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Water resources of the Earth Prepared by: Zhebanova Natalya Pavlovna - teacher of the State Budgetary Educational Institution of the Republic of Moldova "Kovylkinsky Agrarian and Construction College"
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WATER RESOURCES Liquid, solid and gaseous waters and their distribution on Earth. They are found in natural water bodies on the surface (oceans, rivers, lakes and swamps); in the bowels (groundwater); in all plants and animals; as well as in artificial reservoirs (reservoirs, canals, etc.).
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Surface sources Only 0.01% of the total volume of fresh water in the liquid state is concentrated in rivers and streams and 1.47% in lakes. Dams have been built on many rivers to store water and provide it continuously to consumers, as well as to prevent unwanted floods and generate electricity. The Amazon has the highest average water consumption and, consequently, the highest energy potential. South America, Congo (Zaire) in Africa, Ganges with Brahmaputra in South Asia, the Yangtze in China, the Yenisei in Russia and the Mississippi with the Missouri in the USA. Natural freshwater lakes containing approx. 125 thousand km3 of water, along with rivers and artificial reservoirs, are important source drinking water for people and animals. They are also used for irrigation of agricultural land, navigation, recreation, fishing and, unfortunately, for the discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater. Sometimes, due to the gradual filling with sediments or salinization, the lakes dry up, but in the process of evolution of the hydrosphere, new lakes are formed in some places.
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Water is the only substance that exists in nature in liquid, solid and gaseous states. The value of liquid water varies significantly depending on location and application. Fresh water is more widely used than salt water. Over 97% of all water is concentrated in the oceans and inland seas. Still ok. 2% is accounted for fresh water, enclosed in the sheet and mountain glaciers, and only less than 1% - to the share of fresh waters of lakes and rivers, underground and groundwater.
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Water, the most abundant compound on Earth, has unique chemical and physical properties. Since it easily dissolves mineral salts, living organisms absorb nutrients with it without any significant changes in their own chemical composition. Thus, water is necessary for the normal functioning of all living organisms.
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The water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Its molecular weight is only 18, and the boiling point reaches 100 C at atmospheric pressure 760 mmHg Art. At higher altitudes, where the pressure is lower than at sea level, water boils at lower temperatures. When water freezes, its volume increases by more than 11%, and expanding ice can rupture water pipes and pavements and erode rock, turning it into loose soil. In terms of density, ice is inferior to liquid water, which explains its buoyancy.
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Water also has unique thermal properties. When its temperature drops to 0 C and it freezes, 79 cal. During nighttime frosts, farmers sometimes spray their gardens with water to protect buds from frost damage. When water vapor condenses, each gram of it gives off 540 calories. This heat can be used in heating systems. Due to its high heat capacity, water absorbs a large amount of heat without changing the temperature.
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Water molecules are linked by "hydrogen (or intermolecular) bonds" when the oxygen of one water molecule combines with the hydrogen of another molecule. Water is also attracted to other hydrogen- and oxygen-containing compounds (the so-called molecular attraction). The unique properties of water are determined by the strength of hydrogen bonds. Cohesive and molecular attraction forces allow it to overcome gravity and, due to capillarity, rise up through small pores (for example, in dry soil).
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DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN NATURE When the temperature of water changes, the hydrogen bonds between its molecules also change, which in turn leads to a change in its state - from liquid to solid and gaseous.
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Because the liquid water is an excellent solvent, it is rarely completely pure and contains minerals in a dissolved or suspended state.
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Only 2.8% of the total 1.36 billion km 0.6% - in liquid.
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Approximately 98% of liquid fresh water is concentrated underground. Salt waters of the oceans and inland seas occupying more than 70% of the earth's surface, make up 97.2% of all the waters of the Earth.
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Protecting Water Resources There are two widely used ways to conserve water resources: maintaining existing supplies of usable water and increasing its supply by building better collectors. The accumulation of water in reservoirs prevents it from flowing into the ocean, from where it can only be extracted again through the natural water cycle or through desalination. Reservoirs also make it easier to use water at the right time. Water can be stored in underground cavities. At the same time, there is no loss of moisture for evaporation, and valuable land is saved. The preservation of existing water reserves is facilitated by channels that prevent water from seeping into the ground and ensure its efficient transportation; more than effective methods irrigation using Wastewater; reducing the volume of water flowing from fields or filtering below the root zone of crops; careful use of water for domestic needs.
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WATER SUPPLY The sources of water supply and reservoirs themselves matter only when water is delivered in sufficient volume to consumers - to residential buildings and institutions, to fire hydrants (devices for taking water for fire needs) and other public utilities, industrial and agricultural facilities.
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Irrigation in agriculture Since irrigation requires huge amounts of water, the water supply systems of agricultural areas must have a large capacity, especially in arid conditions. Water from the reservoir is directed to a lined, and more often unlined main canal and then through branches to distribution irrigation canals of various types to farms. Water is released to the fields by flooding or by irrigation furrows. Because many reservoirs are located above irrigated land, water mostly flows by gravity. Farmers who store water themselves pump it from wells directly into canals or storage reservoirs.
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In some parts the globe the growing consumption of groundwater has serious consequences. The pumping out of a large volume of groundwater, incomparably greater than their natural replenishment, leads to a shortage of moisture, and lowering the level of these waters requires greater costs for expensive electricity used to extract them. In places where the aquifer is depleted, the earth's surface begins to subside, and the restoration of water resources in a natural way is complicated there.
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The water level even in “healthy” lakes can decrease during the year as a result of water flow through the rivers and streams flowing from them, due to water infiltration into the ground and its evaporation. The restoration of their level usually occurs due to precipitation and the inflow of fresh water from rivers and streams flowing into them, as well as from springs. However, as a result of evaporation, salts that come with river runoff accumulate. Therefore, after millennia, some lakes can become very salty and unsuitable for many living organisms.
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WATER USE Water consumption is growing rapidly everywhere, however, not only due to increasing population, but also due to urbanization, industrialization and especially the development of agricultural production, in particular irrigated agriculture. By 2000, the world's daily water consumption had reached 26,540 billion liters, or 4,280 liters per person. 72% of this volume is spent on irrigation, and 17.5% on industrial needs. About 69% of irrigation water is lost irretrievably.
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The quality of water used for different purposes is determined depending on the quantitative and quality content dissolved salts (i.e. its mineralization), as well as organic substances; solid suspensions (silt, sand); toxic chemical substances and pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria and viruses); odor and temperature. Typically, fresh water contains less than 1 g/l of dissolved salts, brackish water 1–10 g/l, and saline water 10–100 g/l. Water with a high salt content is called brine, or rapuille.
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An important characteristic of water quality is its hardness or softness. Water is considered hard if the content of calcium and magnesium carbonates exceeds 12 mg/l. These salts are bound by some components detergents, and thus defoaming worsens, an insoluble residue remains on the washed items, giving them a matte gray tint. Hard water calcium carbonate forms scale (limescale) in kettles and boilers, which reduces their service life and the thermal conductivity of the walls. Water is softened by adding sodium salts to replace calcium and magnesium. In soft water (containing less than 6 mg/l of calcium and magnesium carbonates), the soap lathers well and is more suitable for washing and washing. Such water should not be used for irrigation, as excess sodium is harmful to many plants and can disturb the loose, cloddy soil structure.
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Reuse of water Used water is not always completely lost, part of it or even all of it can be returned to the circulation and reused. For example, water from a bath or shower through sewer pipes enters the city's wastewater treatment plant, where it is treated and then reused. Typically, more than 70% of urban runoff returns to rivers or aquifers. Unfortunately, in many large coastal cities, municipal and industrial wastewater is simply dumped into the ocean and not disposed of. Although this method eliminates the cost of cleaning and returning them to circulation, there is a loss of potentially usable water and pollution of marine areas.
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In irrigated agriculture, crops consume a huge amount of water, sucking it out by the roots and irretrievably losing up to 99% in the process of transpiration. However, when irrigating, farmers usually use more water than is needed for crops. Part of it flows to the periphery of the field and returns to the irrigation network, while the rest seeps into the soil, replenishing groundwater reserves that can be pumped out.
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Water use in agriculture Agriculture is the largest consumer of water. In Egypt, where there is almost no rain, all agriculture is based on irrigation, while in the UK, almost all crops are provided with moisture from precipitation. In the US, 10% of agricultural land is irrigated, mostly in the west of the country. A significant part of agricultural land is artificially irrigated in the following Asian countries: China (68%), Japan (57%), Iraq (53%), Iran (45%), Saudi Arabia (43%), Pakistan (42%), Israel ( 38%), India and Indonesia (27% each), Thailand (25%), Syria (16%), Philippines (12%) and Vietnam (10%). In Africa, apart from Egypt, a significant proportion of irrigated land is in Sudan (22%), Swaziland (20%) and Somalia (17%), and in America - in Guyana (62%), Chile (46%), Mexico (22%). ) and Cuba (18%). In Europe, irrigated agriculture is developed in Greece (15%), France (12%), Spain and Italy (11% each). Australia irrigates approx. 9% agricultural land and approx. 5% - in the former USSR.
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In agriculture, water is used not only to irrigate crops, but also to recharge groundwater (to prevent the groundwater level from dropping too quickly); for leaching (or leaching) of salts accumulated in the soil to a depth below the root zone of cultivated crops; for spraying against pests and diseases; frost protection; fertilizer application; decrease in air and soil temperature in summer; for the care of livestock; evacuation of treated wastewater used for irrigation (mainly cereals); and processing of harvested crops.
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WATER SHORTAGE When water demand exceeds water supply, the difference is usually offset by storage in reservoirs, as both demand and supply usually vary seasonally. A negative water balance is formed when evaporation exceeds precipitation, so a moderate decrease in water reserves is a common occurrence. Acute scarcity occurs when the water supply is insufficient due to prolonged drought or when, due to poor planning, water consumption is constantly growing at a faster rate than expected. Throughout history, humanity has suffered from time to time due to lack of water. In order not to lack water even during droughts, in many cities and regions they try to store it in reservoirs and underground collectors, but sometimes additional water-saving measures are needed, as well as its normalized consumption.
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OVERCOMING WATER SCARCITY The redistribution of runoff is aimed at providing water to those areas where it is scarce, and the protection of water resources is aimed at reducing irreplaceable water losses and reducing the demand for it on the ground.
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Rational use and Protection of Water Resources Completed by: Sidorova Ksenia Student of group 6 technologists Yaroslavl, 2013 Natural water and its distribution Water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen (H2O) - an odorless, tasteless, colorless liquid (bluish in thick layers). Water is a unique substance in its physical and chemical properties. Water volatility is low. It has a very high heat of fusion and specific heat capacity: when ice melts, the heat capacity more than doubles. The viscosity of water (at temperatures from 0 to 30 °C) decreases with increasing pressure. Water is the most abundant substance on earth. In nature, it is in three phases: gaseous (water vapor), liquid and solid. Distinguish between atmospheric, surface (hydrosphere) and underground water. In the rocks of the lithosphere, it is present in various states: film, hygroscopic, gravitational, capillary, crystallization, and also in the form of vapor. The largest reserves of surface water are concentrated in the World Ocean. Large reserves of surface water are concentrated in glaciers, lakes and rivers. Groundwater is used for drinking and household purposes. Mineral therapeutic underground waters are used by sanatorium and health resorts, as well as bottling plants, thermal power (with a temperature of 35 to 200 ° C) underground waters - for heat supply and electrical energy; underground waters containing valuable components (iodine, bromine, potassium, magnesium, sodium salts) - for their industrial extraction. The water cycle in nature The water cycle in nature (hydrological cycle) is the process of cyclic movement of water in the earth's biosphere. It consists of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. The seas lose more water due to evaporation than they receive with precipitation, on land the situation is reversed. Water continuously circulates on the globe, while its total amount remains unchanged. Three-quarters of the surface of the globe is covered with water. The water shell of the Earth is called the hydrosphere. Most of it is salty water seas and oceans, and a smaller one - fresh water of lakes, rivers, glaciers, groundwater and water vapor. The role of water in nature and in human life The main role of water is that it is a medium and a source of hydrogen for life processes. Almost all organic matter biospheres are a product of photosynthesis, in which plants use light energy to combine carbon dioxide with water. Without water, as you know, photosynthesis cannot occur. The process to which the whole life of our planet owes. Water - the only source of oxygen released into the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Water is essential for the biochemical and biophysical processes that make life possible on Earth. Figuratively speaking, life is contained in a drop of water. Water makes up 89-90% of the mass of plants and 75% of the mass of animals. The human body contains 65% water. Water serves as a constant participant in the intensive biochemical processes occurring in the human body. No life process is complete without it. Violation of the water balance leads to serious changes in the human body. With the loss of 6-8% of moisture from body weight, a person falls into a semi-conscious state, with a loss of 12% or more percent of moisture, death occurs. The following is a small (and not exhaustive) list of the "duties" of water in our body: Regulates body temperature Humidifies the air when you breathe Ensures the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to all cells of the body Protects and buffers vital organs Helps convert food into energy Helps nutrients to be absorbed by organs Removes toxins and waste from life processes From the foregoing, one can see how great the importance of water is not only in nature, but also in human life. So, water is a universal substance, without which life is impossible. It is an indispensable part of all living things. Plants contain up to 90% water, and in the body of an adult - about 70%. Depletion and pollution of water resources in the Yaroslavl regionThere are 4327 watercourses within the Yaroslavl region. Moreover, nai large quantity(3696) are streams and very small rivers, the length of which does not exceed 10 km. 245 rivers have a length of 11 to 20 km, from 21 to 50 km - 64 rivers; from 51 to 200 km - 18 rivers and, finally, 11 relatively large rivers of the region have a length of 101 to 150 km. Most of these rivers carry their waters to the main river of our region - the Volga, being its tributaries or tributaries of its tributaries. Every year, about 340 million m3 of polluted wastewater is discharged into the water bodies of the Yaroslavl region. The greatest harm to water resources with their wastewater is caused by housing and communal services (49.72%) and electric power industry (23.77%). The state of water resources is the main problem of the Yaroslavl region. The condition of the Rybinsk and Uglich reservoirs also leaves much to be desired. The main pollutants and sources of pollution in the Yaroslavl region industrial enterprises. The largest water pollutants in the region are: the municipal enterprise "Yaroslavlvodokanal" (the volume of discharge is more than 100 million cubic meters of polluted wastewater, JSC "Yaroslavl Tire Plant" (more than 20 million cubic meters), JSC "Slavneft-Yaroslavlnefteorgsintez" (more than 10 million cubic meters ), Avtodiesel OJSC (more than 6 million cubic meters). Most of the wastewater is discharged without treatment at all. Many treatment facilities major cities areas are in poor condition. In this regard, a large amount of pollutants enter the water bodies of the Yaroslavl region. Measures to prevent pollution and depletion of water resources in the Yaroslavl regionInto practice government controlled Yaroslavl region in the field of protection environment included the creation of interdepartmental coordination commissions in the most important areas and a program-target method for solving environmental issues areas. Such regional programs and action plans as "Waste", the territorial program "Revival of the Volga", for the development of specially protected natural areas, "Radon", to support the environmental education of the population, a draft territorial target program "Ecology and Natural resources Yaroslavl region (2005-2006 and for the period up to 2010)". In the Yaroslavl region, a lot of work is being done to create and develop a system of universal environmental education and education of the population: support educational institutions ecological profile of various levels, holding mass events - the annual All-Russian Days of Protection from Environmental Hazards, the March of Parks, conferences, " round tables", in 2004 the Red Book of the region was published; much attention is paid to working with means mass media: The "Ecological Bulletin" is published quarterly, speeches of leaders and responsible executors are widely practiced on regional radio and television. Treatment facilities In the Yaroslavl region At present, the Yaroslavl region cannot do without treatment facilities, and in urban conditions all of these methods are used in combination, which gives a good effect. The most important technological measures for the rational use and protection of water resources are the improvement of production technologies, the introduction of waste-free technologies. At present, the current circulating water supply system, or reuse of water, is being improved. Since it is impossible to completely avoid water pollution, biotechnical measures for the protection of water resources are being applied - forced purification of wastewater from pollution. The main cleaning methods are mechanical, chemical and biological. Monitoring of water resources, water quality and pollution in the Yaroslavl region Monitoring of surface waters in the territory of the Yaroslavl region was carried out at 15 water bodies, at 22 points, 27 hydrochemical observation points for 35 ingredients and indicators. No cases of extremely high and high pollution of surface waters on the territory of the Yaroslavl region were recorded at the observation network posts of the State Institution "Yaroslavsky TsGMS". Sourceshttp://zoo.kspu.ru/static/prp/Topic20.htmhttp://www.webkursovik.ru/kartgotrab.asp?id=-89426http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%F0% F3%E3%EE%E2%EE%F0%EE%F2_%E2%EE%E4%FB_%E2_%EF%F0%E8%F0%EE%E4%E5http://www.ecoinform.ru/public/ release/id_10041http://www.yarregion.ru/depts/doosp/PublishingImages/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B%20%D0 %BE%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8%20%D0%B8%20%D0 %BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%20%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1 %8E%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B9%20%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA% D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%202009-2010.pdf
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Completed by a student of grade 11 b Darina Osipova Head: geography teacher Zakharycheva Valentina Petrovna
"Pollution of the oceans" 900igr.net On the topic:
Introduction At present, the problem of pollution of the aquatic environment is very relevant, because. now people are starting to forget everything famous expression"water is life". A person cannot live without water for more than three days, but even realizing the importance of the role of water in his life, he still continues to harm water bodies, irrevocably changing their natural regime with discharges and waste. The bulk of the water is concentrated in the oceans. The water evaporating from its surface gives life-giving moisture to natural and artificial ecosystems sushi. The closer an area is to the ocean, the more precipitation falls there. The land constantly returns water to the ocean, part of the water evaporates, part is collected by rivers, which receive rain and snow water. The exchange of moisture between the ocean and land requires a very large amount of energy: it takes up to 1/3 of what the Earth receives from the Sun.
The water cycle in the biosphere before the development of civilization was balanced, the ocean received as much water from the rivers as it consumed during its evaporation. If the climate did not change, then the rivers did not become shallow and the water level in the lakes did not decrease. With the development of civilization, this cycle began to be violated, as a result of irrigation of agricultural crops, evaporation from land increased. The rivers of the southern regions became shallow, the pollution of the oceans and the appearance of an oil film on its surface reduced the amount of water evaporated by the ocean. All this worsens the water supply of the biosphere. Taking into account the importance that water has for human life and all life on Earth, we can say that water is one of the most precious treasures of our planet.
The Earth's Hydrosphere The hydrosphere is an aquatic environment that includes surface and groundwater. Surface water is mainly concentrated in the World Ocean, which contains about 91% of all water on Earth. The surface of the World Ocean (water area) is 361 million / km square. It is about 2.04 times the land area - an area that occupies 149 million / km square. If the water is evenly distributed, it will cover the Earth with a thickness of 3000 meters. The water in the ocean (94%) and underground is salty. The amount of fresh water is 6% of the total water on Earth, and a very small proportion of only 0.36% is available in places that are easily accessible for extraction.
Each inhabitant of the Earth on average consumes 650 cubic meters of water per year (1780 liters per day). However, to meet physiological needs, 2.5 liters per day is enough, i.e. about 1 cubic meter per year. A large number of water is required by agriculture (69%) mainly for irrigation; 23% of water is consumed by industry; 6% is spent in everyday life. Taking into account the need for water for industry and agriculture, water consumption in our country is from 125 to 350 liters per day per person (St. Petersburg 450 liters, and in Moscow 380 liters). Water is not only a condition for the life of an individual organism. Without it, the existence of the biosphere, life on Earth, would not be possible, since the circulation of substances and energy in the biosphere is possible only with the participation of water. During the water cycle, 453,000 cubic meters per year evaporate from the surface of the oceans. m. of water
Pollution of the World Ocean Every year, more than 10 million tons of oil enter the World Ocean, and up to 20% of the World Ocean is already covered with an oil film. First of all, this is due to the fact that oil and gas production in the oceans and seas has become the most important component of the oil and gas complex. In 1993, 850 million tons of oil were produced in the ocean (almost 30% of world production). About 2,500 wells have been drilled in the world, of which 800 are in the USA, 540 are in Southeast Asia, 400 are in the North Sea, and 150 are in the Persian Gulf. This mass of wells has been drilled at depths of up to 900 meters. Pollution of the World Ocean by water transport occurs through two channels: firstly, sea and river vessels pollute it with waste resulting from operational activities, and, secondly, emissions in case of accidents, toxic cargoes, most of oil and oil products. The power plants of ships (mainly diesel engines) constantly pollute the atmosphere, from where toxic substances partially or almost completely enter the waters of rivers, seas and oceans.
Oil and oil products are the main pollutants of the water basin. On tankers carrying oil and its derivatives, before each next loading, as a rule, containers (tanks) are washed to remove the remnants of the previously transported cargo. Wash water, and with it the rest of the cargo, is usually dumped overboard. In addition, after the delivery of oil cargoes to the ports of destination, tankers most often go to the point of new loading without cargo. In this case, to ensure proper draft and navigation safety, the ship's tanks are filled with ballast water. This water is polluted with oil residues, and before loading oil and oil products, it is poured into the sea. Of the total cargo turnover of the world navy currently 49% will fall on oil and its derivatives. Every year, about 6,000 tankers of international fleets transport 3.5 billion tons of oil (2000). With the growth of oil transportation and accidents, more and more oil began to fall into the ocean. According to 1988 data, about 20 billion tons of garbage were dumped into all the seas of the world. 98,000 tons of garbage were dumped into the North Sea alone. Pollution of the oceans
A serious environmental threat to life in the oceans and, consequently, to humans is the disposal of radioactive waste (RW) on the seabed and the discharge of liquid radioactive waste (LRW) into the sea. Western countries(USA, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, etc.) and the USSR since 1946. began to actively use the ocean depths in order to get rid of radioactive waste. From 1966 to 1991, the USSR dumped liquid radioactive waste into the Far Eastern seas (mainly near the south-eastern part of Kamchatka and in the Sea of Japan). Northern Fleet annually dumped 10,000 cubic meters of such waste into the water. Up to 2 million seabirds and 100,000 marine animals, including up to 30,000 seals, die every year by swallowing any plastic products or getting entangled in pieces of nets and cables.
Up to 2 million seabirds and 100,000 marine animals, including up to 30,000 seals, die every year by swallowing any plastic products or getting entangled in pieces of nets and cables.
The main routes of hydrosphere pollution The main routes of hydrosphere pollution Pollution by oil and oil products Pollution by sewage Pollution by heavy metals Pollution by acid rain Radioactive pollution Thermal pollution Mechanical pollution Bacterial and biological pollution
1. Pollution by oil and oil products. It leads to the appearance of oil slicks, which impedes the processes of photosynthesis in water due to the cessation of access to sunlight, and also causes the death of plants and animals. Each ton of oil creates an oil slick on an area of up to 12 square kilometers. Restoration of affected ecosystems takes 10-15 years; 2. Pollution by sewage as a result industrial production, mineral and organic fertilizers as a result of agricultural production, as well as municipal wastewater. Leads to eutrophication of reservoirs - their enrichment with nutrients, leading to excessive development of algae and the death of other ecosystems of reservoirs with stagnant water (lakes and ponds), and sometimes to swamping of the area; 3. Pollution with heavy metals. Violates the vital activity of aquatic organisms and humans; 4. Pollution by acid rain. Leads to acidification of water bodies and the death of ecosystems;
6. Radioactive contamination. Associated with the release of radioactive waste; 7. Thermal pollution. It is caused by the discharge of heated water from thermal power plants and nuclear power plants into water bodies. Leads to the mass development of blue-green algae, the so-called water bloom, a decrease in the amount of oxygen and negatively affects the flora and fauna of water bodies; 8. Mechanical pollution. Increases the content of mechanical impurities; 5. Bacterial and biological contamination. Associated with various pathogenic organisms, fungi and algae. The world economy discharges annually 1500 km3 of cubic wastewater of various degrees of purification, which require 50-100-fold dilution to give them natural properties and further purification in the biosphere. This does not take into account the water of agricultural production. World river flow (37.5 - 45 thousand cubic meters per year) is insufficient for the necessary dilution of wastewater. Thus, as a result of industrial activities, fresh water has ceased to be a renewable resource. Consider in turn the pollution of oceans, seas, rivers and lakes, as well as methods of wastewater treatment.
The biological factors of self-purification of the reservoir include algae, molds and yeast fungi. Representatives of the animal world can also contribute to the self-purification of water bodies from bacteria and viruses. Each mollusk filters more than 30 liters of water per day. The purity of reservoirs is unthinkable without the protection of their vegetation. Only on the basis of a deep knowledge of the ecological state of each reservoir, effective control over the development of various living organisms inhabiting it, it is possible to achieve positive results, ensure transparency and high biological productivity of rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Other factors also adversely affect the processes of self-purification of water bodies. chemical pollution reservoirs with industrial effluents and inhibits natural oxidative processes, kills microorganisms. The same applies to the discharge of thermal wastewater from thermal power plants.
A multi-stage process, sometimes stretching for a long time - self-cleaning from oil. IN natural conditions the complex of physical processes of self-purification of water from oil consists of a number of components: evaporation; settling of lumps, especially those overloaded with sediment and dust; adhesion of lumps suspended in the water column; floating lumps forming a film with inclusions of water and air; reducing the concentration of suspended and dissolved oil due to settling, floating and mixing with clean water. The intensity of these processes depends on the properties of a particular type of oil (density, viscosity, coefficient of thermal expansion), the presence of colloids in water, suspended particles of plankton, etc., air temperature and sunlight.
Protection of the World Ocean In 1983, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Marine Environment came into force. In 1984, the states of the Baltic basin signed the Helsinki Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea. It was the first international agreement at the regional level. As a result of the work carried out, the content of oil products in the open waters of the Baltic Sea has decreased by 20 times compared to 1975. In 1992, the ministers of 12 states and a representative of the European Community signed a new Convention for the Protection of the Baltic Sea Environment.
Protection of the World Ocean In 1972, the London Convention was signed, prohibiting the dumping of radioactive and toxic chemical waste on the bottom of the seas and oceans. Russia also joined this convention. Warships, in accordance with international law, do not need permission to dump. In 1993, the dumping of liquid radioactive waste into the sea was prohibited. In 1982, the III UN Conference on the Law of the Sea adopted the Convention on the Peaceful Use of the World Ocean in the Interests of All Countries and Peoples, which contains about 1,000 international legal norms governing all major issues of the use of ocean resources. Article 58 of the Constitution Russian Federation: Everyone is obliged to preserve nature and the environment, to take care of natural resources.
The main water pollutants:
Lean use Waste-free production Wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment system: Grids Sand-grease separators Primary clarifiers Aerotanks Screen out large debris Retain grease and sand Retain sediment Activated sludge oxidizes organic pollutants
Taking water samples
Settling ponds
Before being supplied to the city, the quality of water undergoes numerous checks, even its smell is evaluated.
Conclusion: Careful use of fresh water, timely and effective wastewater treatment, protection of water resources, reduce their scarcity and increase the possibility of their use.
PLAN:
1. Properties of water2. Distribution and state of water
3. World water reserves
4. Water resources of Russia
5. The role of water in nature
6. Composition of natural water
7. The water cycle in nature
8. The problem of lack of fresh water
9. Management of rational use and protection
water resources
10. Legal basis for the protection of water resources
11. Monitoring of water resources, quality and pollution
water
1. Properties of water
Water - chemical compoundhydrogen and oxygen (H2O) liquid
odorless, tasteless, color (in thick
bluish in layers); density 1
g/cm3 at a temperature of 3.98 °C.
At 0°C water turns into ice, at
100°С - in steam.
Molecular mass water 18.0153.
2. Distribution and state of water
Water is the most commonEarth matter.
It exists in three phases: gaseous
(water vapor), liquid and solid.
Distinguish between atmospheric water,
surface (hydrosphere) and underground. In the atmosphere, water is found in
vapor state in air
shell surrounding the earth
in a drop-liquid state - in the clouds,
mists and in the form of rain,
solid - in the form of snow, hail and
high cloud ice crystals. In the liquid state, water is in
hydrosphere: water of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,
swamps, ponds and reservoirs.
Solid water in the form of ice and snow
located at the poles of the planet, on the mountain
peaks, in winter it covers water bodies on
significant areas.
In the rocks of the lithosphere, water is found in
the form of steam. There is a capillary
gravitational, crystallization water.
3. World water reserves
The total area of oceans and seas is 2.5 timesmore land area, and the volume of water on Earth
is 1.5 109 km3.
Over 95% of the water is salty. World Ocean
covers an area of 361 million km2, which is
70.8% of the Earth's surface.
With an average ocean depth of 3800 m, the total
the volume of water reaches 1370 million km3.
When calculating groundwater resources, it is assumed that
that the Earth's mantle contains 0.5% water, the total
the volume of which is approximately 13-15 billion
km3 of water.
4. Water resources of Russia
Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas,belonging to three oceans.
On the territory of Russia there are more than 2.5 million
large and small rivers, more than 2 million lakes.
The water resources of Russia are made up of static
(secular) and renewable.
The former are considered relatively constant in
for a long time, renewable
water resources are estimated by the volume of annual
river runoff.
River runoff is formed by melting snow and
rainfall, rivers power sources
swamps and underground waters serve.
5. The role of water in nature
We can say that all living things consist of water andorganic substances. Without water, a person, for example, could
live no more than 2 ... 3 days, without nutrients
it can live for several weeks. To provide
normal existence, a person must enter into
body of water is about 2 times more by weight than
nutrients. Loss of more than
10% water can lead to death.
On average, plants and animals contain
more than 50% water, in the body of a jellyfish it is up to 96, in algae
95...99, in spores and seeds from 7 to 15%.
The soil contains at least 20% water, while the body
human water is about 65% (in the body
newborn up to 75, in an adult 60%).
Different parts of the human body contain
unequal amount of water: the vitreous body of the eye
consists of water by 99%, its blood contains 83, in
adipose tissue 29, in the skeleton 22 and even in tooth enamel 0.2%.
6. Composition of natural water
Natural waters are actually water, a chemical combination of oxygen and hydrogen - andsubstances dissolved in it that cause it
chemical composition and properties.
Solid, liquid and gaseous substances dissolve in water
substances that are divided into three groups:
highly soluble (in 100 g of water more than 10
g of substance);
poorly soluble, or slightly soluble (in 100 g of water
dissolves less than 1 g of the substance);
practically insoluble (in 100 g of water it dissolves
less than 0.01 g of substance).
Classification of waters according to the degree of mineralization
Name of watersMineralization, g/kg
Fresh
1,0
brackish
1,0 - 25,0
With sea salt
25,0 - 50,0
Pickles
50.0 and over In the vast majority of cases, saline
the composition of natural waters is determined by cations
Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+ and HCO3-, Cl-, SO42- anions.
These ions are called the main water ions or
macrocomponents; they define
chemical type of water.
The rest of the ions are present in
smaller quantities and are called
microcomponents; they don't define
chemical type of water.
7. The water cycle in nature
Water is constantly in circulation. Her movement is inresult mechanical movement water flows in rivers, currents in the thickness
ocean; as a result of a change in the phase
composition - water evaporates and enters
atmosphere through diffusion and
convective flows.
8. The problem of lack of fresh water
Fresh waters make up negligible (about 2%hydrosphere) share of the total water reserves in nature.
Fresh water available for use is in
rivers, lakes and underground waters. Her share of all
hydrosphere is 0.3%.
Fresh water resources are distributed extremely
unevenly, often the abundance of water does not coincide with
areas of increased economic activity. IN
In this regard, there is a problem of lack of fresh water.
It is exacerbated by the ever-increasing volume of
use. Now water consumption in the national
economy quantitatively exceeds
total use of all other natural
resources, since production in the main industries
industry spends a huge amount
fresh water. The problem of lack of fresh water
occurs for several reasons
the main ones are:
uneven distribution of water
time and space
the growth of its consumption by mankind,
water loss during transportation and
use,
water quality deterioration and pollution. To anthropogenic causes of depletion and pollution of fresh water
include the following: abstraction of surface and ground waters; drainage from
mines, galleries; development of deposits - solid minerals,
oil and gas, industrial water, sulfur smelting; urbanization - residential
building, energy facilities (nuclear power plant, thermal power plant). Highly polluting fresh water
water industry enterprises: chemical, food,
pulp and paper, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy,
oil refinery, building materials, engineering.
Pollution enters water bodies during the construction of pits, tunnels,
metro, hydraulic structures, during drainage works. Pollute
water transport (road, rail, air, water),
water, heat, gas communications, sewerage, power lines. The most important
water pollutant is agricultural production:
agriculture, land reclamation (irrigation, drainage, flooding),
animal husbandry.
The danger of fresh water pollution is associated with the storage of raw materials,
household, industrial and radioactive waste, mineral
fertilizers, pesticides, oil products. Water pollution occurs when
injection of gases and liquids into the bowels, flooding of oil deposits,
disposal of highly toxic waste.
Grandiose projects do not take into account the possible pollution of fresh water
nature transformations: river runoff diversion, land reclamation, field protection
forest belts. Fresh water pollution linked to military exercises
testing and elimination of nuclear, chemical and other types of weapons. There is a change in quantity and quality
fresh water in time. There are seasonal
(intra-annual), perennial and secular
distribution of resources. seasonal
the distribution of freshwater resources is linked to
annual meteorological cycle.
Perennial and secular distribution of resources
fresh waters are associated with global
climate change, endogenous processes,
seismic activity, solar-terrestrial
processes.
Protection of water resources from pollution and depletion
The important principles of water protection are the following:prevention - prevention of negative consequences
possible depletion and pollution of waters;
complexity of water protection measures - specific
water protection measures should be an integral part
general environmental program;
ubiquity and territorial
differentiation;
focus on specific conditions, sources
and causes of pollution;
scientific validity and availability of effective
monitoring the effectiveness of water protection measures. The most important technological measures
water resources are
technology improvement
production, introduction of non-waste
technologies.
Currently applied and
circulation system is being improved
water supply, or re
water use.
The main cleaning methods are mechanical, chemical and biological
In mechanical wastewater treatment, insoluble impurities are removed whenthe help of gratings, sieves, grease traps, oil traps, etc. Heavy particles are deposited in
settling tanks. Mechanical cleaning can free water from undissolved
impurities by 60-95%.
In chemical cleaning, reagents are used that transfer soluble substances
into insoluble, bind them, precipitate and remove from wastewater, which
cleared by another 25-95%.
Biological treatment is carried out in two ways. First in vivo
- on specially prepared filtration (irrigation) fields with equipped
maps, main and distribution channels. Cleaning up going on
naturally by filtering water through the soil. organic filtrate
exposed to bacterial decomposition, exposure to oxygen, sunlight and
later used as a fertilizer. Cascade is also used
settling ponds, in which water self-purification occurs naturally.
The second - an accelerated method of wastewater treatment is carried out in special
biofilters through porous materials from gravel, crushed stone, sand and expanded clay,
the surface of which is covered with a film of microorganisms. Waste water treatment process
on biofilters occurs more intensively than on filtration fields.
9. Regulation of rational use and protection of water resources
Water protection is regulated by the legislation of the RussianSubsoil Federation (groundwater is both
minerals and water bodies) and
water legislation, as well as
government and departmental regulations
(instructions, regulations, basic and state
standards).
Water legislation is represented by the Water Code
Russian Federation (November 1995) and adopted in
accordance with it federal laws and other
normative legal acts as well as laws and
normative legal acts of its subjects,
governing water relations.
The water legislation of the Russian Federation regulates relations in the field of use and protection of water bodies in order to:
ensuring the rights of citizens to clean water andfavorable environment;
maintaining optimal conditions for water use;
maintaining the quality of surface and ground waters in
condition that meets sanitary and environmental
requirements;
protection of water bodies from pollution, clogging and
exhaustion;
prevention or elimination of harmful effects
waters, as well as the conservation of biological diversity
aquatic ecosystems. Requirements for the quality of drinking water are contained in
approved standards for maximum permissible
concentrations (MPC) of substances in water, quality standards
water, set out in GOSTs, Technical conditions,
requirements.
These include: GOST 2874-82 “Drinking water.
Hygienic requirements and quality control”,
« Sanitary regulations and norms for the protection of surface waters
from pollution” (SanPiN 4630-88).
Sanitary rules and regulations are set out in the "Requirements for
water quality of non-centralized water supply.
Sanitary protection of springs” (Sanitary rules and
standards for drinking water, SanPiN 2.1.4.544-96); "Drinking
water. Hygienic requirements for water quality
centralized drinking water supply systems.
Quality control” (SanPiN 2.1.4.559-96).
10. Legal basis for the protection of water resources
For 1999, the main legislative andregulations that
regulate the protection of water resources
are: the Law of the Russian Federation "On
subsoil”, Law of the Russian Federation “On
environmental protection” and
Water Code of the Russian Federation. The global community in the field of environmental protection
environment is guided by the Program of Action for
implementation of Agenda 21 adopted at
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in
Rio de Janeiro (1992).
Russia accepts Active participation in the United Nations Program for
environment (UNEP), provides commitments
under international treaties (conventions and
agreements): on wetlands with
international importance; for the protection and use
transboundary watercourses and international lakes; By
protection of the marine environment of the Baltic Sea area; By
protecting the Black Sea from pollution; to prevent
pollution of the sea by dumping waste and other materials. In Russia, the project "Integrated management
environment of the Volga-Caspian region”,
projects of federal target
programs: “Creation of the Unified State System
environmental monitoring”, “Integrated management
coastal zones of the Black and Azov Seas...”,
"Providing the population of Russia with drinking water",
"Improvement of the environment and the population
Kemerovo region", "Revival of the Volga", "World
ocean”, “Ecological safety of the Urals”, “Creation and
development of the EGSEM (Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 24
November 1993 No. 1229).
11. Monitoring of water resources, water quality and pollution
Water resources monitoring is understood assystem of continuous (current) and integrated
monitoring the state of water resources,
control and accounting of quantitative and qualitative
characteristics over time
interdependent impact and change
consumer properties, as well as the system
forecast of conservation and development in different
modes of use. Elements of this system
have long existed in ministries and departments
natural resource complex.
QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CHECKING
1. Tell us how water is distributed on Earth. What does it matter?2. How does the water cycle occur on the planet and what effect does it have
on natural processes?
3. What is the composition of fresh water?
4. What are the reasons for the lack of fresh water in different parts of the Earth?
5. Which industries use the most water?
6. Which water pollutants are the most dangerous and why?
7. How can you determine the level of pollution of water bodies?
8. What does “self-purification of water bodies” mean?
9. What are the wastewater treatment methods?
10. What is the importance of groundwater? How are they used and in what
cases forced to deal with them?
11. What is the reason for the depletion of groundwater?
12. How is the pollution of the waters of the oceans and inland seas? Water resources and
their problems
rational
{
use Water resources -
water (surface and underground)
which a person uses in everyday life, in
industry, agriculture.
Placement of water resources
North-west of the Russian Plain - lakeedge;
Southeast of the Russian Plain,
Central Russian Upland, Ural -
are experiencing a shortage of water.
Siberia is rich in water resources (people
uses mainly river water).
Placement of water
resources
Fresh water reserves, according to the latest data, amount to 35 million km3, i.e. only 2% of the total reserves, and taking into account some unavailable for use
The composition of the hydrosphereWater volume, thousand km3
Share of each
total volume, %
World Ocean
1 370 323
93,96
The groundwater
60000
4,12
Including zones of active water exchange
4000
0,65
Glaciers
24000
1,65
lakes
280
0,019
soil moisture
83
0,006
Vapors of the atmosphere
14
0,001
river waters
12
0,001
parts
Fresh water reserves, according to the latest data, amount to 35 million km 3,
those. only 2% of the total reserves, and taking into account the inaccessible
use of some part of fresh waters conserved in
the form of ice in polar glaciers, - 0.3 volume of the hydrosphere
V
For the renewal of fresh water resources, the water cycle, which links together all parts of the hydrosphere, is of decisive importance. Into the circle
Academician A.E. Fersman called fresh water the most important mineral in the world.Earth..
Distribution of fresh water resources
fresh water source
km3
Volume of fresh water, thous.
Share of each source in
total volume
Glaciers
24000
85
The groundwater
4000
14
Lakes and reservoirs
155
0,6
soil moisture
83
0,3
Vapors of the atmosphere
14
0,05
river waters
12
0,0004
For the renewal of fresh water resources, the decisive importance
has a water cycle that links together all parts of the hydrosphere. IN
Water cadastre
–a summary of information about the water resources of Russia. He
summarizes the materials of hydrological
observations and research.
Water cadastre
Inventory data
For every inhabitant of the European part of Russia, there are8500 m3 of water per year.
For one inhabitant of Siberia - 100,000 m3 per year.
In the southern regions of Russia, there is a shortage of water.
It is very sharp in the Urals water problem, as the rivers
The Urals are shallow. Water use
1. Fisheries
2. Hydropower
3. River transport
4. Bathing in the river
5. Fishing on the shore
with a fishing rod.
Water consumption
Water use
Water users pollute
water, degrade its quality
1. Industry
2. Agriculture
3. Communal
economy
As a result of water consumption
become smaller, i.e. decreases
its quantity, the quality of water changes
because of stocks.
Water protection.
Build sewage treatment plants, and manyto reconstruct the sewage treatment plant.
Improve production technology
at enterprises.
Saving water consumption.
Introduction of the revolving system
water supply in enterprises.
Water protection.
Their uses
For practical purposes, man consumes large reserves of water resources. This is the use of water as:
drinkingtechnological
transport resource
energy resource Features of water resources:
Mostly fresh water is used;
Multipurpose use;
Used locally;
Uneven placement;
Updated as a result of the global
circulation.
Water consumption
Currently more than4 thousand km3 per year.
Structure of water consumption:
APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF MODERN VOLUMES OF WATER CONSUMPTION BY MOISTURE-INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF MODERNVOLUME OF WATER CONSUMPTION BY MOISTURE-INTENSIVE
FOR INDUSTRIES OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
TECHNOLOGICAL
VOLUME, W
FRESH
WATER, WCB
REVERSE
WATER, WOB
DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND UTILITIES; 19.5 km3; 17.9 km3; 1.6 km3
AGRICULTURE;
INDUSTRY;
13.3 km3; 12.6 km3; 0.8 km3
166 km3; 39.7 km3; 127 km3 1.
Implementation of a water saving policy based on:
reducing the water intensity of production
Reduction of water losses (due to closed circulation
water supply) 2. Involvement of additional fresh water resources due to:
increase in usage
groundwater;
desalination of sea water;
collection of melt and rainwater into underground
vaults;
regulation of river flow through
construction of reservoirs;
transfer of river runoff. 3. Construction of treatment facilities using
modern cleaning systems: mechanical, chemical,
.
biological
State of water resources
One of the most important questionswater management justification of projects
is the analysis of the transformation of natural
resources to available. Ratio
natural water resources and disposable
depends on the hydrological regime
(natural variability of annual runoff,
intra-annual distribution); volume and mode
requirements and its compliance with the hydrological
regime; share of the runoff required to be conserved
in the interests of ecology, sanitary release, etc. With
one side and adjustable
runoff by reservoirs and its territorial
redistribution. Obviously
so that
disposable
resources
defined as
natural
natural
reasons, and
presence
financial
funds. Among the measures to increase and
savings on available resources
first of all, their rational
use that provides
water saving technologies
total negotiable and reusable
use of the water supply system;
fight against unproductive losses
water; reduction of specific norms
water consumption; implementation
progressive irrigation methods;
saving resources through alternative
activities, such as the creation of a system
low-pressure waterworks for
ensure navigation, removing
the need for high navigational
releases. To the most water-consuming industries
include: energy, mining, metallurgical and
chemical. For example, for smelting* 1 ton of cast iron and processing
about 300 m3 of water are consumed in steel and rolled products, for
production of 1 ton of aluminum - 1500, copper - 500, paper - 900,
synthetic rubber - 2100-3500, artificial fiber -
4000 m3.
Consumes even more water Agriculture. At present
time, water consumption in irrigated agriculture is estimated
specialists in 1400 kmE/year. So for production
plant products are consumed about 6 times more
water than for all other water uses combined.
Reducing water consumption
Planning activities forwater supply requires
reliable forecast
prospective water consumption.
Mathematical extrapolation
processed data
lookback period is not very
reliable. Reason for the absence
reliable information about
actual water consumption. Correct forecasting is possible
only on the basis of a survey of typical
objects of different sectors of the economy in
different natural and economic zones.
At the same time, reliability is assessed
used measuring equipment,
measurement technology and methods
processing.
The forecast of water consumption should
take into account changes in the range
products, dynamics of scientific and technical
progress, the desire to reduce
material and labor resources, complete
or partial elimination of the consequences
negative impact on the environment
Wednesday.
Environmental aspects
The main causes of quality exhaustionwater resources - their pollution and clogging.
Water pollution is the saturation of water with harmful
substances in such quantities or combinations,
in which the quality of water and water
the object is recognized as contaminated in accordance with
accepted standards.
In contrast to the pollution under the clogging of water
understand the entry of strangers into the reservoir, not
water-soluble objects that do not change
water quality, but affecting the quality
the state of the riverbeds.
The main sources of pollution are sewage
oil, petrochemical, chemical,
coal, pulp and paper and
metallurgical industry.
Agricultural intensification
production associated with the introduction of large doses
mineral fertilizers, application
plant protection chemicals,
organization of livestock complexes,
also leads to a significant increase
pollution of reservoirs and streams. Every year all over the world in the rivers
about 160 km3 is discharged
industrial waste water.
It is assumed that by the year 2000
sewage will reach 2400 km3.
Main water pollutants
are oil and petroleum products. By
according to experts, receipts
oil in the oceans make up
about 25-30 million tons/year. Water pollution
oil occurs as a result
its natural outlets to
surface in the areas of occurrence, with
extraction, transportation,
processing and subsequent
use. The flow of oil into
World ocean from areas of natural
occurrence of oil reservoirs is
about 0.5 million tons/year. Regional environmental and economic problems of Russia should
be decided not only at the level of international environmental
activities. Significant contribution to solving the problem
called upon to take action for the rational implementation
economic activities that are covered in the course
economic geography and regionalism in the aspect of the problem
restructuring of the economy of regions with high
concentration of productive forces and a large anthropogenic
load.
Along with the process of formation of organic matter in
biosphere, the process of consumption and decomposition of its
heterotrophic organisms on the original mineral
compounds (CO2, HiO, etc.). Heterotrophs use for their
food prepared organic matter. These include
humans, all animals, some plants and microorganisms
(most bacteria, etc.).
Based on these processes, with the participation of all inhabitants
the biosphere of organisms is carried out by the cycle of organic
substance, called small, or biological,
the circulation of substances and the flow of energy, which forms the basis
biosphere.
There is also a large, or geological, circulation,
called solar energy and the brightest
manifested in the water and atmospheric cycles. Geological
circulation is the exchange of substances between the world
ocean and land. Both of these cycles are interconnected
yourself.
The intensity of the biological cycle depends on
natural conditions and is manifested through the emerging
(in relation to these conditions) ecosystems. Ecosystem (from
Greek ecos - dwelling, residence and systema - whole,
composed of parts) is a single natural complex,
formed by living organisms and their environment
(atmosphere, soil, reservoir, etc.), in which living and inert
(inorganic) components are interconnected by exchange
substances and energy. Often synonymous with ecosystem
use the term "biogeocenosis". Practically in all
economically developed
areas observed
depression
aquatic ecosystems and
reducing them
biological
productivity. IN
to a large extent it
associated with large
hydrotechnical
construction and sharp
increasing volumes
Wastewater.
From the materials of the report “Ecological state and monitoring of water bodies; Protection of Fresh Waters from Pollution and Depletion” at the VI International
From the materials of the report " Ecological stateand monitoring of water bodies; fresh water conservation
from pollution and depletion"
at the VI International Hydrological Congress
Koskin S.S., Nikanorov A.M., Moiseenko T.I., Shelutko V.A. (Water Agency)
Percentage distribution of wastewater discharged to surface sources
Methodology for rational and integrated use and protection of water resources
The main task of a rational and complexwater use is the formation of a complex
natural-technogenic system.
A feature of such artificial systems
is a large number of factors, parameters and
elements of the system, characterized by close
relationship. Optimal (or close to
optimal) control of such a system
possible only as a result of deep
study of all relationships in the process of work
systems. The apparatus for solving such problems is
system analysis (a set of methodological
funds used to prepare and
substantiation of decisions on the whole complex
political, military, social,
economic, environmental and scientific
character).
When the choice of factors requires complex analysis
information of various physical nature in
arsenal of system analysis tools
mathematical models describing the process
functioning of the system, and methods
adoption of reasonable, so-called. "volitional decisions".
Mathematical models describing
both natural processes and regime
their interactions with water
complexes is a difficult task.
Application of system analysis in this case
is to carry out water management
calculations, one of the main components
which is the water balance.
