of any other biological species on its territory). Human activity is determined by social systems and is aimed at the realization of goals that have a social, not a biological basis. We cannot adequately perceive modern world without understanding the activities of people, which, in turn, cannot be assessed without consideration of the social goals that guide these activities.
Of all biological species, only man has the ability to intelligent goal-setting. Man has invented many ways to interact with the environment. As a rule, human society changes its own and natural ecosystems in accordance with its desires. Moreover, it can create and maintain the existence of artificial systems. However, despite the fact that society can create and maintain certain types of ecosystems in accordance with its needs, it cannot change the basic laws of their functioning. Everything that exists on Earth is subject to ecological laws. The behavior of any ecosystem depends on its organization: its species composition, characteristics of the abiotic environment, history of development. Some of these components are amenable to direct human control, others only indirectly, others, such as climatic conditions or the genetic characteristics of most populations, are generally inaccessible to human intervention, and others may simply be unknown, due to the enormous complexity of ecosystems.
At the same time, human ecosystems, like all self-organizing systems, are subject to the following laws.
Le principle-Chatelier-Brown: with an external influence that brings the system out of a state of stable equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts in the direction in which the effect of the external influence is weakened.
Event distance principle: a phenomenon remote in time and space seems less significant. In nature management, this principle especially often becomes the basis for incorrect practical actions.
The principle of a sudden increase in pathogenicity: an unexpected increase in pathogenicity occurs when a pathogenic organism mutates, when a new pathogenic organism is introduced into an ecosystem where there are no mechanisms for regulating numbers, with a very sharp change in the living environment for the ecosystem.
The principle of reasonable sufficiency and risk tolerance: the expansion of any human actions should not lead to socio-economic and environmental disasters.
Rules of mutual fitness: species in the biocenosis are adapted to each other so much that their community is internally contradictory, but a single and mutually coordinated systemic whole.
Integral resource rule: branches of the economy competing in the use of specific natural systems inevitably cause damage to each other the stronger, the more they change the jointly exploited ecological component or the entire ecosystem as a whole.
The principle of the measure of transformation of natural systems: during the operation of natural systems, it is impossible to cross certain limits that allow these limits to retain the property of self-maintenance (self-organization and self-regulation).
The principle of compliance of environmental conditions with the genetic predetermination of the organism: a species of organism can exist as long as and insofar as the natural environment surrounding it corresponds to the genetic possibilities of adapting this species to its fluctuations and changes.
Principle chain reactions"hard" control of nature:"rigid", as a rule, technical management of natural processes is fraught with chain reactions, a significant part of which turns out to be environmentally, socially and economically unacceptable.
To consider such complex concepts as human ecosystems, it is advisable to divide them into smaller components that are accessible to understanding. The human ecosystem can be represented in the form of several spheres: the sphere of the environment, the sphere of individual control and the sphere of political planning (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1
Spheres of human ecosystems
|
Environment sphere |
Sphere individual control |
Sphere of political planning |
|
|
characteristic representatives (including natural phenomena) |
Animals. Plants. The soil. Water |
Farmers. Fishermen. Industrial production. Environmental organizations |
Governments. International organizations |
|
characteristic processes |
Height. Interaction between populations. subordinate formations. Atmospheric, water, chemical processes |
Solutions for land use. Capital distributions. Marketing Solutions. Management of animal and plant populations |
Taxation. Cash subsidies. Harmonization of different sectors of society. Statutes and codes of practice. Education |
|
Peculiarities |
All phenomena are subject to the laws of nature. ecosystems |
Decisions are determined internal motives and direct their own actions |
Decisions are driven by extrinsic motives and guide the actions of others |
The sphere of the environment unites those structural features systems that function in accordance with the laws of the natural ecosystem. This includes geobiological phenomena of growth and development of animals and plants, population and community dynamics, and the exchange of nutrients and energy in food chains.
The sphere of individual control describes the behavior of individuals or organizations that are in direct contact with the natural environment and influence it, regardless of whether this impact is purposeful and deliberate or unintentional. The behavior of individuals predetermines the methods of population reproduction, migration flows, and the formation of economic phenomena.
The sphere of political planning brings together all the mechanisms by which society generates political or economic signals that direct the development of individual sectors of society in a certain direction.
Such a division allows us to identify different types of characteristic representatives of each sphere that play a certain role in shaping the human environment as a whole, since the people, organizations and processes described in Table 3.1 have a different impact on the formation of the human ecosystem.
As a rule, the environment is perceived as something separate from society. The environment also refers to untouched wilderness, rural landscapes, cities, polluted air and water, but very rarely, what is the basis of people's lives. In fact, this approach is unreasonably limited. The main feature of human ecosystems lies precisely in the fact that they have a two-way interaction between society and the environment that supports the life of this society. The environment includes the resource base for most of the most important activities in society, and people use them to meet their own needs.
At the same time, it would be wrong to assume that the managed ecosystem is completely dependent on the managing society. There is a two-way interaction with feedback from the environment to society. The behavior of the environment affects the behavior of the person managing it, and vice versa. Indeed, on the one hand, environmental problems can lead to policy changes, and on the other hand, political activity certain groups of people and governments ultimately, to a certain extent, has a certain impact on the viability and sustainability of the environment. The considered spheres are so closely interconnected with each other that it is impossible to completely separate them. They are components of a complex system, the full meaning of which is revealed only in the relationship.
Each of the considered areas is characterized by its own subjects and ways of communication between the individual components. Thus, the subjects of the sphere of individual management (economic managers of various levels) influence certain aspects of the environment in certain ways. The response, as a rule, is a certain geobiological phenomenon.
However, business executives respond not only to the appearance of a geobiological phenomenon, but also to political and economic signals from the government and other organizations (subjects of the sphere of political planning). On the other hand, the choice of political and economic strategies in the sphere of political planning is influenced not only by the results of the activities of business executives. It is possible to have a direct impact on politics through the sphere of the environment. An example of such changes are natural and man-made disasters, the elimination of the consequences of which requires the adoption of government decisions. However, a direct control effect from the sphere of political planning on the sphere of the environment is impossible (this explains the absence of a closed feedback loop between these two areas), since control actions are always mediated by the activities of subjects in the sphere of individual control.
One of the characteristic human ecosystems is the individual farm. The peasant can be classified as an individual manager, while the environment considered in this case includes the fields (crops grown, pests, weeds, soils) and the established types of interactions between them. The links between the peasant and the environment are very close. Most of the actions of a person working on the land are aimed at creating conditions that are most favorable for growing crops. They constantly monitor plant growth and development, pest activity and soil conditions, as this provides the necessary information to adequately organize their cultivation activities, plan chemical treatments, and ultimately determine harvest forecasts. When these conditions change, farmers can optimize their activities accordingly. On the other hand, agricultural producers are also dependent on government policy decisions to limit the amount of land on which a particular crop can be cultivated, to set prices, or to provide some support and assistance in farm management. The purpose of political decisions is to influence or control the production of agricultural products, therefore, in order to effectively manage the government, it is forced to constantly monitor the activities of the subjects of the sphere of individual management to find out whether the decisions have the desired effect.
Thus, there is a close feedback between the agricultural producer and the environment, on the one hand, and the peasant economy and the government, on the other. Changing the behavior of one of the elements affects the behavior of the other two.
For comparison, consider the ecosystem of industrial production that processes wastewater. The managing agents here are, on the one hand, industrial enterprises and city administrations responsible for discharging wastewater into rivers, and on the other hand, representatives of environmental organizations monitoring the state of water flows. The latter can be employees of industrial enterprises, water users (for example, drinking water plants), various public environmental organizations or observers. state structures. At the same time, natural reservoirs are considered as a dimensionless receptacle of waste produced by society. From the point of view of industrial enterprises and the city administration, water purification does not bring immediate profit. Therefore, wastewater treatment by enterprises is more likely not aimed at bringing the quality of wastewater in line with the quality of water in natural reservoirs, but at minimizing government penalties and negative public opinion. At first glance, there is no direct feedback between the sphere of environment and the sphere of planning. The degree of pollution of natural water bodies is monitored by special organizations, the conclusion of which goes to the government and only then is reflected in changing legislation, issuing relevant directives or initiating lawsuits. All these impacts are aimed at managers, not at changing the state of the environment. The actual state of the latter already depends on the actions of leaders, which can practically nullify the effectiveness of public opinion or the legislative efforts of society. That is why the process of monitoring the state of the environment will be greatly simplified if it directly, and not indirectly, concerns industrial enterprises.
In the considered example, the links between the spheres are weaker and more distant than in the example with agriculture, but, nevertheless, the spheres remain interconnected, and the behavior of each element of the system is determined by the presence of this connection.
Russian scientists have developed an anthropoeconomic approach to assess human ecosystems, which allows us to single out the following 5 sectors and 5 functions of the social mechanism.
Human consumption sector. It controls, along with the efficiency of consumption of natural resources, including energy carriers, material and technological resources (assessment, control and forecasting of nature intensity, energy intensity, material intensity and science intensity of production), also the cost of human labor (labor intensity) and, which seems to be the most significant, human intensity of production . The function of the authorities responsible for this sector is to minimize by all available means the resource intensity of the final product, primarily its human intensity, the cost of the product in cost units of the population potential.
Accounting sector. Anti-product prediction and minimization. Since practically no production can be carried out without costs, without pollution of the environment, natural, social, informational, demographic, etc. environment (the thermodynamic law of entropy), the tasks of the bodies responsible for this sector are control of the anti-production process, monitoring of the anti-product, suppression of processes, if possible, at the source, minimization of the anti-product and compensation for its destructive action.
Sector of transformation. It transforms the production product into components of the life support systems of the population (market mechanisms, contributions to the social sphere, social construction, etc.). Budgetary and tax processes, mechanisms of foreign economic relations, development and implementation of social standards are the functions of bodies associated with the sector.
Sector of human production. Having certain resources produced in the third sector at its disposal, society must not only compensate for the population costs incurred in the first sector, but also form a certain reserve, guarantee its progressive development. Guarantees will be the more secured, the more efficiently the resources of life support systems will be used in the process of human production. The bodies working in this sector use such an indicator as the increase in population potential per unit of life support systems invested in funds as a criterion for the quality of their work.
balance sector. Provides in the monitoring mode government bodies and all interested structures with the necessary information (by industry, territory, socio-demographic groups) on the relationship between human consumption and human production. In this sector, apparently, long-term assessments and planning of social development should be concentrated, strategic goals and prospects, scenarios for their achievement should be determined. Appropriate technical, software, mathematical and staffing support for the work of this sector will make it possible to build computer models of an object (city, region, region of the country) and, in an experimental, laboratory mode, analyze the immediate and long-term consequences of decisions made.
Thus, despite all the diversity of human ecosystems, their structure depends on the geophysical and biological interactions between the components of the environment, on the goals and potential capabilities of the person managing this environment, as well as on the habits, customs, motives and potential resources of society. Goals reflect the values and aspirations of society, and the environment itself has the most significant influence on their formation. That is why it is pointless for people belonging to one social order to criticize the goals of another society.
Most good example can serve as the attitude of various countries to wildlife. Highly developed countries give priority to the conservation of areas with wildlife in the form of national parks, nature reserves, research or protected areas, etc. The creation and protection of such territories is determined by aesthetic or research motives, as well as the possibility of using them for the development of tourism. The organization of the national park is a vivid example of the so-called ecological type of thinking. However, as far as developing countries are concerned, environmental motives are not so popular there. For example, in African countries With the exception of East Africa, where tourism is the main source of national income, the conservation of natural habitats, even for endangered species, has a lower priority than the development of land for direct human use, such as for food production. In South and Southeast Asia, in areas with poor soils, many species of animals and plants are on the verge of extinction, as their natural habitats are intensively used for human needs. If a politician in a developing country with depleted soils decides to establish a nature reserve, which is quite common in North America or Europe, it would be tantamount to political suicide for him, as this will lead to the loss of agricultural land and starvation of a large number of people. Opportunities to meet the basic human needs of the population in the countries of the world are not the same, and this determines the differences in political goals. Despite the fact that wild nature, clean air and water, etc. are important to all people, at present many countries simply cannot afford to define them as things of paramount importance, even if the leaders of these countries realize their importance in the future.
Another, perhaps most recent, way of looking at ecosystems in terms of human values is to determine the resilience of an ecosystem. Can the system provide a person with everything necessary for a long time: food, timber, energy, breathable air, drinkable water, conditions for recreation? Does it have sufficient capacity to process human waste? If not, what stabilizing changes should be made in the environment itself, in the technologies available to the person who manages this environment, or in the goals and strategies of society as a whole?
For example, currently in Russia, deforestation is actively carried out with the subsequent sale of timber abroad, without pre-treatment. This leads to the ruin of local woodworking industries. The uncontrolled destruction of forests, the restoration of which will take more than one decade, changes the composition of soils, destroys natural ecosystems, and deprives cities of a full-fledged recreational zone. In principle, regulation is possible - planting new forests, carrying out not full, but partial felling, processing and manufacturing of products from timber by the local woodworking industry, which, with smaller fellings, would give more profit. However, the current economic and political conditions in Russia, the lack of necessary financial resources for the development of local industry in conditions of insufficient legal regulation lead to the complete depletion of forest lands and the destruction of natural ecosystems. This, in turn, affects employment in logging, the disappearance of traditional opportunities for Russian residents to pick berries, mushrooms, and hunt, changing their way of life. The restoration of forest lands in a number of Russian regions in the future will require huge financial costs, and in some cases it will simply be impossible in reality.
Another striking example is the Indian peninsula, until recently characterized by wealth and prosperity, which was provided by international trade in grown tea, coffee and spices. But the sharp increase in the population of the Indian Peninsula over the past century has led to the fact that even rich agricultural resources have been unable to meet the increased food needs of the population. Large investments have been made to regulate agricultural production with a view to intensifying it, including through greater use of fertilizers and other modern methods. These measures led to a significant increase in agricultural production. However, the raw material for the production of most modern fertilizers is oil, and with the increase in world oil prices, most peasant households in South Asia, and in particular on the Indian Peninsula, are unable to buy everything necessary for modern agricultural production.
The examples shown convince us that human ecosystems, like natural ones, are characterized by certain limits beyond which they cannot be taken. Even the largest river has a very definite maximum level allowable pollution, and even the most fertile chernozem soils cannot be cultivated too intensively. Management that does not take into account the characteristics of the natural environment will be less effective than management that recognizes danger signals in time and responds to them properly. Preserving the ability of human ecosystems to self-heal over time implies not only maintaining a balance between society and the environment, but also maintaining the ability of the system to resist or neutralize disturbing influences. Some natural environments are themselves more scarce, but if managed appropriately, they can be quite productive. On the other hand, the most stable natural ecosystems can be destroyed by mismanagement. In the real world, no ecosystem is free from disturbance and stress. Natural phenomena such as droughts, floods, heavy rains, early or late frosts, epidemics over thousands of years, are real disasters for ecosystems. Equally common are various social disasters - wars, economic cycles, changes in ethical and religious beliefs, demographic changes.
Factors affecting the resilience of the human ecosystem are not always obvious. They may relate to the natural environment as a whole, as in the example of the Russian forests, and to the sphere of individual government, or to the sphere of political planning, as in the case of wars or ethnic conflicts. The most important are those permanent but hidden changes in the structure of the ecosystem that occur in response to small additional corrections in the management strategy that are made under the influence of social changes in accordance with the traditions and habits that have developed in society. Unfortunately, existing policies often do not take into account the consequences of a decision's impact on natural environment. As a rule, it allows you to temporarily remove the problem, but at the same time, the grounds are laid for the emergence of a new one, which will require new corrections in the future. This way of management actually reduces the ability of ecosystems to recover. Moreover, the understanding that the state of the ecosystem is getting out of control usually does not occur until the process becomes irreversible.
The most serious situation occurs when negative changes tend to accumulate in the ecosystem for a long time, forming problems that are hidden from understanding. The Company has some experience in solving or partially compensating sudden environmental issues, such as, for example, an accidental release of oil into sea waters or accidents at nuclear power plants. However, one cannot hope that society will be able to recognize the emergence of a serious problem and neutralize its consequences in time. This is especially true of such problems that gradually cover the structure of the system as a whole and are by their nature so vast that they simply do not lend themselves to full awareness. Such problems are the effects on the health of the population. Changes that affect gene mechanisms accumulate and then, being inherited, are found in the form of an increase in congenital anomalies, a widespread hereditary pathology. At present, these problems are not yet recognized by the world community, and the struggle is only with the consequences, and not with the causes that give rise to the phenomenon of a widespread decline in the level of population health. Kenneth Watt (1974) called this state the Titanic effect. Changes in the ecosystem that society simply does not know about or does not pay due attention to can lead to the destruction of even the most highly organized and complex human societies.
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Ecosystems are complex self-organizing systems that are made up of living organisms and the physical and chemical phenomena associated with those organisms. It is most important to emphasize that the structure of these systems includes links and interactions connecting living and non-living components into a single stable system.
The concept of "ecosystem" is primarily associated with nature. People, as well as plants and animals, are an integral part of the ecosystem in which they live. Ecosystems that include humans are called human ecosystems. These systems are of particular importance for humans and have several fundamental differences from natural ecosystems proper.
Human ecosystems are determined by human activities. In the language of ecology, humans are the dominant species in human ecosystems. But there is a significant difference between the dominance of humans and the dominance of wolves in the taiga ecosystem (or the dominance of any other biological species on its territory). Human activity is determined by social systems and is aimed at the realization of goals that have a social, not a biological basis. We cannot adequately perceive the modern world without understanding the activities of people, which, in turn, cannot be assessed without considering the social goals that guide these activities.
To consider such complex concepts as human ecosystems, it is advisable to divide them into smaller components that are accessible to understanding. The human ecosystem can be represented in the form of several spheres: the sphere of the environment, the sphere of individual control and the sphere of political planning. For a briefer reference, the first can be designated as "environment", and the rest can be combined with the concept of "society". The definition of these areas, along with a description of their most important characteristics, is given in the table.
The sphere of the environment unites those structural features of the system that function in accordance with the laws of the natural ecosystem. This includes geobiological phenomena of growth and development of animals and plants, dynamics of populations and communities, and the exchange of nutrients and energy in food chains. The sphere of individual control describes the behavior of individuals or organizations that are in direct contact with the natural environment and influence it, regardless of whether this impact is purposeful and deliberate or unintentional. The behavior of individuals predetermines the methods of population reproduction, migration flows, the formation economic phenomena.
Such a division makes it possible to identify various types of characteristic representatives that play a certain role in shaping the human environment as a whole.
As a rule, the environment is perceived as something separate from society. The environment also refers to untouched wilderness, rural landscapes, cities, polluted air and water, but very rarely - the basis for human life. In fact, this approach is unreasonably limited. The main feature of human ecosystems lies precisely in the fact that they have a two-way interaction between society and the environment that supports the life of this society. The environment includes a resource base for most of the most important types of activities for society, and people use them to meet their own needs (cited by SV Alekseev, Yu.P. Pivovarov, 2001).
At the same time, it would be wrong to assume that the managed ecosystem is completely dependent on the managing society. There is a two-way interaction with feedback from the environment to society. The behavior of the environment affects the behavior of the person managing it, and vice versa. Indeed, on the one hand, environmental problems can lead to policy changes, and on the other hand, the political activities of certain groups of people and governments ultimately, to a certain extent, have a certain impact on the viability and sustainability of the environment.
The considered spheres are so closely interconnected with each other that it is impossible to completely separate them. They are components of a complex system, the full meaning of which is revealed only in the relationship.
At first glance, there is no direct feedback between the sphere of environment and the sphere of planning. The degree of pollution of natural water bodies is monitored by special organizations, the conclusion of which goes to the government and only then is reflected in changing legislation, issuing relevant directives or initiating lawsuits. All these impacts are aimed at managers, not at changing the state of the environment. The actual state of the latter already depends on the actions of leaders, which can practically nullify the effectiveness of public opinion or the legislative efforts of society. That is why the process of monitoring the state of the environment will be greatly simplified if it directly, and not indirectly, concerns industrial enterprises.
Thus, despite all the diversity of human ecosystems, their structure depends on geophysical and biological interactions between the components of the environment, on the goals and potential capabilities of the person managing this environment, as well as on the habits, customs, motives and potential resources of society. Goals reflect the values and aspirations of society, and the environment itself has the most significant influence on their formation. That is why it is pointless for people belonging to one social order to criticize the goals of another society.
The most illustrative example is the attitude of various countries towards wildlife. Highly developed countries give priority to the conservation of areas with wildlife in the form of national parks, nature reserves, research and protected areas, etc. The creation and protection of such territories is determined by aesthetic or research motives, as well as the possibility of using them for the development of tourism. The organization of the national park is a vivid example of the so-called ecological type of thinking. Despite the fact that wild nature, clean air, and water, etc. are important to all people, at present many countries simply cannot afford to define them as things of paramount importance, even if the leaders of these countries realize their importance in the future.
Stress, limits and the ability of an ecosystem to heal itself
Human ecosystems, like natural ones, are characterized by certain limits beyond which they cannot be taken. Even the largest river has a well-defined maximum level of permissible pollution. Management that does not take into account the characteristics of the natural environment will be less effective than management that recognizes danger signals in time and responds to them properly. Preserving the ability of human ecosystems to self-heal over time implies not only maintaining a balance between society and the environment, but also maintaining the ability of the system to resist or neutralize disturbing influences. Some natural environments are themselves more scarce, but if managed appropriately, they can be quite productive. On the other hand, the most stable natural ecosystems can be destroyed by mismanagement. In the real world, no ecosystem is free from disturbance and stress. Natural phenomena such as droughts, floods, heavy rains, early or late frosts, epidemics have been real disasters for ecosystems for thousands of years. Equally common are various social disasters - wars, economic cycles, changes in ethical and religious beliefs, demographic changes. Factors affecting the ability of an ecosystem to recover are not always obvious. They may be related to the natural environment as a whole, as in the example of the Russian forests, and to the type of individual government, or to the type of organization of society, as in the case of wars or ethnic conflicts. The most important are those permanent but hidden changes in the structure of the ecosystem that occur in response to small additional corrections in the management strategy that are made under the influence of social changes in accordance with the traditions and habits that have developed in society. Unfortunately, existing policies often do not take into account the consequences of the impact of decisions on the natural environment. As a rule, they allow you to temporarily remove the problem, but at the same time, the foundations are laid for the emergence of a new one, which will require new corrections in the future. This way of management actually reduces the ability of ecosystems to recover. Moreover, the understanding that the state of the ecosystem is getting out of control usually does not occur until the process becomes irreversible.
Almost thirty years ago, a group of scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, on behalf of the international organization "Club of Rome", which brings together prominent businessmen, statesmen and scientists, undertook a two-year study of the causes and long-term effects of population growth, industrial production, food production, resource consumption and environmental pollution. The results of the research were published in the book The Limits to Growth. The book caused a sensation, it was discussed in parliaments and learned societies. In 1991, the second book, "Beyond Growth," was published, where updated data were presented and amendments were made to take into account the twenty-year period of development of society. However, the results in both cases were disappointing.
The rate of human use of many important types of resources and the rate of production of many
types of pollution already exceed the permissible limits. Without a significant reduction in the flow of material and energy resources in the coming decades, there will be an uncontrolled decline in the following indicators per capita: food production, energy consumption and industrial production.
This reduction is inevitable. To prevent it, the following changes are needed: first, a comprehensive review of the policies and practices that contribute to the growth of the population and the level of material consumption; secondly, a rapid and sharp increase in the efficiency of the use of material and energy resources.
Technologically and economically, the creation of a sustainable society is still possible. It may turn out to be much more acceptable in comparison with a society that solves all problems through constant quantitative growth. The transition to a sustainable society requires a carefully balanced long-range and short-term goals and an emphasis on sufficiency, equity and quality of life rather than on output. The transition requires more than productivity and more than technology, it also requires maturity, compassion, wisdom.
The calculations made in the course of this work showed that the exponentially growing economy, consuming resources and throwing waste into the environment, begins to put pressure on it long before acceptable limits are reached. In response, the environment sends signals about the depletion of resources and the pressure on it from the accumulated waste, and, in turn, puts pressure on the growing economy. These signals and this load are negative feedback loops (quoted from SV. Alekseev, Yu.P. Pivovarov, 2001).
Ethical views on ecosystems
At present, it seems almost self-evident that the use of systems approach is the only way in which society can manage complex entities such as human ecosystems in the most prudent and moral way. But so far, for most even developed countries, this is an unattainable goal. Instead, in most cases, a simplified approach is taken, where society and the environment are considered to be not so closely related to each other. There are several different concepts representing the relationship of man with the natural environment. They appeared at different times and served different people. Let's look at some of the most important ones.
The concept of conquering nature. Perhaps the oldest ethical view of human ecosystems is the concept of conquering nature. According to this view, nature creates obstacles to the development of society and may even represent an enemy that must be defeated if people are to survive. Man has the right to change nature in accordance with his own desires, and the success of these changes is not always guaranteed.
This view is reflected in the understanding Old Testament"wilderness" (unconquered nature) as a place of exile or exile of a person. In many animistic cultures that worship the forces of nature, often religious rites are not aimed at establishing unity between nature and man, but at satisfying and pleasing the gods so that people can continue to subjugate nature, deprived of divine protection. Even in pre-Christian Rome, Cicero declared that nature was defeated: “We are the absolute masters ... of the earth ... We own mountains and plains. All rivers are ours. We grow bread and plant trees. We fertilize the soil... By our own actions we create another nature.”
The ethic of the conqueror of nature is part of our history and culture, and it still holds great power.
The enormous engineering and technical capabilities of the 20th century allow humanity to consider itself more powerful than nature. Almost any goal was achieved, whether it was flying in the sky, discovering the depths of the ocean, communicating with people on the other side of the world, flying to the moon. Scenes from 19th-century science fiction have become an integral part of our Everyday life in the 20th century. More and more new technologies are replacing the old ones. Until recently, the accelerating process of technology change knew no limits, so it is difficult to imagine what could limit it in the future. In this regard, two opposing points of view have arisen. The first - "technological optimism" - believes that such development will continue, and new technologies will appear as soon as they are needed. Another point of view believes that “nature knows best”, and that the natural environment sets the boundaries for further technological growth (cited by SV Alekseev, Yu.P. Pivovarov, 2001).
The concept of technological optimism. The technological optimist believes that society will always have the technology to solve the problems it faces. As some sources of natural resources are depleted, new ones will be discovered. For resources in danger of depletion, either suitable substitutes will be found or new ways of obtaining them will be developed. Often the cost of substitutes or materials produced by a new method is even lower than the cost of the original natural resources. The depletion of the source of raw materials is directly proportional to the increase in the cost of materials produced from it. The more expensive the extraction of raw materials, the higher the cost of materials produced from it. The depletion of the source of raw materials increases the cost of production, increases the final price of products. However, a higher price stimulates the development of new ways to meet the old need. When these methods are found, the market reaches an equilibrium based on new methods. The technological advantages of the new method often lead to the fact that new methods of production are cheaper than the old ones.
The concept of "nature knows best". Followers of the concept of "nature knows best" believe that the natural relations and structure of natural communities, which have developed as a result of 3.5 billion years of evolution, at least represent the best model human behavior and may represent the only correct model for ecosystem management. The needs of people as biological organisms differ slightly from the needs of animals. Man is integral part complex food web, and its superiority over animals should not be greater than that of any other dominant species in any other ecosystem. And trusting the widely held belief that man, in relation to other animals, is unique in his ability to transform nature, is like trusting a mirage in the desert. History shows that in most cases, environmental planning is too limited, and the main changes in ecosystems will be more likely to be negative than positive. An example is the attempt to introduce new chemicals into the natural environment. And in general, if the choice must be made between the natural way and the artificial way of solving the problem, then the natural way should be preferred.
The concept of ecological affect. The concept of the ecological effect of the impact on the environment corresponds to the spread of a very popular opinion that public consciousness in relation to the natural environment becomes effective if the society is aware of the ecological effect of the impact of a project on various ecosystems. At the same time, priority is given to the preservation of the natural (natural) characteristics of these ecosystems, and very little attention is paid to the study of interactions between the environment and society. Almost all countries of the world have adopted laws on the protection of the natural environment, which determine the need for environmental expertise in the implementation of any significant project. The concept of an integral ecosystem. Significantly, the close ties between nature and society are most pronounced in the poorest regions. the globe. Wealthy regions have the economic and technological capabilities to "buy a way out" of many problems. Poor areas do not have such opportunities. For example, wealthy agricultural producers can to some extent compensate for the decline in soil organic matter by increasing the level of chemical fertilizers. The same decrease in soil fertility for poor peasants could mean that they themselves will lose their livelihoods and possibly starve. The concept of technological optimism is not for them. Even if there is a technology that could solve their problems, they cannot afford to use it. Similarly, the concept of "nature knows best" is useless for them. They must do everything possible to get as much food or other commodities as possible from the land, which can then be sold.
It is relatively easy to declare the need to use a systematic approach in the analysis of human ecosystems. Much harder to do this.
Adopting a systematic view of human ecosystems implies understanding the needs of living organisms, their productive capacity and the ways they interact in biological communities. This implies an awareness of the consequences of the development and use of inanimate resources - soil, water, various kinds fuels and mined metals - both for the environment and for society. This, in turn, depends on the value system of society. The fact remains that the human way of perceiving and managing the environment is a cultural phenomenon, as well as the human way of adapting to changes in this environment. The latter is a fundamental law of nature.
Opportunities for the sustainable development of human ecosystems
The outstanding Russian scientist N.N. Moiseev, under whose leadership mathematical models were developed, which made it possible in 1983 to obtain the first quantitative estimates of possible consequences nuclear war, known as “nuclear winter” and “nuclear night”, who has been studying the problems of the relationship between the biosphere and society for a long time, believes that changes in the living conditions on the planet in the coming years will require the improvement of upbringing and education and, perhaps, their radical restructuring.
The preservation of modern civilization will be possible only if the production activity of people changes its basis. A new modernization is coming, which it is natural to call ecological, since it will focus on the creation of industries that do not destroy the equilibrium state of the biosphere, that is, fit into its biogeochemical cycles.
According to N.N. Moiseeva, overcoming the ecological crisis is only technical means impossible. Moreover, it is impossible to maintain a state of equilibrium if society does not transform itself, its morality, mentality, but relies only on technical solutions. Mankind expects a long and very difficult process of joint transformation of nature and society, and the formation of a civilization that meets the new needs of man, consistent with the new realities of the surrounding nature, will be of decisive importance in its activity.
A new civilization, in order to be able to ensure the continued existence of mankind on Earth as a developing species, must rely not only on a new technological basis for the production activity of people, but also on a deep understanding of the place of man in the world around him, without which the formation of a new morality is impossible, then there is a new socially necessary behavior of people. A broad education of the planet's population is also necessary for the formation of a new morality, that is, the spiritual world of people.
At the UN Conference on Environment and Development, which was held in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, the principle of "sustainable development" was declared. This expression subsequently received not only a biological, but also an economic context. The expression “permissible development” is closest in meaning to this term. In Russia, this expression is translated as " sustainable development».
The term "sustainable development" has entered the vocabulary of "environmental arithmetic". It is necessary that the concept of "sustainable development", filled with a uniform scientifically substantiated content, become the basis for practical activities.
N.N. Moiseev argues that the possibilities of any modern civilizations and the corresponding “world outlook of consumers of natural wealth” are close to exhaustion. Or maybe they have already been exhausted: the desire for dominance based on the idea of the unlimited inexhaustibility of natural resources has brought humanity to the brink of disaster.
This means not only that a new environmental crisis on a global scale is inevitable, but also that humanity is facing an inevitable civilizational restructuring, a restructuring of all the beginnings familiar to us.
At the same time, it is emphasized that the mentality of modern man and many characteristics of his mental constitution no longer correspond to his new living conditions and must be changed.
In other words, we are on the threshold of a new round of anthropogenesis, similar to the threshold that mankind crossed at the end of the Neolithic - at least! But if then the process of establishing new forms of life and forming a new ecological niche could develop spontaneously, now, when humanity owns nuclear weapons and other means of mass destruction, such a spontaneous process will lead to the almost complete destruction of mankind. Indeed, the establishment of a new ecological niche will be accompanied by a struggle for a resource that is vital for people. And it is hard to believe that all possible modern means available to man will not be involved in this struggle.
If you rely on the will of the elements, then the coming crisis will most likely result in the destruction of mankind! This means that the elements of development must be opposed by some reasonable strategy common to mankind.
That is why the Russian scientist sees the only alternative to the action of elemental forces, if you like, the “general planetary market”, in the reasonable purposeful development of the planetary community, the meaning of which people will still have to decipher. In any case, the spontaneous process of self-organization must enter into a certain channel with very rigid shores.
However, according to N.I. Moiseev, which is supported by numerous publications of Russian scientists, the main cause of the crisis is the one that the monk Malthus spoke about 200 years ago, if we only understand his statements more broadly - as the fundamental unavoidability within the framework of modern civilization of the mismatch between the growing needs of a growing population and the possibilities of satisfying them without changes in the modern ecological niche of man and social (i.e. life-affirming) paradigms.
Within the framework of our civilization, this contradiction is indeed irremovable. Scientists have calculated that the possibilities for the existence of mankind in conditions of more or less stable biogeochemical cycles (both natural and artificial) can only be realized if its energy needs are reduced by 10-12 times, corresponding to the share of energy costs that humanity receives from renewable energy sources - ultimately from the Sun - with state of the art development of public consciousness. Our society is not ready for the transition to such a state, either technologically or morally.
First: the achievement of a new state of equilibrium, which would be a condition for the parallel evolution of man and the biosphere (or the era of the noosphere, to use the terminology of V.I. Vernadsky and Teilhard de Chardin), is possible only within the framework of a new civilization, new civilizational paradigms, and spontaneously, i.e. e. by itself, as the founders of the concept of noo-spherogenesis assumed, the transition to the era of the noosphere cannot occur. Humanity does not have time for this.
Second: humanity is expecting a difficult and lengthy transitional period, which will require an unprecedented return of all intellectual and moral forces to form a strategy for the transitional period and the will to implement it.
A truly new round of anthropogenesis awaits us, and it is very difficult to say anything about whether humanity will be able to overcome this bifurcation with a poorly predictable outcome and qualitatively change its way of life (N.N. Moiseev, 1998), (cited by SV. Alekseev, Yu.P. Pivovarov, 2001).
Life safety class 28.01 16 Lesson No. 9
Topic: Environmental pollution. The impact of human agricultural activities on the state of the environment. Fertilizers. Pesticides. Soil depletion and pollution. Impact of soil pollution on human health
Purpose: to consider the impact of human agricultural activities on the environment. Describe the areas of human activity that affect the balance in nature
During the classes
Learning new material
Anthropogenic factors are realized through various types of human impact on Nature, which can be divided into several types.
1. Direct impact, consisting in the fact that a person destroys the biogeocenosis by plowing virgin lands in order to grow cultivated plants, occupies the territory for the construction of dwellings, roads, etc.
2. Indirect impact consists in the fact that a person affects Nature not directly, but indirectly, through the products of his production activity: when burning fuel in a thermal power plant (thermal power plants), a person does not directly contact organisms, however, the thermal energy released during fuel combustion, entering the environment environment, causes "thermal pollution" of the atmosphere, which affects certain organisms.
3. A complex effect consists in the fact that by influencing some kind of organisms directly, through it, without contacting with another species, a person has a certain effect on it, for example, by influencing mouse-like rodents with the pesticide DDT, a person destroyed some of these rodents (direct impact), but DDT is poorly degraded in natural conditions x, accumulates in some organisms (mushrooms) and can get with food to other organisms, including humans, causing their poisoning (this is an indirect effect).
4. Spontaneous (unconscious) impact is that a person, without setting a goal, even without wanting it, affects Nature. So, not wanting to have a negative impact, a person walking in a field or in a forest can trample grass, step on small animals (insects), pick flowers, etc.
5. Conscious (purposeful, systematic) consists in organizing activities aimed at the formation by a person of such biocenoses that will be most useful to him, for example, cultivating a field for growing cereals or vegetables, cultivating a meadow by planting alfalfa and other fodder crops on it, breeding new varieties plants and animal breeds, etc. Such an impact can be both positive (for example, the creation of reserves) and negative (mineral development, construction of hydroelectric power stations, etc.). In this regard, the slogan proposed by I. V. Michurin is interesting: “We cannot wait for favors from nature, it is our task to take them from her.” This slogan can be understood in different ways. In a vulgar understanding, this means the need to change nature at all costs, without looking back at the consequences. In this interpretation, such a use of Nature will bring great harm and ultimately lead to the death of man himself. But it can also be understood in such a way that a person is able to influence Nature in such a way that it will reveal its secrets and this will help a person to live normally in changed conditions. A person, whether he wants it or not, changes Nature, but these changes must be rational not only and not so much from the standpoint of economic activity, but from the standpoint of the possibility of survival in the natural environment. So, when deciding on the construction of a hydroelectric power station, it is necessary to foresee all the consequences of this action and calculate how much it will cost to restore those natural and other resources that the territory used for construction possessed, and whether these costs will pay off with the resulting electricity.
The degree of human impact on Nature strongly depends on the size of the population - the larger it is, the higher the degree of impact of anthropogenic factors on the biosphere. This is due to the need to solve food, energy, housing and other problems. Since the advent of man, the population has been constantly increasing, and it is growing now. But the possibilities of the planet are not unlimited, so in the future the population of the Earth will stabilize and will even decrease. Currently, family planning problems have arisen, which in developed countries are trying to solve, but in countries of religious obscurantism, in developing countries, the population is practically not regulated, which leads to hunger, high infant mortality and other negative phenomena.
The increase in population leads to urbanization - a sharp growth of cities. Cities create their own, different from natural conditions, where there is no place for natural biogeocenoses. In place of cities, natural communities are completely destroyed, specific conditions are created, even the climate is changing. Cities have complex ecological situation, but currently, measures are being developed and implemented to improve the environmental conditions of life in cities.
a brief description of human activities that change the balance in natural ecosystems
Human activity is diverse and many of its types lead to a sharp change in the equilibrium ecological processes in natural ecosystems. Let's consider some of them.
1. Organization of various industries, construction of enterprises and implementation of activities for the production of a particular product.
This type of activity has a direct and indirect impact on natural ecosystems. On the territory where the enterprise is being built, the biocenosis is almost completely destroyed, including the plant community, although at present attempts are being made to preserve the vegetation cover, animals leave their habitats and may die completely, a special biocenosis arises from animals and plants capable of coexisting with man. Usually built next to locality(working settlement, city), which has a similar impact on natural ecological processes. The indirect impact is that during the operation of the enterprise, various compounds can be formed that uncontrollably enter the natural environment, affecting both people and various organisms living in the area.
2. Creation of artificial biocenoses - agrocenoses in the process of implementing the tasks of agricultural production.
Agriculture is a condition for solving the food problem, which is becoming more acute due to population growth. Cultivation of cultivated plants with the aim of obtaining high yields, creating the basis for both the production of plant foods and for effective development animal husbandry, makes it necessary to create highly efficient agrocenoses.
Agrocenosis is a biocenosis artificially created by man on the basis of a cultivated plant (one or more) that are on a natural substrate (soil) in contact with weeds and other organisms living in a given area. This biocenosis is influenced by a complex of abiotic factors characteristic of a given geographical area, as well as a number of impacts from human activities aimed at increasing the productivity of its main organisms (weeding, watering, fertilizing, controlling weeds and other pests by biological and chemical methods, etc.). d.).
Agrocenoses are characterized by the following features:
1) have a strictly defined species composition of plants or animals (components that determine the type of agrocenosis);
2) have a certain type of interaction between the organisms that form this agrocenosis;
3) implement a certain type of relationship between organisms that form an agrocenosis with the environment.
There are two types of agrocenoses.
A. The basis of agrocenosis is one or more cultivated plants. Such agrocenoses include fields of wheat, rye, oats, etc.; vegetable gardens where cabbages, tomatoes and other vegetables are grown; melons, where watermelons, melons and other gourds are grown; vineyards, orchards.
b. The basis of the agrocenosis is the natural plant community, which is enriched with additional types of cultivated plants. Such agrocenoses include parks, hayfields, meadows, pastures and forest plantations. For example, leguminous and cereal crops with high productivity are sown in natural meadows.
Agrocenoses change the composition of natural biocenoses, in some cases improving the conditions for the existence of natural organisms, and sometimes lead to the death of a natural biocenosis.
Agrocenoses and natural biocenoses have a number of differences.
1) They are characterized by a difference in the balance of nutritional components: in natural biogeocenoses, the cycle of nutrients is carried out naturally and is replenished due to processes that occur independently of human activity, and in agrocenoses, nutrition processes are intensified by the introduction of mineral fertilizers; the fight against individual organisms that are undesirable for agrocenosis is carried out by mechanical, chemical and biological methods carried out by man; measures are being taken to artificially intensify the circulation of substances through the use of crop rotation, etc.
2) Different nature of energy use in agrocenoses and natural biocenoses. Only enters natural biocenoses solar energy and only it forms the basis of all life processes in these ecosystems. In agrocenoses, both solar energy and energy obtained by human activity are “used”: lighting in greenhouses at night, mechanical energy of machines spent on arable land, energy spent on the production of metals, the manufacture of agricultural equipment, the production of mineral fertilizers and plant protection products, mechanical energy of a person processing agrocenosis, etc.
3) Different forms of selection and their orientation. In natural biocenoses, natural selection, aimed at the survival of those organisms that are most adapted to the conditions of a particular habitat. In agrocenoses, artificial selection is implemented, aimed at obtaining forms of organisms that have most productive desired direction (increase in yield, increase resistance to diseases, etc.).
Thus, the main goal of creating agrocenoses is to obtain high yields and maximum number high quality products. It is very important to rationally carry out work on the creation and operation of agrocenoses. A scientific system of alternating agrocenoses (multi-field system) has been developed, which makes it possible to effectively use the land to obtain sustainable and rich crops. The crop rotation system is not universal for all areas of agricultural production. Thus, for the Non-Chernozem zone of Russia, the grass-field system is effective, in which crops of cereals, grass and vegetable crops alternate in a certain sequence.
It should be noted that a person in pursuit of maximum benefit violates the principle of optimality in the operation of agrocenoses. So, for the whole region, the principle of "monocultures" was introduced - the cultivation of cotton in the vast territories of Uzbekistan or orchards and vineyards in Moldova. It is very important to rationally use fertilizers and chemical plant protection products, because their excessive use brings significant harm both due to the negative impact on the natural environment and due to the production of low-quality products from an environmental standpoint (products may contain a large number of nitrates, which adversely affect the human body).
3. Transportation of various substances.
In human activity, the movement of various objects and chemical compounds plays an important role. Fertilizers, fuel, pesticides, oil and other substances move from one region to another and even from one continent to another. In the process of transportation, there are losses of substances due to violation of the conditions of transportation or due to accidents, which leads to pollution of the natural environment. So, it is possible for oil to get on the surface of water bodies, gases for the atmosphere due to a violation of the integrity of pipelines, dispersion of dusty cement, etc. Violation of transportation technology contributes to the destruction of natural biogeocenoses, disrupts the ecological balance in the regions, causes great economic damage to the national economy, therefore, it is necessary to strictly observe the safety rules for transport operations and exclude, to the maximum extent possible, violation of transportation technology.
4. Extraction of minerals as a raw material for various industries.
For the successful functioning of production activities, raw materials and energy resources are needed, which are mined from the bowels of the Earth. Mining can be carried out by open or closed (mine) method. With any method of extraction, there is a violation of natural biocenoses, landscapes, and the destruction of plant communities. There are mountains of dumps that require reclamation, i.e. works on restoration (at least partial) of plantings and fauna elements. Mining is also associated with the release to the surface of gases that adversely affect the natural environment (methane, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, carbon oxides). Oil, falling on the surface, has a disastrous effect on both plants and animals. Piles of garbage and various wastes generated during the extraction of solid minerals lead to pollution of the habitat of organisms and humans.
During the operation of mines, combustible gases can accumulate in them, which form explosive mixtures, which contributes to the occurrence of explosions, fires and other negative phenomena. Mining by mining is one of the causes of man-made earthquakes.
So, in the development and extraction of minerals (gaseous, liquid, solid), it is necessary to organize work in such a way as to cause minimal harm to the environment, which is still in the field of scientific development and is little used in practice.
5. Introduction into the environment of chemical compounds that have a negative impact on it.
To facilitate certain activities, a person uses substances that can harm the natural environment. So, in cities, to facilitate snow removal and road glaciation, sodium and calcium chlorides are used, and these salts cause soil and groundwater salinization, which in turn worsens the quality of natural waters, changes the salinity of freshwater reservoirs and adversely affects the fauna of reservoirs. etc.
It was shown above that the use of excess mineral fertilizers and not rational use chemical means of plant protection in agrocenoses also leads to pollution of the natural environment and to a deterioration in product quality Agriculture.
To protect metal products from corrosion, inhibitors are used, which (for example, potassium dichromate) are poisonous for many organisms.
To improve the operation of car engines, detonators are used, in particular diethyl lead, which pollutes the environment, being a poison for both humans and warm-blooded animals.
All this necessitates a deeper study of the role of compounds used in human activity on natural ecological processes, as well as finding ways to replace those substances that adversely affect the human environment.
Change of communities under the influence of human activity. If the change of communities under the influence of the vital activity of the organisms themselves is gradual and Long procces, covering a period of tens, hundreds and even thousands of years, then the change of communities (underlying the change of ecosystems) caused by human activity occurs quickly, over several years.
The rapid (jump-like) development of ecosystems is often accompanied by a reduction in their species diversity, slowing down the processes of self-regulation and stability. As a result, communities of a simplified type are formed in such ecosystems, with a poor species structure. For example, people turn grassy steppes into arable land, floodplain meadows turn out to be flooded with reservoirs. Thus, the plowing of virgin lands in the second half of the 20th century led to the destruction of natural steppe ecosystems in Kazakhstan and southern Russia. As a result, many species of insects, mammals, various types of grasses have disappeared.
Suburban forests are under heavy pressure due to massive visits by people. As a result of trampling the herbage, the ground organs of plants are injured, the soil is compacted, and the undergrowth is damaged. As a result, the forest thins out, brightens up. Shade-loving and shade-tolerant grasses are replaced by light-loving ones, typical for meadow ecosystems.
Overgrazing is changing meadow and steppe ecosystems: those grasses that are not eaten by animals (wormwood, thistle) are widely distributed, and the abundance of fodder cereals is decreasing. Many plants do not have time to bloom and produce seeds. As a result, the species diversity of the ecosystem decreases, its structure and food webs are simplified.
Reservoirs also experience anthropogenic impact. If sewage, fertilizers from the fields, household waste get into them, then the oxygen dissolved in the water is spent on their oxidation. As a result, species diversity decreases, various aquatic plants (floating salvinia, highlander amphibian) are replaced by duckweed, blue-green algae, and "water bloom" occurs. Valuable commercial fish are being replaced by low-value ones, mollusks and many insect species are disappearing. A rich aquatic ecosystem turns into an ecosystem of a decaying reservoir.
There are many cases when a person violated the species structure of an ecosystem as a result of introducing new species into it. Yes, in early XIX V. prickly pear cactus was brought to Australia from America to create thorny hedges in pastures. It multiplied so much that it began to shape the appearance of many communities, displacing the usual plant species, and led to a change in a number of ecosystems. By the middle of the twentieth century. Australia could turn into a continent of solid thorny thickets, but this did not happen thanks to the cactus moth butterfly brought to the mainland, whose caterpillars eat prickly pear. After the number of cactus managed to be adjusted with the help of caterpillars, the disturbed ecosystems gradually recovered.
If the human impact that caused the change of communities stops, then, as a rule, the natural process of ecosystem self-healing begins. Plants continue to play a leading role in it. So, after grazing stops, tall grasses appear on pastures, typical forest plants appear in the forest, the lake is cleared of the dominance of unicellular algae and blue-greens, fish, mollusks, and crustaceans reappear in it.
If the species and trophic structures of the ecosystem are so simplified that the process of its self-healing can no longer take place, then a person is again forced to intervene in this natural community, but now with good goals: grasses are sown on pastures, new trees are planted in the forest, water bodies are cleaned and launched there are young fish.
The experience used in the Stavropol Territory is interesting: hay is brought to already unproductive pastures, scattering it over the surface. Hay contains the seeds of the entire complex of plant species of the steppe ecosystem. After three to four years, this area becomes close to the natural steppe.
The ecosystem is capable of self-healing only in case of partial disturbances. Therefore, the impact of human economic activity should not exceed the threshold after which the ecosystem cannot carry out self-regulation processes. To do this, human impact on ecosystems is normalized: they determine how many livestock can be kept per 1 ha of pasture, how many vacationers can visit a suburban forest park, and measure the total amount of wastewater with what the aquatic ecosystem itself can neutralize.
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Abstract on the topic:
"Human activity that changes the balance in ecosystems"
Completed by: Shayakhmetova D,I.
Checked by: Obozhina L, V.
Ekaterinburg
Ecological balance and self-regulation of ecosystems
Atmospheric pollution: sources, scale
Agriculture as one of the areas that change the balance in ecosystems
Anthropogenic impact on the soil, mountain ranges and bowels
Conclusion
balance ecosystem anthropogenic pollution
Ecological balance, stability and self-regulation of ecosystems
The equilibrium state of an ecosystem is based on the balance (equilibrium) of living and non-living environment factors. Stability is ensured by balancing the flows of matter and energy and the processes of metabolism between organisms and the environment. The stronger the organisms are interconnected by food webs, the more resistant the community of organisms to possible imbalances. Disrupted ecosystems seek to restore their balance on their own.
Each species of plant, animal, or microorganism in an ecosystem is represented by a population. An ecosystem is called stable if the population size of each species included in it remains more or less constant for a long time (birth rate in it is balanced with mortality). A steady increase or decrease in the number of any population brings the system out of balance.
The ability of a system to restore a disturbed equilibrium and maintain its stable state is called homeostasis. The number of populations can increase to a certain level, then the limited food resources stop growth, and the number begins to decline. Thus, the balance is maintained until external environmental factors change and begin to limit natural processes, for example, the process of temperature disturbance, increased acidity, salinity, and humidity.
In other words, natural ecosystems are capable of self-regulation. Self-regulation is the restoration of the balance of the internal properties of the system, disturbed by any natural factors or human intervention (anthropogenic factors).
If, under the influence of external factors, the processes of self-regulation are destroyed, they say that an ecological crisis has come in this ecosystem. Already now due to negative impact human economic activity duration of self-regulation processes natural objects measured not in days, but in centuries.
Self-purification of water bodies is provided by the sun, air, microorganisms and oxygen dissolved in water. Just a few decades ago, the polluted waters of the river, 20-30 km below any city located on its banks, became clean. On them, water intakes were made without any problems for the water supply of the next, downstream, settlement. The growth in the number of cities and their population, the rapid development of industry, the increase in the area of irrigated land every year lead to increasing water pollution, which has become a threat to the health and sometimes life of the population.
In our time, many reservoirs can no longer restore the balance disturbed in them. Pollution of a water body causes an imbalance in its ecosystem, reduces the bioproductivity of the latter. As a result, many the best views flora and fauna, causing direct damage to human health.
Negative human impacts on nature often lead to the extinction of entire populations. Human destruction of ecosystems, alteration of animal and plant habitats, pollution, and overexploitation of biotic resources affect both low- and high-density populations equally.
In order to satisfy their needs, a person sometimes completely destroys natural ecosystems, for example, cuts down forests, freeing up land for growing agricultural products or building housing, changing natural landscapes, and reducing the full flow of rivers. The laying of channels and the damming of rivers lead to the destruction of spawning grounds for valuable species of fish, nesting of waterfowl, etc.
In anthropogenic (man-made) ecosystems (artificial reservoirs, parks, recreation areas), the balance is spontaneously disturbed over time. Maintaining homeostasis in such systems requires constant human intervention. Their direct intervention, as a rule, entails significant material damage. An example of this is an event organized at the state level in the seventies of the last century in China.
In order to preserve the rice harvest, the population was charged with the duty to destroy all sparrows. After the successful fulfillment of the "state task", the population of harmful insects increased exorbitantly, which largely destroyed the crop. As a result, there was famine in the country.
Poaching, deforestation, construction of cities, roads, oil spills from pipelines and other human impacts on nature cause great damage to it. Living organisms develop adaptive responses to these influences extremely slowly. In urban and artificial ecosystems few or no decomposers. Wastes (liquid, solid and gaseous) accumulate, polluting the environment. It is possible to promote the fastest decomposition of many wastes by encouraging the development of decomposers.
Within the biosphere, vegetation, wildlife and microorganisms have a feature called the continuity of life. The continuity of life is achieved by the ability to reproduce, which is always combined with a system of natural restrictions. The possibilities of reproduction without a system of restrictions would be monstrous in terms of productivity. For example, from one seed of a cucumber, 10-15 fruits with several hundred seeds could ripen in a season. In the next growing season, they could produce tens of thousands of fruits and hundreds of thousands of seeds.
In the next growing season, the seed harvest can be in the millions. However, nature naturally limits the possibilities of reproduction. Restrictions may occur due to lack of food, water, mass death of young animals from predators, natural and climatic disasters.
The human population is subject to the same laws as any other. When the resistance of the environment weakens, the population grows explosively. But unlike other living beings, humanity itself reduces the resistance of the environment for itself, producing an excess amount of food, housing, warmth, clothing, household items and comfortable living. Influencing the balancing factors concerning ourselves, humanity violates almost all natural balances.
Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" No. 7-FZ of January 10, 2002 defines the concept of "favorable environment". It is interpreted as "the environment, the quality of which ensures the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems."
Characteristics of human activities that change the balance in natural ecosystems
Human activity is diverse and many of its types lead to a sharp change in the equilibrium ecological processes in natural ecosystems. Let's consider some of them.
1. Organization of various industries, construction of enterprises and implementation of activities for the production of a particular product.
This type of activity has a direct and indirect impact on natural ecosystems. On the territory where the enterprise is being built, the biocenosis is almost completely destroyed, including the plant community, although at present attempts are being made to preserve the vegetation cover, animals leave their habitats and may die completely, a special biocenosis arises from animals and plants capable of coexisting with man. As a rule, a settlement (working settlement, city) is built nearby, which has a similar impact on natural ecological processes. The indirect impact is that during the operation of the enterprise, various compounds can be formed that uncontrollably enter the natural environment, affecting both people and various organisms living in the area.
2. Creation of artificial biocenoses - agrocenoses in the process of implementing the tasks of agricultural production.
Agriculture is a condition for solving the food problem, which is becoming more acute due to population growth. Growing cultivated plants in order to obtain large yields, creating the basis for both the production of plant foods and the effective development of animal husbandry, makes it necessary to create highly efficient agrocenoses.
Agrocenosis is a biocenosis artificially created by man on the basis of a cultivated plant (one or more) that are on a natural substrate (soil) in contact with weeds and other organisms living in a given area. This biocenosis is influenced by a complex of abiotic factors characteristic of a given geographical area, as well as a number of impacts from human activities aimed at increasing the productivity of its main organisms (weeding, watering, fertilizing, controlling weeds and other pests by biological and chemical methods, etc.). d.).
Agrocenoses are characterized by the following features:
1) have a strictly defined species composition of plants or animals (components that determine the type of agrocenosis);
2) have a certain type of interaction between the organisms that form this agrocenosis;
3) implement a certain type of relationship between organisms that form an agrocenosis with the environment.
There are two types of agrocenoses.
A. The basis of agrocenosis is one or more cultivated plants. Such agrocenoses include fields of wheat, rye, oats, etc.; vegetable gardens where cabbages, tomatoes and other vegetables are grown; melons, where watermelons, melons and other gourds are grown; vineyards, orchards.
b. The basis of the agrocenosis is the natural plant community, which is enriched with additional types of cultivated plants. Such agrocenoses include parks, hayfields, meadows, pastures and forest plantations. For example, leguminous and cereal crops with high productivity are sown in natural meadows.
Agrocenoses change the composition of natural biocenoses, in some cases improving the conditions for the existence of natural organisms, and sometimes lead to the death of a natural biocenosis.
Thus, the main goal of creating agrocenoses is to obtain high yields and the maximum amount of high-quality products. It is very important to rationally carry out work on the creation and operation of agrocenoses. A scientific system of alternating agrocenoses (multi-field system) has been developed, which makes it possible to effectively use the land to obtain sustainable and rich crops. The crop rotation system is not universal for all areas of agricultural production. Thus, for the Non-Chernozem zone of Russia, the grass-field system is effective, in which crops of cereals, grass and vegetable crops alternate in a certain sequence.
It should be noted that a person in pursuit of maximum benefit violates the principle of optimality in the operation of agrocenoses. Thus, the principle of "monocultures" was introduced for the whole region - the cultivation of cotton in the vast territories of Uzbekistan or orchards and vineyards in Moldova. It is very important to rationally use fertilizers and chemical plant protection products, because their excessive use brings significant harm both due to the negative impact on the natural environment and due to the production of low-quality products from an environmental standpoint (products may contain a large amount of nitrates that adversely affect the human body). ).
3. Transportation of various substances.
In human activity, the movement of various objects and chemical compounds plays an important role. Fertilizers, fuel, pesticides, oil and other substances move from one region to another and even from one continent to another. In the process of transportation, there are losses of substances due to violation of the conditions of transportation or due to accidents, which leads to pollution of the natural environment. So, it is possible for oil to get on the surface of water bodies, gases to the atmosphere due to a violation of the integrity of pipelines, dispersion of dusty cement, etc. Violation of transportation technology contributes to the destruction of natural biogeocenoses, disrupts the ecological balance in the regions, causes great economic damage to the national economy, therefore, it is necessary to strictly observe the safety rules for transport operations and exclude, to the maximum extent possible, violation of transportation technology.
4. Extraction of minerals as a raw material for various industries.
For the successful functioning of production activities, raw materials and energy resources are needed, which are mined from the bowels of the Earth. Mining can be carried out by open or closed (mine) method. With any method of extraction, there is a violation of natural biocenoses, landscapes, and the destruction of plant communities. There are mountains of dumps that require reclamation, i.e. works on restoration (at least partial) of plantings and fauna elements. Mining is also associated with the release to the surface of gases that adversely affect the natural environment (methane, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, carbon oxides). Oil, falling on the surface, has a disastrous effect on both plants and animals. Piles of garbage and various wastes generated during the extraction of solid minerals lead to pollution of the habitat of organisms and humans.
During the operation of mines, combustible gases can accumulate in them, which form explosive mixtures, which contributes to the occurrence of explosions, fires and other negative phenomena. Mining by mining is one of the causes of man-made earthquakes.
So, in the development and extraction of minerals (gaseous, liquid, solid), it is necessary to organize work in such a way as to cause minimal harm to the environment, which is still in the field of scientific development and is little used in practice.
5. Introduction into the environment of chemical compounds that have a negative impact on it.
To facilitate certain activities, a person uses substances that can harm the natural environment. So, in cities, to facilitate snow removal and road glaciation, sodium and calcium chlorides are used, and these salts cause soil and groundwater salinization, which in turn worsens the quality of natural waters, changes the salinity of freshwater reservoirs and adversely affects the fauna of reservoirs. etc.
It was shown above that the use of excess mineral fertilizers and the irrational use of chemical plant protection products in agrocenoses also leads to environmental pollution and to a deterioration in the quality of agricultural products.
To protect metal products from corrosion, inhibitors are used, which (for example, potassium dichromate) are poisonous for many organisms.
To improve the operation of car engines, detonators are used, in particular diethyl lead, which pollutes the environment, being a poison for both humans and warm-blooded animals.
All this necessitates a deeper study of the role of compounds used in human activity on natural ecological processes, as well as finding ways to replace those substances that adversely affect the human environment.
Air pollution
Anthropogenic impact on the atmosphere is manifested primarily in air pollution.
There are natural (natural) and artificial (anthropogenic) atmospheric pollution.
Natural air pollution occurs during volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, dust storms, forest fires (arising from a lightning strike), swamp evaporation, removal of sea salts, etc. In addition, bacteria (including pathogens) are constantly present in the atmosphere, fungal spores, plant pollen, etc.
Natural sources of pollution are distributed fairly evenly over the surface of the planet, and they are balanced by metabolism.
However, anthropogenic pollution of the atmosphere prevails over natural, and this ratio is continuously increasing. Artificial pollution appear in the atmosphere due to human activities and represent the greatest danger. These pollutants can be divided into several groups:
Biological (production waste associated with organic substances);
Microbiological (vaccine, serum, antibiotics);
Chemical ( chemical elements, acids, alkalis, etc.);
Mechanical (dust, soot, aerosols, etc.);
Physical (heat, noise, light, electromagnetic waves, radioactive radiation).
Sources of air pollution
Currently, the most significant sources of artificial air pollution are transport and industry. The “main contribution” to atmospheric air pollution in Russia is made by such industries as: thermal power engineering (thermal and nuclear power plants, boiler houses, etc.), ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil production and oil refining, production of building materials, etc.
Energy. When solid fuels (coal) are burned, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and solid particles (dust, soot, ash) enter the atmospheric air. The volume of emissions is large. Thus, a modern thermal power plant with a capacity of 2.4 million kW consumes up to 20 thousand tons of coal per day and emits 680 tons of sulfur oxides, 200 tons of nitrogen oxides and about 150 tons of ash, dust and soot combined into the atmosphere.
When using fuel oil (liquid fuel), ash emissions are reduced. And gas fuel pollutes the atmospheric air 3 times less than fuel oil, and 5 times less than coal. Nuclear energy (assuming trouble-free operation) is even more environmentally friendly, but the most dangerous in terms of accidents and waste of nuclear fuel.
main reason global warming it is an increase in the content of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and above all CO2. A huge "contribution" to the greenhouse effect is made by CO2. A significant increase in the volume of its receipt in Lately associated with human activities. The sources of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere are the increase in the volume of combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.
The main suppliers of carbon dioxide through the combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal) are developed countries. In general, they emit it many times more than developing countries. Among the "record holders" are the USA, China, Japan, Great Britain, former USSR. The whole of Africa emits carbon by burning fossil fuels 8 times, and the whole South America 2 times less than the USA.
Motor transport. There are currently hundreds of millions of vehicles in use around the world. The exhaust gases of internal combustion engines contain a huge amount of toxic compounds. For example, a thousand cars with a carburetor engine emit about 3 tons of carbon monoxide, 100 kg of nitrogen oxides, 500 kg of compounds of incomplete combustion of gasoline per day. In general, the exhaust gases of road transport contain more than 200 toxic substances.
Currently in major cities In Russia, emissions from vehicles exceed emissions from stationary sources (industrial enterprises).
Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. When smelting a ton of steel, 0.04 tons of solid particles, 0.03 tons of sulfur oxide, 0.05 tons of carbon monoxide, as well as lead, phosphorus, manganese, arsenic, mercury vapor, phenol, formaldehyde, benzene, and other toxic substances are emitted into the atmosphere. . Emissions from non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises contain: lead, zinc, copper, aluminum, mercury, cadmium, molybdenum, nickel, chromium, etc.
Chemical industry. Emissions from chemical enterprises are characterized by a significant diversity, high concentration and toxicity. They contain sulfur oxides, fluorine compounds, ammonia, mixtures of nitrogen oxides, chloride compounds, hydrogen sulfide, inorganic dust, etc.
Agriculture as one of the directions of changing the balance of ecosystems
Agriculture, requiring huge areas, has a significant impact on the natural environment.
Agriculture has the strongest impact on the natural environment, which can lead to the destruction of soil ecosystems, loss of fertility, water and wind erosion, and soil compaction. Animal husbandry affects nature less. But overgrazing and unprocessed waste from livestock complexes are also significant environmental impact factors.
Common violations caused by agricultural activities include:
pollution of surface and ground waters, degradation of aquatic ecosystems during eutrophication;
deforestation and degradation of forest ecosystems (deforestation);
violation of the water regime in large areas (during drainage or irrigation);
desertification as a result of complex disturbance of soils and vegetation;
the destruction of the natural habitats of many species of living organisms and, as a result, the extinction and disappearance of rare and other species.
In addition, in the second half of the 20th century, another problem arose - a decrease in vitamins in agricultural products and the accumulation of various toxicants (nitrates, pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, etc.).
The productivity of modern agriculture largely depends on the use of mineral and organic fertilizers. According to scientists, the share of mineral fertilizers in the system of measures to increase yields can reach 70%. In Russia, the production of mineral fertilizers in the middle of the XX century. began to expand significantly.
The need to use mineral fertilizers simultaneously with an increase in productivity causes pollution of soils and surface waters, both with biogenic elements and ballast substances. For example, when potash fertilizers of potassium chloride are introduced into the soil, harmful chlorine is also introduced along with the potassium necessary for plants.
In case of violation of the rules of transportation, due to the washing off of fertilizers from the surface of fields into surface runoff (rivers, lakes, seas, etc.), in the process of water and wind erosion of the soil, in case of overdose and uncontrolled use of mineral fertilizers, the content of nutrients and ballast compounds in the soil and water can reach toxic levels. These substances through the trophic chains are able to enter the organisms of animals and humans.
In the practice of agriculture, up to 30-50% of all applied mineral fertilizers are uselessly lost. For example, in the field, plants assimilate only about 40% of the total amount of nitrogen introduced, 18–33% of nitrogen remains in the soil, and 10–30% of it volatilizes in the form of various gaseous compounds. The release of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere entails not only economic losses, but also contributes to the destruction of the ozone layer.
Agriculture is also the main source of phosphorus compounds entering the biosphere. A large amount of phosphates annually enters natural waters due to the washout of phosphorus fertilizers from the fields under the influence of irrigation and erosion processes (up to 10 kg of phosphorus is carried away from each hectare of arable land), as well as due to an increase in the production of various phosphorus-containing preparations used in agriculture, everyday life, industry.
Phosphorus differs from other biogenic elements in the practical absence of gaseous compounds and poor solubility. About 17 million tons of phosphorus annually enters the World Ocean and contributes to eutrophication.
Modern agriculture also uses a wide range of potash fertilizers (up to 12 million tons per year). Potassium plays an important and diverse role in plant life, however, most potash fertilizers contain ballast substances (for example, chlorine and sodium), which not only pollute the soil, but also in large quantities toxic to plants.
In addition to mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers are also widely used in agriculture. The balanced content in them of the most important biogenic elements and microelements necessary for plants leads to the formation of high yields, the preservation and increase of soil fertility. The main place among organic fertilizers belongs to animal waste - manure and bird droppings. The rational use of these wastes can significantly reduce the production and use of mineral fertilizers. At the same time, the problems of recycling and protecting the environment from pollution by excrement are being solved.
The irrational use of animal waste as fertilizers leads to contamination of soil and agricultural plants with pathogenic microorganisms and weed seeds, as well as to oversaturation of the arable layer with nutrients. Nutrients with surface runoff are able to enter water bodies, stimulating the development of blue-green algae, reducing the oxygen content in the water, causing fish to die.
Contribute to the pollution of the biosphere when using animal waste in agriculture - shortcomings in the technology of processing and applying to the soil (lack of specialized equipment and storage facilities, widespread use of unrotted manure, etc.).
Various types of pesticides are widely used in modern agriculture. These pesticides are used to control insect pests (insecticides), weeds (herbicides), bacterial and fungal diseases (bactericides and fungicides). World production of pesticides exceeds 2 million tons per year, and the range of pesticide preparations includes more than 100 thousand items.
Pesticides sprayed into the air, trapped in the water and soil environment, cause great harm to all living things (birds and small animals, plankton and benthos die). Many of the pesticides are particularly persistent.
An urgent environmental problem in agriculture is the rapid increase in the rate and extent of land degradation. In Russia, since the 90s of the 20th century, 25.6 million hectares of farmland have been eliminated from agricultural circulation, including arable land - 8.2 million hectares. The main reasons for the reduction of agricultural areas are the development of erosion processes, overgrowing with forests and shrubs, flooding and swamping of land, alienation of land for non-agricultural needs. In some regions, these processes are taking place against the background of an attempt to compensate for the loss of valuable agricultural land through the development of new plots, which often turn out to be marginal.
As a result of soil compaction by heavy agricultural machinery in Russia, up to 10-15% of arable land and 5-10% of pastures may be lost in the coming years.
From 1970 to the present in Russia, the area of arable land with eroded, saline and acidic soils has increased by about 2 times, with waterlogged and stony soils by 3 times, and sandy loamy soils by 8 times.
There is a further decrease in the most fertile - humus horizon of the soil, and losses organic matter replenished by only one third. Over the past 30-40 years, the chernozems of the Russian plain have lost a third of their humus, their fertile layer decreased by 10-15 cm.
Rational environmental management in agriculture provides for: the use of organo-mineral fertilizers in normalized doses; increase in biological nitrogen fixation, due to the expansion of the area of legume crops; erosion control with the help of special methods of tillage and forest plantations; crop rotation; the use of green manure (crops whose green mass is plowed into the soil); dry farming in the southern regions; use of light agricultural machinery, etc.
Cattle breeding and soil fertility
The crisis that hit the livestock sector threatens to have a very negative impact on the fertility of agricultural land, and, ultimately, on the ecological balance as a whole. Therefore, the development of this industry should become one of the priority areas agricultural policy.
The soil does not receive enough organic fertilizers, which are so important for the formation of humus, maintaining and improving soil structure. This is due to the steady decline in livestock, pigs and poultry. Which leads to a decrease in the production of organic fertilizers by the livestock industry. In addition, in many farms of the region, part of the organic fertilizers produced was not taken to the fields due to lack of funds for the purchase of fuel or due to the lack of necessary equipment. For a number of years, agricultural enterprises have not compensated for the nutrients taken out by the crop into the soil. This causes excessive removal of nutrients from humus to form a crop, leads to soil quality deterioration, accumulation of nitrates in food products, water pollution, and most importantly, leads to a deterioration in the economic fertility of soils, often causing irreparable damage to the land. A logical continuation of this process is a drop in productivity and, as a result, a decrease in the gross harvest, which in turn negatively affects the financial performance of agricultural enterprises.
The consumer attitude towards the land is a pernicious manifestation economic crisis. However, this issue is not only economic, but also a pronounced environmental one. The consequences of such an attitude to the land can be detrimental to the ecological balance, and ultimately to the health of the nation. Both agricultural enterprises and the state as a whole are interested in preserving and improving soil fertility.
Solving the problem of preserving and increasing soil fertility requires an integrated approach. At the macroeconomic level, it is necessary to create a system that encourages a business entity to carry out activities to improve soil fertility: this may be preferential taxation of farms. Carrying out land reclamation and land management works. A system of incentive measures for enterprises producing environmentally friendly products. Subsidies for the purchase of domestic mineral fertilizers, etc.
Similar measures are being taken in the countries of the European Union. For example, in Austria and Germany, the amount of state subsidies to an agricultural enterprise, calculated on the basis of a number of indicators, also depends on the load of animal heads per 1 ha of agricultural land. In other words, studies have been carried out in these countries on what should be the ratio of animals to land on the farm in order for the soil to receive the optimal amount of organic fertilizers. This ratio turned out to be different depending on zonality, soil type, topography, etc. Agricultural enterprises in Austria and Germany use their own organic fertilizers only on their own land. This means that with intensive animal husbandry, the soil can be overloaded with organic fertilizers, which will negatively affect not only the crop yield, the quality of hayfields and pastures, but also the ecological balance, causing pollution of water bodies, etc. On the other hand, the lack of organic fertilizers by the soil, along with the optimal application of mineral fertilizers, will worsen the structure of the soil, slow down the formation of the humus layer, and disrupt the balance of microorganisms in the soil. Therefore, when calculating subsidies to enterprises, the coefficient of animal load per unit of agricultural land is taken into account.
Industrial intensive methods of farming at the end of the 20th century caused a number of negative phenomena in the planet's biosphere: mass erosion and destructurization of arable soils began with a decrease in their humus content and fertility, desertification and deforestation of large areas of the planet, salinization of irrigated lands, a trend towards general warming of the climate was revealed. . Ecological collapse has become a real threat to humanity. Under these conditions, it became an objective necessity:
Improving environmental knowledge;
Merging ecology with the economy;
Ecological conversion of agricultural production.
Anthropogenic impacts on rocks, their massifs and subsoil
Rocks - natural aggregates of minerals of more or less constant mineralogical and chemical composition, which form independent geological bodies that make up the earth's crust.
In the process of human engineering and economic activities, the rocks that make up the upper part earth's crust, to varying degrees, undergo: compression, tension, shear, water saturation, vibration, and other effects.
The main anthropogenic impacts on rocks include: static and dynamic loads, thermal and electrical impacts.
Static loads occur during the construction of buildings and structures. In this case, a zone of active change of rocks is formed, reaching a depth of 70-100 m.
Dynamic loads include vibrations, shocks, shocks, and other phenomena that are typical during the operation of vehicles, construction machines, factory mechanisms, etc. Loose rocks (sands, peat, etc.) are most sensitive to shaking. The strength of these rocks is noticeably reduced, they are compacted. In addition, sudden liquefaction and the formation of landslides, dumps, and other unfavorable processes are possible.
Explosions (produced during the construction of roads, mining, etc.), also related to dynamic loads and are similar in their action to seismic effects. Very often, as a result of explosions, landslides, landslides, talus, etc. occur.
Thermal exposure usually occurs during underground coal gasification and at the base of blast furnaces and open hearth furnaces. In this case, the temperature of the rocks can rise to 40-50-100°C. As a result, the rocks flow down, petrify and lose their original properties.
Electrical impact creates electrified transport, power lines, etc. This impact generates stray currents and fields that change the electrical conductivity, electrical resistance and other electrical properties of rocks.
Impacts on rock masses lead to such damaging processes as landslides, karst, flooding, etc.
Landslides - sliding of rocks down the slope under the influence of their own weight and load (seismic, vibrational, etc.). Landslides disrupt rock masses, negatively affect surface runoff, disrupt ground cover may result in human casualties.
Karst - phenomena and processes that occur in rocks dissolved by natural waters. Karst is characterized by a complex of surface ( sinkholes, gutters, basins, etc.) and underground (caves, cavities, passages) landforms. Karst caves can also be unique monuments of nature, where stalactites and stalagmites are located.
Karst is widespread in the world and in Russia (Northern Caucasus, Bashkiria, Moscow region).
Flooding - an increase in the level of groundwater. Flooding is observed during the construction of reservoirs, accidents on underground utilities. Flooding leads to waterlogging and swamping of rock masses. When flooding, landslides and karst are activated, seismic activity increases.
Subsoil is the upper part of the earth's crust, within which mining is possible. Subsoil is: a source of mineral raw materials and energy natural resources; burial place harmful substances, industrial waste; oil and gas storage; erection environment underground structures; specially protected natural areas(karst caves).
The ecological state of the subsoil is determined primarily by the strength and nature of the impact on them human activity. In the modern period, the scale of anthropogenic impact on the earth's interior is enormous. In one year, more than 150 billion tons of rocks are extracted and processed in the world, millions of cubic meters of groundwater are pumped out, and mountains of waste accumulate.
Conclusion
In the last quarter of the 20th century, economic growth began to act as a destabilizing factor for the environment. The growth in production and the increase in consumed resources contribute to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide and sulfur, nitrogen oxides, the destruction of the ozone layer, water and soil pollution, desertification, deforestation, and landscape disturbance. According to experts, only about 23% of the extracted and consumed resources are used in the form of a product, the rest is returned to the environment in the form of waste, which leads to a change in the ecological properties of the territory. Therefore, a region with a high level economic development First of all, they are territories that form environmental problems at the global level.
By stating that high level economic development and the rapid economic growth of individual states, form a large number of environmental problems, which are mainly of a transterritorial and global nature. It can be assumed that it should be carried out through the mechanism of regulation of the social market economy at the national and international levels.
One of the hotbeds of global environmental problems is the region of South and Southeast Asia. This region is home to about 45% of the world's population, located in more than 20 states. In recent decades, there have been problems associated with the use of agricultural land in this region, mainly due to soil degradation, deforestation, and desertification. The countries of South and Southeast Asia have the highest population density in the world in relation to the area of cultivated land - more than 400 people per km², and with a decrease in land fertility, the population is growing rapidly. The industrial development of the region is accompanied by a sharp increase in the technogenic load, extensive use of natural resources and, as a result, a sharp deterioration in the state of the environment and a decrease in its assimilating potential.
The combination of industrial and primitive pre-industrial land use led to the rapid depletion of agricultural resources, to the loss of their fertility. The involvement of new lands in agricultural turnover, in turn, leads to deforestation, violation of the water regime, and soil erosion. All these problems, generated by economic reasons, are developing and cover various areas. human life are gradually becoming global. According to the traditional classification, the division of countries according to the level of their economic development occurs by referring them to the periphery and the center. The center is formed by industrialized countries headed by the leaders of the world economy, they represent the backbone of the world economy. In this core, advanced technological, organizational, managerial, social and economic standards are formed that determine the world economic order. The periphery are countries lagging behind in terms of economic development, which are also called developing countries. Most of these countries are in different stages industrialization that has not yet ended. The national economies of most of these states are oriented toward raw materials and have an ineffective mechanism for economic development. And although the division of states into the periphery and the center is simplified, it can be used to understand the territorial aspects of global environmental and economic problems.
Global ecology considers the integrity of ecosystems in which various elements interact. At the same time, global ecology relies on geographic spatial-territorial connections. Global ecological processes are processes associated with various spheres of human life, based on the functions of biotic and abiotic components, as well as formed by the socio-economic development of mankind.
Environmental problems are part of the general problems of mankind. They are characterized by the scale of manifestation that goes beyond the boundaries of individual states and entire regions, the degree of severity and exponential development, dynamism, complexity and interconnectedness.
The driving force of the anthropogenic cycle is human activity. This cycle includes two components: biological, associated with the functioning of a person as a living organism, and technical, associated with the economic activities of people. The anthropogenic cycle, unlike the geological and biological cycles, is not closed. This openness causes the depletion of natural resources and pollution of the natural environment.
Bibliography
Ecology. Korobkin V.I., Peredelsky L.V.: 12th ed., add. and reworked. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2007. - 602s.
General ecology. Drozdov V.V.: 2nd ed. - Moscow: Harp, 2011. - 404 p.
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