1.1 Phenomenology of deviant behavior
The formulation of the problem of deviation as a relatively independent one began to take shape not within the framework of psychology, but in social and criminological works, of which the works of such foreign and domestic authors as S.A. Belicheva, B.S. Bratus, M. Weber, L.S. Vygotsky, E. Durkheim, V.P. Kashchenko, Yu.A. Kleiberg, A. Cohen, D.I. Feldstein, E. Fromm, S.T. Shatsky, and others.
At the origins of the study of deviant behavior was E. Durkheim, who introduced the concept of anomie, by anomie he understood “a state of destruction or weakening of the normative system of society, which is caused by abrupt changes, jumps”. It turns out that the author spoke about the social disorganization of society. Further developments of foreign researchers in the field of deviant behavior relied on the works of E. Durkheim, for example, R.K. Merton, I. Hoffman.
In Russia, the psychology of deviant behavior does not have a solid theoretical and empirical experience, in contrast to the state of the problem abroad. However, neither domestic nor foreign authors have a common point of view on the term "deviant behavior". Many researchers use the terms "deviant behavior", "delinquent", "addictive", "associative", "maladapted", "aggressive", "accentuated", "conflict" as synonyms, which further confuses the definition of this concept.
Some scientists say that we should be talking about any deviations from social norms approved by society, and B.A. adheres to this point of view. Urvantsev, emphasizing the severity of the consequences for a person of the disapproval of society - misunderstanding, rejection, isolation, treatment. Others pay attention exclusively to the legal side of the problem: they propose to include in this concept only a violation of legal norms or various types of social pathology (murder, drug addiction, alcohol ...) Among this group of scientists is A. Cohen. There is an opinion that social creativity should be included in the concept of deviation of behavior.
But not only the definition of the concept is of interest. Scientists are trying to explain the origins of deviations in behavior. Such explanations can be divided into groups
1) types of behavior are determined by the biological make-up of people (C. Lomborzo);
2) deviant behavior is associated with structural features of the body (E. Krechmer, H. Sheldon);
3) deviations are determined by "pathologies", "dementia" (Z. Freud);
4) conflict between cultural norms (Miller).
At the same time, we consider it necessary to note, following Yu.A. Kleiberg that deviant behavior occurs in a person in the process of communicating with other people, that is, we “learn” deviant behavior from society.
The integration of the above definitions and prerequisites for the formation of deviant behavior occurs in the book by E.V. Zmanovskaya "Deviantology", where the author highlights the criteria for the norm of behavior. The criteria show the interdisciplinary and debatable nature of deviant behavior, since they take into account the diversity of points of consideration for this concept.
The statistical criterion notes that "everything that occurs frequently is normal, that is, at least in 50% of cases."
The psychopathic criterion links deviant behavior with character accentuations, however, it is noted that the behavior of many people with an accentuated character is not deviant. according to K. Leonhard, in developed countries, about 50% of the population belong to accentuated personalities. The social-normative criterion notes the decisive importance of social norms in the problem of deviant behavior. As a result of violation of the norms of behavior, manifestations of social maladjustment of the personality are possible, in which there are discrepancies between the real social status of a person and his individual awareness.
And, finally, the individual psychological criterion draws attention to the self-realization of the personal potential of each person, unique, and therefore something different from the given standards.
Let's try to derive a definition of deviant behavior for this work, including in it the most important, in our opinion, characteristics, based on the points of view of such scientists as G.I. Kolesnikova, E.A. Bayer, Yu.A. Kleiberg and E.V. Zmanovskaya.
Deviant behavior is a person's behavior that is stable in a given period of time, violating social norms and causing damage to others and to the person himself, arising in the process of communication.
Thus, we single out the following defining characteristics of deviant behavior:
1) violation of generally accepted social norms;
2) repeatability, stability deviations in human behavior;
3) social conditionality of the occurrence of deviant behavior;
4) the possibility of identifying early signs of deviant behavior, since it does not arise "out of nowhere";
5) causing damage to the person's environment and the person himself;
6) the potential possibility of correcting manifestations of deviance.
Based on the identified characteristics, we can say that it is theoretically possible to correct deviant behavior, as well as its prevention. The difficulty lies in identifying early signs of deviation. Their identification should be dealt with in childhood, and therefore it is necessary to characterize behavioral development at primary school age.
The leading activity of a child in primary school age, according to the age periodization of D.B. Elkonin, is the doctrine. Consequently, the intellectual development of children at this age reaches its peak. Nemov R.S. says that a significant role in this process is played by communication with others - teachers and schoolchildren - the appearance of which expands the scope and content of communication. On the one hand, the new environment helps the child to advance significantly in his development, but on the other hand, it confronts the maturing person with communication problems, which, as a rule, are inevitable due to the lack of the child's social experience. hence the external manifestations of the child's disadaptation to the new environment - deviant behavior. A significant part of elementary school students is characterized by “inability to fully self-regulate” (RS Nemov), which is expressed in insufficient controllability of mental processes and feelings. From this we can conclude that the causes of deviations in the behavior of a younger student are due not only to his psychological discomfort, but also to the peculiarities of his physiology: this refers to the unformedness of the child's body. Types of deviations junior schoolchildren will be disclosed in detail in the paragraph "Early signs of deviant behavior", since deviant behavior as such at this age is not formed, but "accumulates the potential" for development.
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(Ch. Lombroso, W. Pierce, H. Eysenck, W. Scott, G. Allport, E. Durkheim - reports).
The problem of deviant behavior quite widely represented Vscientific literature, has a long history. Thus, already in the 19th century, a new approach to solving the indicated problem was emerging, the main essence of which was the desire to uncover the causes of deviant behavior, identify its mechanisms and factors that provoke behavioral relations from accepted norms, and, on their basis, develop programs of measures to prevent various types of deviant behavior. .
Numerous concepts of deviant behavior are known, ranging from biogenetic to cultural-historical.
The authors of sociological concepts (D. Watson and others) believe that there is nothing innate in human behavior, and each of his actions, deeds is only a product of external stimulation. From here, by manipulating external stimuli, it is possible to "make" a person of any warehouse.
IN Lately there is a convergence of "biosocial" and "socio-biological" theories of deviant behavior. In this regard, the concepts of the neo-Lombrosians are indicative, where it is no longer about “innateness” (C. Lambroso), but about the “predisposition” of a person to criminal behavior (T. Gibbens, X. Jones, V. Sauer, L. Steiner, etc. ).
A popular theory of deviant behavior is the theory of "social anomaly" by R. Merton. Pointing to the close connection of deviant behavior with social structures, R. Merton tries to trace how the latter exerts a certain pressure on members of society, pushing them onto the path of deviations from generally accepted rules. As a result, five types of deviant behavior are identified that arise as a way of adapting individuals to the conditions of their immediate environment: - submission, innovation (renewal), ritualism, retreatism (avoidance of life - vagabonds, outcasts, chronic alcoholics, drug addicts), rebellion.
The theory of multiple factors is very common in a number of countries, according to which there is no single factor leading to deviant behavior, but there are many specific factors, conditions and conditions that cause deviant behavior and contribute to its development.
In Russian psychology (M.A. Alemaskin, L.N. Zyubin, K.E. Igoshev, A.N. Leontiev, A.E. Lichko, D.I. Feldshtein, etc.) it is convincingly shown that deviant behavior is not is determined by “inborn mechanisms”, due to socio-psychological reasons, including the nature of the microenvironment, group relationships, and educational deficiencies. It is under their influence that such types of deviant behavior as aggression, anomie, and frustration arise and develop. Recently, the dominant factor in deviant behavior is the systemic crisis of the state, economy, society and personality.
Deviant behavior from the Latin deviatio - deviation. Deviant (deviant) behavior - behavior that is contrary to legal or moral norms accepted in society. Deviance is a manifestation of impaired social regulation of behavior, defectiveness of mental self-regulation - such a definition of deviant behavior is given by M.I. Anikeeev and O.L. Kochetkov in the Concise Encyclopedic Dictionary.
A.V. Petrovsky and M.G. Yaroshevsky give the following definition of deviant behavior: “Deviant behavior is a system of actions or individual actions that contradict legal or moral norms accepted in society. In the origin of deviant behavior, defects in the legal and moral consciousness, the content of the individual's needs, character traits, and the emotional-volitional sphere play a particularly important role. The first manifestations of deviant behavior are sometimes observed in childhood and adolescence and are explained by the relatively low level of intellectual development, the incompleteness of the process of personality formation, the negative influence of the family and the immediate environment.
The searches of scientists (K.A. Abulkhanov, N.V. Vasina, L.G. Lapteva, V.A. Slastenin) in this area indicate that behavior that deviates from established norms and standards can be defined as individual actions or their combination that are in conflict with legal, moral and social norms accepted in society. In addition, behavior that deviates from the norms of morality accepted in society at a given level of social and cultural development will also be deviant. Varieties of such immoral behavior can be considered alcoholism, drug addiction, substance abuse. The most pronounced manifestation of deviant behavior is delinquent (illegal) behavior. A.A. Bodalev and A.N. Sukhov define deviant behavior as behavior (a system of actions, or individual actions) that does not correspond to moral or legal norms and requirements of society.
Deviant behavior must be distinguished from abnormal behavior, the characteristics of which are associated with brain pathology. Deviant behavior is socially determined. In its origin, defects in personal development play an important role, combined with shortcomings, mistakes in education and the negative influence of an unfavorable situation in the immediate environment of a person - the family, the reference group. A.A. Bodalev and A.N. Sukhov, when considering deviant behavior, clearly divide it into:
1) the behavior is actually deviant, that is, deviating from the norms accepted in society;
2) delinquent behavior (psychological tendency to delinquency) - criminal, criminal.
It should be noted that deviant behavior that comes into conflict with patterns and stereotypes established in society can sometimes be combined with a relatively good knowledge of moral standards, which indicates the need for purposeful formation of moral habits. This provision is especially relevant for children, whose deviant behavior often serves as a means of self-affirmation, an expression of protest against the real or apparent injustice of adults.
The child's behavior, which deviates from socially approved norms, is explained by the fact that, as social maturity increases, the personality becomes to a certain extent more and more independent of external influences. Subjective, personal relationships become a mediating link between the objective impact of the environment and human actions.
A special place among the various theories and concepts of deviant behavior is occupied by studies of psychoanalytic orientation, the founder of which is 3. Freud. Representatives of a psychoanalytic orientation with deviant behavior, including neuropsychic deviation, social deviation, note feelings of increased anxiety, aggressiveness, and a desire for destructive actions.
Bettelheim, an Austrian psychotherapist, founder of a clinic in the USA for the treatment and rehabilitation of children with mental trauma resulting from a difficult home environment or improper upbringing, believes that the first manifestations of deviant behavior are observed in childhood and adolescence and are explained by a relatively low level of intellectual development , the incompleteness of the process of personality formation, the negative influence of the family and the immediate environment, the dependence of adolescents on the requirements of the group and the value orientations adopted in it. However, deviant behavior can be combined with a fairly good knowledge of moral standards, which indicates the need for the formation of moral habits at a relatively early age.
V.V. Koval in his work "Pathological forms of deviant behavior in children and adolescents" gives the following definition of deviant behavior. Deviant, that is, behavior that deviates from the socio-psychological and moral norms accepted in a given society. It is more often observed in children and adolescents due to social immaturity and the physiological characteristics of a deforming organism. Deviant behavior has two forms: pathological and non-pathological. V.V. Koval distinguishes four types of deviant behavior: auto-aggressive, anti-disciplinary, anti-social anti-aggressive (self-destructive, since it is accompanied by the consumption of harmful substances).
The most common combination of two types of deviant behavior - antidisciplinary and delinquent, often turning into the opposite. In these cases, it can be difficult to differentiate between pathological and non-pathological forms, socio-pedagogical neglect and mental disorders. These causes can be interrelated and interdependent, but for the prevention and correction of behavioral disorders, it is important to determine in each specific case what is primary.
S.A. Belicheva in her work "Fundamentals of Preventive Psychology" considers deviant behavior as a result of a violation of the process of human socialization.
M. Rutter dealt with this problem. In his book "Help for Troubled Children", he summarized the unique experience of an interdisciplinary laboratory for the study of anomalies in the mental development of children, where psychologists, doctors, teachers work and which he himself directed for a number of years.
M. Rutter, Jules Bergerie and co-authors undertook a comparative study of ten-year-old children living on the Isle of Wight and children living in one of the poorest urban areas of London. A detailed study of a large number of individual families made it possible to determine the factors associated with mental disorders in children. These factors were present in both comparative samples and formed four main groups:
1) disagreement between parents and the absence of clear disciplinary requirements in the family;
2) mental disorders, alcoholism, drug addiction and criminal behavior of parents;
3) low social status of the family and poor living conditions;
4) unfavorable features of the school environment.
Thus, the high prevalence of mental disorders among ten-year-old children turned out to be due to the relatively high percentage of dysfunctional, broken and large families, the presence of cramped housing conditions, as well as alcoholism and drug addiction of parents.
Of the foreign authors, this problem was dealt with by D. West. The object of his research was children from families that are characterized by criminal or abnormal behavior of their parents. Children may adopt socially frowned upon behaviors by imitating the behavior of their parents. In addition, antisocial parents often use inconsistent and arbitrary methods of punishment. And this is another well-known factor that leads to the occurrence of violations of the behavior of children.
S.L. Rubinstein proposed a concept, the essence of which is that the personality is formed under the influence of those social relations, the social environment in which the development of the child takes place, that is, under the influence of education in the broadest sense of the word, the child’s own activity organized by adults. In his book "Principles and Ways of the Development of the Psyche", he explains his theory, according to which all external influences act on a person indirectly, through internal conditions. Is not it. Bozhovich, on the basis of psychological research, shows how, at different stages of personality formation, "adults introduce the child into the world of social reality." The complex hierarchy of needs of a normally developing child is presented in the studies reflected in the book Personality and Its Formation. The author says that the personality, being formed under the influence of the surrounding reality, becomes more and more independent of the direct influence of the momentary situation.
A significant influence on the development of personality is exerted by the formation of its orientation. The concept of personality orientation was introduced by S.L. Rubinstein. This concept is deciphered as a characteristic of the main interests, needs, inclinations, aspirations of a person. The formation of positive interests and values, that is, the positive orientation of the child's personality, forms the basis of his development, noted in the works of S.L. Rubinstein, B.V. Zeigarnik, A.N. Leontieva. Research L.I. Bozhovich, S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Slavina and others made it possible to establish, in particular, that the development of a person's motivational sphere (his needs, desires, aspirations, intentions) is a central link in the problem of personality formation.
The main concept is L.S. Vygotsky, in which he identifies primary and secondary symptoms in understanding the nature of deviations in behavior. Primary symptoms are directly related to biological factors, elementary mental functions and cannot be eliminated. Secondary ones are a complication arising in the process of deviant social development, i.e. they are indirectly connected with the primary ones and are the most amenable to psychological and pedagogical influence. Secondary defects, according to L.S. Vygotsky, are the main object in the psychological study of the problem of correcting deviations in development and behavior.
So, the essence of deviant behavior lies in all kinds of deviations of behavior from social and moral norms accepted in society. For us, the important conclusion that the authors come to is that the formation of a child's personal qualities occurs in ontogeny, and a very important role in upbringing belongs to the environment in which he develops. In the future, it is important to find out what are the features of the deviant behavior of children from the orphanage, what are the factors influencing its formation.
The main conceptual approaches to understanding deviant behavior:
*Nosocentric(psychiatric). Determines the norm - the absence of a disease, symptom and deviation - a behavioral deviation that has not reached pathological severity.
* Normocentric. Highlights the optimal zone where there is no violation yet. (Deviations from some average statistical norm are regarded as variants of the norm, manifestations of individual character traits, as a unique result of the interaction of uniqueness and specific features of the situation.)
*Social. Considers behavior from the point of view of safety for society and people around.
*Psychological. Considers deviant behavior in connection with intrapersonal conflict, destruction and self-destruction of the personality. The deviant seeks to destroy his own self-worth, to deprive himself of his uniqueness, not to allow himself to realize the inclinations he has. The norm is the establishment of spiritual contacts with others, the choice of legal means to achieve personal goals, self-actualization, self-development.
*Ethnocultural. Deviant behavior is considered behavior that is not consistent with the norms accepted in the microsociety. Or a person shows behavioral rigidity and is not able to adapt to new ethno-cultural conditions.
* Age approach. Considers deviations from the point of view of age characteristics and norms. These can be either quantitative lags (retardation) or advances (acceleration) of age-related behavioral norms, or their qualitative inversions.
*Professional approach. It is based on the idea of the existence of professional and corporate styles of behavior and traditions.
*Gender approach. Assesses behavior in terms of the existence of gender-role norms. Deviant behavior can be considered hyper-role behavior and inversion of gender style patterns.
*Phenomenological approach takes into account all deviations from the norm .
Thus, deviant (lat. Deviatio - evasion) behavior is understood as:
* an act, a person's actions that do not correspond to the officially established or actually established norms in a given society (standards, templates);
* a social phenomenon expressed in mass forms of human activity,
do not correspond to the officially established or actually established norms (standards, templates) in a given society.
In the first sense, deviant behavior is predominantly the subject of psychology, pedagogy, and psychiatry. In the second meaning - the subject of sociology and social psychology. Of course, such a disciplinary distinction is relative.
However, if you understand the patterns of communication correctly, you can do without the involvement of social arbitrators to find ways to cooperate. Indeed, for psychological health, all this can have adverse consequences: accommodation or assimilation is evidence of maladaptive tendencies, when a person is not capable of self-regulation. The absence of the necessary functions for this can lead a person to distress and a borderline state, i.e. neurosis.
Educational institutions and institutes of higher professional education, in particular, are repeaters of culture as a factor in maintaining a balance between a person and the environment, preserving his health, of which psychological health is a part. In connection with this and psychological help in many respects should consist in the formation of a psychological culture of the individual, protecting the psychological health of a person from destructive tendencies.
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E.E. Reayukin*, O. A. Morozova**
Basic concepts of deviant behavior in foreign sources
The article discusses the main approaches and theories of deviant behavior developed by foreign scientists. Within the framework of the work, the different content of the concept of deviant behavior is clarified depending on the areas of scientific research, an analysis is given of the formation and development of deviation in society.
Key words: deviance, deviant, anomie, norm.
E.E. Radiukin*, O.A. Morozova**. Basic concepts of deviant behavior in the foreign sources.
The article is devoted to the main approaches and theories of deviant behavior, which were carried out by foreign scientists. Different concept contents of "deviant activity" depending on the approaches of scientific research schools an specified. The analysis of the formation and development of deviations in society is given.
Keywords: deviant activities, deviant, anomie, rule of conduct.
According to foreign researchers, the main criteria for determining deviant behavior are ambiguous and often cause controversy. “It is difficult to determine exactly what types of behavior should be considered deviant in our society,” emphasizes Neil Smelser, professor at the University of California at Berkeley, vice president of the International Sociological Association, one of the patriarchs of modern American sociology.
* Radyukin, Evgeny Evgenievich. Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Humanitarian Disciplines. Military engineering and technical institute. Address: Russia, St. Petersburg, st. Zakharyevskaya, 22. Tel. 8 921-331-40-96. Email: [email protected]
** Morozova, Olga Alexandrovna. Lecturer at the Department of Humanitarian Disciplines. Military engineering and technical institute. Address: Russia, St. Petersburg, st. Zakharyevskaya, 22. Tel.: 578-81-17. Email: [email protected]
* Radiukin, Eugene Evgenevich. Candidate of psychological sciences, the docent of the department of humanitarian disciplines. Military technical-engineering institute. Address: Russia, Saint Petersburg, ul. Zakharevskaya, 22.
** Morozova, Olga Alexandrovna. Instructor of the department of humanitarian disciplines of military technical-engineering institute. Military technical-engineering institute. Address: Russia, Saint Petersburg, ul. Zakharevskaya, 22. The article was received by the editors on April 12, 2010.
The ambiguity of conceptual approaches is due to a number of factors, among which the following are usually distinguished: the relative (relative) nature of the deviation; forecast uncertainty and controversy over behavioral norms. The researchers believe: “... since deviant behavior has become associated with many negative manifestations (it is the personification of “evil” in the religious worldview, a symptom of a “disease” from the point of view of medicine, in particular, psychiatry, and “illegal” in accordance with legal norms )", there is a tendency to consider it "abnormal"" and define deviation "... as a deviation from the group norm, which entails isolation, treatment, imprisonment or other punishment of the offender" . Thus, the deviance of an individual in foreign studies is determined by the compliance or non-compliance of actions with social expectations and norms.
The classic definition of deviant behavior is given by Neil Smelser: "... deviation is behavior that is seen as a deviation from group norms and leads to isolation, treatment, correction or punishment of the offender". Foreign researchers distinguish the following main components of deviation: “. a person who is characterized by a certain behavior; expectation, or norm, which is a criterion for evaluating deviant behavior, and some other person, group or organization that responds to behavior. Thus, foreign scientists have identified the following objects of study: a deviant as an individual with certain characteristics, a norm as a set of rules of behavior, expectations and standards that regulate interaction between people, as well as groups and public institutions that regulate behavior and perform its prevention and correction.
European and American researchers have developed in late XIX and during the 20th century several theories of deviant behavior. Among them are the following. Biological approach, the authors of which are Cesare Lombroso (Lombroso, C.), William X. Sheldon (Sheldon, WH.), G. Witkin (Witkin, H.A.) and others. Psychological approach, the founder of which is considered Sigmund Freud (Freud, S.). A certain contribution to the development of this approach was made by K. Schuessler (Schuessler, K.) and D. Cressy (Cressey, D.R.). The sociological approach, among the adherents of which stand out Emile Durkheim (Dürkheim, E.), R. Merton (Merton, R.K.), T. Sellin (Selli, T.), W. Miller (Miller, W), Edwin Sutherland (Sutherland, E.H. ), R. Claward (Cloward, R.A.), L. Oulin (Ohlin, L.E.), Travis Hirschi (Hirschi, T.), Howard S. Becker, Austin Turk (Turk, A.) and others. Representatives of each of the approaches offered their explanations for the causes of deviant behavior.
The main idea of the biological approach was the conclusion that some anthropometric, biological, genetic and other physical characteristics are the cause of behavioral deviation. One of the founders of the biological approach is the Italian physician Cesare Lombroso, who at the end of the 19th century. revealed links between criminal behavior and the biological makeup of the individual. He believed that the biological warehouse of the criminal type determines criminogenic behavior. Another follower of the biological approach, known American psychologist and physician William X. Sheldon (1940) identified endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic features of the body structure of an individual, which, in his opinion, indicate the potential for characteristic personality traits that determine human behavior, incl. and deviant. Modern supporters of the biological approach use the latest achievements of science and conduct their research at the genetic level. For example, based on the analysis of crime in Denmark, G. Witkin (1976), together with other researchers, found that among men with the composition of XYY chromosomes, a higher level of criminogenic behavior was observed than among those who were in the control group and did not have such a set of chromosomes.
The essence of the psychological approach lies in the following postulate: deviation is caused and determined by intrapersonal conflicts, unconscious mental processes that develop during the complex mutual influence of the conscious and unconscious in the psyche of the individual, as well as certain psychological traits and qualities inherent in potential deviants. The psychological approach in foreign studies of deviant behavior is closely connected, first of all, with the name of the outstanding Austrian psychologist, psychiatrist and neurologist Sigmund Freud (1916). The main ideas of psychoanalysis in relation to the problem of deviation are as follows. The conscious as part of the psyche influences public behavior individual, but not absolutely. The individual's behavior is also determined by another part of the psyche - the unconscious, i.e. special mental forces that lie outside of consciousness, but control human behavior. Deviant behavior can be regulated by unconscious mental processes as special defense mechanisms. The functioning of primary (dissociation, introjection, denial, and others) and secondary (repression, suppression, compensation, moralization, auto-aggression, and others) defense mechanisms underlie the behavior of the individual and is aimed at minimizing the negative experiences of the deviant. Z. Freud believed that the unconscious always wins in an endless struggle. The psychoanalytic theory of Z. Freud first of all connected deviations with mental deviations. Careful studies of the psychological factors of deviant behavior were subsequently carried out by other scientists, for example, K. Schuessler and D. Cressy (1950). As Neil Smelser rightly pointed out, researchers “...have done a critical review of many scientific works, the authors of which tried to prove that offenders and criminals are characterized by some psychological features not typical of law-abiding citizens. However, no psychological traits were identified, for example,
emotional immaturity, mental instability or restlessness, which could be observed in all criminals. The results obtained by the supporters of the psychological approach showed that the essence of deviation cannot be explained only on the basis of psychoanalysis.
The sociological approach in terms of the number of directions and adherents is the most represented among the theories of deviant behavior. Supporters of this approach consider the weakening, absence, violation, destruction or inconsistency of social norms and rules to be the main reason for deviation. Usually, the following directions of the considered approach are distinguished. Theory of anomie, the theory of social disorganization, cultural theory, the theory of stigmatization and the theory of radical criminology.
It is believed that the first sociological explanation of deviation was proposed by David Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) in the theory of anomie. Émile Durkheim was the founder of the French sociological school in 1897. wrote the work "Suicide", which has become a classic work in the field of suicide research. “According to E. Durkheim, the probability of behavioral deviations increases significantly with the weakening of normative control taking place at the level of society” . According to E. Durkheim, individuals are potentially prone to deviant behavior, whose socialization took place under the conditions of encouraging standards of deviant behavior (for example, immorality) or ignoring the norm. The state of the absence of norms in an individual Durkheim called anomie. The content of the theory of anomie was supplemented and developed by Durkheim also in line with the theory of social disorganization. “Although Durkheim's theory has been criticized,” says Neil Smelser, “the basic idea that social disorganization is the cause of deviant behavior is still generally accepted today. The term "social disorganization" refers to the state of society when cultural values, norms and social relationships are absent, weakened or contradict each other. Subsequently, some additions to E. Durkheim's theory of anomie and social disorganization were made by Robert K. Merton (1938). He believed that the main cause of deviation is the contradiction between the cultural goals of society and the socially approved means of achieving them. In the second half of the XX century. the theory of anomie and social disorganization found its continuation in the work done by Travis Hirschi (1969), who investigated the influence of society's values on the normativity of behavior. Modern researchers understand anomie as “... the absence of a clear system of social norms, the destruction of the unity of culture, as a result of which life experience people ceases to conform to ideal social norms.
Culturological theory explains deviation by conflicts between cultural norms. T. Sellin (1938), W. Miller (1958) believed that deviation arises as a result of contradictions and conflicts between the cultural norms of individual groups and society. "So called cultural theories deviations, - emphasizes Neil Smelser, - are essentially similar to the above, but focus on the analysis of cultural values that favor deviation, in other words, the forces that "induce" people to deviant behavior" .
Proponents of the stigma theory have developed an approach that differs from those outlined above. They rejected other sociological and psychological explanations for the deviation because they were allegedly based on the "medical model", suggesting that the deviation was actually due to other causes. For example, the ability of authoritative, reference groups of society (meaning legislators, judges, doctors, etc.) to impose certain standards of behavior on others. The most prominent representative of the theory of stigmatization, Howard Becker, in his book The Outsiders (1963), emphasized: “Social groups create deviation because they follow rules, the violation of which is considered deviation; in addition, they impose these rules on certain people who are labeled as outsiders. From this point of view, deviation is not a quality of an act that a person performs, but rather a consequence of the application of rules and sanctions by other people against the "violator" .
Adherents of the theory of the theory of stigmatization (sticking labels) explain deviant behavior by the possibility of influential public institutions to brand members of less influential societies as “deviants”. At the same time, they distinguish such types of deviant behavior as primary and secondary deviation. Primary deviation usually refers to minor deviations, such as accidental or trial use of recreational drugs. The stage of secondary deviation occurs, according to Howard Becker, from the moment when “... a person is labeled a deviant; those around him begin to treat him as a deviant, and gradually he himself gets used to considering himself as such and to behave in accordance with this role.
Edwin Sutherland (1939) is considered the author of the theory of radical criminology. He wrote that “criminality (a form of deviation that interested him in the first place) is taught. People perceive values that contribute to deviation in the course of communication with the bearers of these values. If most of a person's friends and relatives are involved in criminal activities, there is a possibility that he too will become a criminal. The American sociologist Neil Smelser supports the views of Edwin Sutherland and argues that “... Sutherland's theory is much more accurate and deeper than the common sense belief that deviation is the result of a person contacting a bad company. Criminal deviation is the result of predominant communication with carriers of criminal norms. Moreover, Sutherland has carefully described the factors that combine to promote criminal behavior. He emphasized that it is not contacts with impersonal organizations that play an important role in this.
Radyukin E.E., Morozova O.A. Basic concepts of deviant behavior in foreign sources
or institutions (for example, with the legislature or the church), but everyday communication at school, at home, or in the place of constant "street parties". “... The frequency of contacts with deviants, as well as their number and duration, influence the intensity of a person's assimilation of deviant values. Age also plays an important role. The younger a person is, the more readily he learns patterns of behavior imposed by others. The views of Edwin Sutherland were further developed in the works of R. Claward (1959) and L. Oulin (1960). Like Sutherland, they believe that the causes of delinquency lie not only in social disorganization and the collapse of ideals, but also in the opportunities that deviant behavior opens up, especially if it promises real benefits.
The supporters of the theory of radical criminology (sometimes they are included among the adherents of the theory of conflict) also include Austin Turk (1969), I. Taylor (1973) and some other researchers of deviant behavior. Austin Turk and I. Taylor believe that when a conflict arises between the authorities and certain categories of citizens, official structures usually choose not soft preventive measures, but a variant of repressive, coercive measures, and the police primarily apply laws directed against the poor and not involved in power, those who can be suppressed without meeting resistance. Austin Turk and I. Taylor consider “deviants” not as violators of generally accepted rules and norms, but “... as rebels who oppose the capitalist society, which seeks to isolate and place in psychiatric hospitals, prisons and juvenile colonies many of its members who allegedly need control".
According to Neil Smelser's absolutely fair opinion, “... there are profound differences between all kinds of biological, psychological and sociological explanations of deviation. Recently, less importance has been attached to biological or psychological factors pushing people towards deviant behavior. The latest theories, especially the "new criminology", emphasize the nature of society and seek to reveal to what extent it is interested in creating and maintaining deviation.
Bibliography
1. Becker, G. human behavior: economic approach / G. Becker. - M.: GU HSE, 2003.
2. Ayurkheim, E. Suicide. // Suicidology: Past and present: The problem of suicide in the works of philosophers, sociologists, psychotherapists and literary texts. - M., 2001.
3. Lombroso, Ch. Crime / per. G. N. Gordon. SPb., 1990.
4. Merton, R. K. Social structure and anomie // Sociology of crime (Modern bourgeois theories). - M.: Progress, 1966. - C. 299-313.
5. Sayayaivan, G. Interpersonal theory in psychiatry / G.Sullivan. - M.: Yuventa, 1999.
6. Smeyazer, N. Sociology / per. from English. - M.: Phoenix, 1998. - 688 p.
7. Freud, 3. Sadness and melancholy. // Suicidology: Past and present: The problem of suicide in the works of philosophers, sociologists, psychotherapists and in literary texts. - M., 2001.
1. Becker, Howard L. Outsiders: Studies in Sociology of Deviance. - New York: The Free Press, 1963.
2. Brown, J. A comparative study of deviance from sexual mores. American Sociological Review, 1952, 17, 138.
3. Dürkheim, E. The rules of sociological method. - New York: Free Press, 1938.
4. Dürkheim, E. Education and society (S. Fox, trans.). - New York: Free Press, 1956. (Originally published in various sources, 1903-1911).
5. Dürkheim, E. The division of labor in society (G. Simpson, trans.). Glencoe, III.: Free Press, 1964. (Originally published in 1893.)
6 Durkheim, E. Suicide. - New York: Free Press, 1964. (Originally published in 1897. Also originally published in a foreign language.)
7. Durkheim, E. The elementary forms of the religious life. (J.W Swain, trans.) - New York: Free Press, 1965. (Originally published 1915.)
8. Cloward, R. A. Illegitimate means, anomie, and deviant behavior. - American Sociological Review, 1959, 24, 164-177.
9. Cloward, R. A. Illegitimate means, anomie, and deviant behavior. - American Sociological Review, 1959, 24, 164-177.
10. Freüd, Criminals from a sense of guilt. In J. Strachey (Ed. and trans.). The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. - London: Hogarth, 1957. (Originally published in 1916.)
11. Hirschi, T. Causes of delinquency. - Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969.
12. Lombroso, C. Crime: Its causes and remedies. - Boston: Little, Brown, 1911.
13. Merton, R. K. The role-set: Problems in sociological theory. - British Journal of Sociology, 1957, 8, 106-120.
14. Merton, R. K. Social structure and anomie. - American Sociological Review, 1938, 3, 672-682.
15. Merton R. K. Social Theory and Social Structure. - N.Y., 1957, p. 140.
16. Merton, R. K. Social theory and social structure. - New York: Free Press, 1957.
17. Merton, R. K. Social theory and social structure (Rev. and enl. ed.). - New York: Free Press, 1968.
18. Miller, W. Lower class culture as a generating milieu of gang delinquency. - Journal of Social Issues, 1958, 14, 5-19.
19. SelHi, T. Culture conflict and crime. - New York: Social Science Research Council, 1938.
20. Sheldon, W. H. The varieties of human physique. - New York: Harper & Row, 1940.
21. Schur, E. M. Labeling deviant behavior. - New York: Harper & Row, 1971.
22. Schuessler, K, & Cressey, D.R. Personality characteristics of criminals. - American Journal of Sociology, 1950, 55, 476-484.
23. Smelser, N. J. Theory of collective behavior. - New York: Free Press, 1962.
24. Smelser, N. J. Theoretical issues of scope and problems. In R.R; Evans (Ed.), Readings in collective behavior (2nd ed.). - Chicago: Rand McNally, 1975.
25. Sutherland, E. H. Principles of criminology. - New York: Harper & Row, 1939.
26. Taylor, I., Walton, P., & Young, J. The new criminology: For a theory of social deviance. - New York: Harper & Row, 1973. /682/
27. Turk, A. Criminality and legal order. - Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969.
28. Witkin, H. A. Criminality in XYY and XXY men. Science, 1976, 193, 547-555
UDC: 378.02-159.9.07
E.E. Salamis*, Z.A. Izabekov**, V.I. Mikhanev***, E.A. Skupchenko****
The process of improving the individual style of volitional activity among university students
The research problem is to identify the process of improving the individual style of volitional activity among university students.
Key words: students, technical university, boxing, individual style, volitional activity.
E. E. Salamin*, Z. A. Izabekov**, V. I. Mihanev***, E. A. Skupchenko****. Process of improving the individual style of volitional activity in the students of the Institute of Higher Education.
The research problem consists in revealing of the process of perfection of individual style of strong-willed activity at students of technical college.
Keywords: students, university, boxing, individual style, strong-willed activity.
* Salamin, Evgeny Evgenievich, postgraduate student of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology of Vocational Education, specialty 13.00.08 "Theory and Methods of Vocational Education", Senior Lecturer of the Department of Physical Education and Sports, Komsomolsk-on-Amur State technical university. Address: Russia, 681013, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, st. Lenina 27, KnAGTU, Tel.: 89141875473. E-mail: [email protected]
** Izabekov, Zamir Asylbekovich, Senior Lecturer, Department of Mathematical Support and Application of Computers, Faculty of Computer Technologies, Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Technical University, Master of Sports of the USSR in Greco-Roman wrestling. Address: Russia, 681013, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, st. Lenina 27, KnAGTU, Tel.: 8 914 185 62 25. E-mail: [email protected]
*** Mikhanev, Vladislav Ivanovich, Applicant of the Department of "Pedagogy and Psychology of Vocational Education", specialty 13.00.08 "Theory and Methods of Vocational Education". Deputy head of the traffic police department of Komsomolsk-on-Amur. Email: [email protected]
**** Skupchenko, Evgeny Anatolyevich, Master of Sports of Russia in Greco-Roman wrestling, Senior Lecturer of the Department of Physical Education and Sports, Komsomolsk-on-Amur State Technical University. Address: Russia, 681013, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, st. Lenina 27, KnAGTU, Tel.: 89141875473.
* Salamin, Evgeny Evgenevich. The post-graduate student of chair of pedagogic and vocational training psychology, a specialty 13.00.08 The theory and a vocational training technique, the senior teacher of chair. A physical education and sports. Komsomolsk-on-Amur state technical university. Address: Russia, 681013, Komsomolsk-on-cupid, Lenin's 27 street. Ph.: 89141875473. E-mail: [email protected]
** Izabekov, Zamir Asilbekovich. The master of sports of the USSR on Greco-Roman wrestling. The senior teacher of chair. A software and computer application department of Komsomolsk-on-Amur state technical university. Address: Russia, 681013, Komsomolsk-on-cupid, Lenin's 27 streets. Ph.: 8 914 185 62 25. E-mails: [email protected]
*** Mihanev, Vladislav Ivanovich. The competitor of chair: "Pedagogic and vocational training psychology", a specialty 13.00.08. The theory and a vocational training technique. The chief deputy of the department of traffic police Komsomolsk-on-Amur. Email: [email protected]
**** Skupchenko, Evgeny Anatolevich. The master of sports of the Russia on Greco-Roman is wrestling the senior teacher of chair. A physical education and sports. Komsomolsk-on-Amur state technical university. Address: Russia, 681013, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Lenin's 27 street. Ph.: 89242297300.
(to § b "Deviant behavior and social control")
Deviation 1 and moral differences
Starting from early childhood, everyday life contains many perceptions by us of people who differ from each other in one way or another. In the class of white children there is one (pretty child; there is a girl propping up a wall at a party; there are physically disabled and mentally unstable. However, there is another type of difference. There is a boy who expresses his indignation when the others in the group laugh at a dirty joke; there is a dove in an office filled with hawks, or, for that matter, a hawk in a cocktail party thrown by doves These differences are unlike (or seem to be) the ones mentioned before, as they are a deliberate negation of the values or norms of the group. being shy or crippled is a condition imposed on the individual On the other hand, being cutesy or political nonconformist is an act of choice.<...>
The term sociologists commonly use today for this type of distinction is called deviation. As we shall see below, deviation has been defined and explained in different ways. However, there is widespread agreement among sociologists about this basic notion: deviance always refers to behavior that is in violation of rules developed by a given community or group. In other words, the concept deviation means primarily moral difference. It refers to the refusal, or perhaps the inability, of an individual or group to adhere to those moral norms that prevail in the social context in question.
speech. <...>
Typical is what is thought of as normal. Deviance from typicality is always troubling because it calls into question what people believe to be normal.<...>People's beliefs about normality order their experience.
Berger P. Person-oriented sociology / P. Berger,
B. Berger, R. Collins. - M., 2004. - S. 305-307.
Questions and tasks. 1) Which of the examples given by the author relate to deviant behavior? 2) What is the difference between deviant behavior and other behavioral acts?
3) Formulate the definition of the concept of "deviant behavior".
5) Give examples (from life or literature) when an individual refused the moral norms prevailing in some social group. 6) Give examples (from life or literature) when an individual was unable to fulfill the moral norms prevailing in some social group. 7) How does the social group react to those who cannot or do not want to adhere to the moral standards that prevail in this social community? Give examples. 8) In your opinion, what is the reason for rejection by a social group of people with deviant behavior? 9) What is the author's reason for the rejection of people with deviant behavior by the society? 10) How does the author explain that given reason leads to rejection by society of people with deviant behavior? 11) Based on your life experience, give examples that illustrate the author's statement.
Social interests and forms social interaction
(to § 7 “Social interests and forms of social interaction >>)
Text. Modern sociologist A. V. Dmitriev on the maintenance and development of cooperation.
Before entering into a confrontation, and the rivals were most likely in a neutral relationship, and possibly cooperated (colleagues, neighbors, family members, public organizations, states). A reliable way to prevent conflict is to establish and strengthen cooperation. Conflictologists have developed a number of principles and methods for maintaining and developing cooperation.
Agreement involves the involvement of a potential adversary in
joint activities...
Practical Empathy involves "entering" the position of a partner, understanding his difficulties, sympathy and willingness to help.
Maintaining a partner's reputation implies a respectful attitude towards him, even if the interests of one partner diverge from the interests of the other.
Mutual complement those qualities of a partner that the other does not possess. By developing and using these traits, mutual respect and cooperation can be strengthened and conflict avoided.
Exclusion of social discrimination implies a prohibition to emphasize one's superiority over a partner (although it may exist). "Even if you do a better job than others, don't act like a winner."
Sharing merit. This achieves mutual respect and removes such negative emotions as envy, resentment, etc. Psychological attitude implies in specific manifestations, for example, timely informing the partner about possible or upcoming changes, discussing their consequences with him, etc. In our reality, state leaders often neglect this method of conflict prevention ...
Psychological "stroking"(synthon) involves maintaining Have a good mood, positive emotions on a variety of occasions, which relieves tension, causes a feeling of sympathy for the partner and thereby prevents the emergence of a conflict situation.
The above methods and principles of maintaining and strengthening cooperation are, of course, not exhaustive. But everything that can contribute to the preservation of normal business relations between people, strengthening their mutual trust and respect, counteracts the development of the conflict, prevents its occurrence, and if it does arise, helps to resolve it.
Dmitriev A. V. Social conflict: general and special / A. V. Dmitriev. - M., 2002. - S. 323-324.
Questions and tasks. 1) What types of cooperation are mentioned in the text? Complete the list own examples. 2) What way of conflict prevention does the author consider the most reliable? Explain your answer. 3) The text contains the principles and methods developed by conflictologists for maintaining and developing cooperation. How are methods different from principles? Which of the following are principles and which are methods? 4) Think about what determines the preference for certain methods in a particular situation.
Ethnos and nation
(to § 8 "Ethnos and nation")
Text 1. Russian scientist L. N. Gumilyov (1912-1992) about ethnogenesis.
An ethnos is a collective of individuals that distinguishes itself from all other collectives. The ethnos is more or less stable, although it appears and disappears in historical time. There is not a single real sign for the definition of an ethnos applicable to all cases known to us. Language, origin, customs, material culture, ideology are sometimes defining moments, and sometimes they are not. We can take out only one thing - the recognition by each individual: "We are such and such, and all others are different."
Gumilyov L. N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth / L. N. Gumilyov. - L.,
Text 2. Modern domestic scientist Yu. V. Bromley about ethnic groups.
A set of people with a common culture acts as a single ethnos only if its members are more or less aware of this community, considering it an expression of a community of historical destinies, including, as a rule, a community of origin (actual or illusory - this is already a special issue). It is no coincidence that an ethnos exists only as long as its members retain the consciousness of community. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that when the term "ethnos" is understood as a "conscious cultural community", we are talking, as we have already noted, about the narrow meaning of this term.
Often, however, one can find its broader interpretation. In these cases, they usually mean such forms of existence of an ethnos as a tribe, nationality, nation. These complex formations, which we conditionally call "ethno-social organisms", usually have not only a cultural, but also a territorial, socio-economic, and sometimes political community.
Bromley Yu. V. Several remarks on the social and natural factors of ethnogenesis / Yu. V. Bromley // Priroda. - 1971. - No. 2. - S. 83.
Questions and tasks. 1) Compare the views of two scientists on the nature of an ethnic group: what is their main difference? What brings them together? 2) What features, according to L. N. Gumilyov, distinguish one ethnic group from another? 3) Name the historical forms of the ethnic group. 4) Think about what arguments supporters and opponents of each of the above positions may have. 5) Which of them seems to you the most convincing and reasoned? Explain your answer. 6) Formulate your own opinion on this issue.
g. Interethnic relations and national politics
(to § 9 "Inter-ethnic relations and national policy")
Text. Constitution of the Russian Federation (extract).
Article 2. Man, his rights and freedoms are the highest value. Recognition, observance and protection of the rights and freedoms of man and citizen is the duty of the state.<...>
1. The sovereignty of the Russian Federation extends to its entire territory.
2. The Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws shall have supremacy throughout the entire territory of the Russian Federation.
3. The Russian Federation ensures the integrity and inviolability of its territory. <...>
Article 19
2. The state guarantees the equality of human and civil rights and freedoms regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, membership in public associations, as well as other circumstances. Any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the grounds of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation is prohibited.<...>
Article 29
1. Everyone is guaranteed freedom of thought and speech.
2. Propaganda or agitation inciting social, racial, national or religious hatred or enmity is not allowed. Propaganda of social, racial, national, religious or linguistic superiority is prohibited.
Questions and tasks. 1) What does the provision “the highest value” mean, how is the constitutional setting for the recognition and protection by the state of human rights and freedoms implemented? 2) What is the essence and significance of the extension of the sovereignty of the Russian Federation over its entire territory? 3) What does the supremacy of the Constitution, federal laws throughout the Russian Federation mean? 4) Why is ensuring the integrity and inviolability of the Russian territory one of the central tasks of the internal and foreign policy RF? 5) How does the state guarantee the equality of rights and freedoms of a citizen, how does it suppress propaganda that incites national hatred and enmity? 6) Based on the above articles of the Basic Law of the Russian Federation, using textbook material, formulate the constitutional foundations of the state national policy.
Based on social science knowledge, explain the meaning of the concept of "deviant behavior". What, according to the author, determines the deviance of behavior? (Give two passages from the text that answer this question.)
Read the text and complete tasks 21-24
On November 5, 1986, two prisoners made a daring escape from a federal prison in Pleasanton, California. We are talking about 42-year-old Ronald McIntosh, convicted of fraud, and 37-year-old Samantha Lopez, guilty of bank robbery. They were lovers, they were immediately dubbed "lovebirds" as soon as the report of the escape appeared in the press.
Here's how it happened. McIntosh managed to hijack the helicopter. A former military pilot, he boldly rushed down to the prison yard, landed, grabbed Lopez in his arms, and the helicopter sped away. The guards did not dare to shoot at the helicopter, it could crash into the yard and kill many people. Beloved hid from the police for 10 days. But in the end they were detained while trying to get money on a check in the territory of a shopping center in the suburbs of Sacramento. They were heading for a yacht anchored off the coast in Washington State; probably wanted to flee to Canada.
Obviously, the described case is a vivid example of deviation: two criminals, whom the court found guilty, escape from prison ... But when reporters interviewed prison officials, crime experts and passers-by, completely different opinions were expressed about this "deviant" deed.
Some considered the fugitives to be cunning, intelligent people who managed to outwit the law. One said that he would gladly do the same, and the other expressed the hope that the lovers would never be caught. Some even took them as a kind of folk heroes. Other commentators have criticized Pleasanton Federal Penitentiary for lax security and lenient treatment of inmates; they compared the prison to a "country club", even to some extent believed that people were doing the right thing by escaping from there.
One of the lawyers who defended the criminals after they were detained near Sacramento told the judge that the escape was "justified."
The McIntosh and Lopez case shows how difficult it is to evaluate acts that can be called manifestations of deviant behavior ... Our assessments depend on what we expect - compliance with the law or heroism? In short, deviance is determined by the conformity or inconsistency of actions with social expectations. Should the employees of the Pleasanton "country club" be considered deviants for being too soft? We cannot answer this question as there is uncertainty as to how strict or lenient prison guards should be. Was Lopez's past bank robbery a deviant act? Most of us would answer yes to this question, since Lopez's act is a violation of criminal law, and there is universal agreement on the appropriateness and necessity of such a law.
Criteria for determining deviant behavior are ambiguous. They are often divisive, and it is difficult to establish exactly what types of behavior should be considered deviant in our society. The most striking examples of deviation, apparently, would be inhuman acts that almost always cause condemnation, such as rape and murder.
Explanation.
The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:
1) the criteria for deviant behavior are ambiguous;
2) the criteria for deviant behavior often cause controversy.
Answer: None
Analyze whether the escape of the two people mentioned in the text was an example of deviant behavior. How does the author answer this question? Do all persons mentioned in the text agree with the author? What do you think about this? (Support the answer to each question with the author's or self-formulated judgment.)
Explanation.
The correct answer must contain the following elements:
2) the opinions of some other persons did not coincide with the opinion of the author - some observers believed that the described act deserves approval and is not at all deviant ("Some even perceived them as a kind of folk heroes");
3) own opinion and its confirmation, for example:
Other pertinent judgments may be made.
Answer: None
Subject area: Social relations. Deviant behavior and its types
Based on the text and knowledge from social studies and history courses, describe a situation in which the same act could be considered both a negative deviation and heroism. (Describe the situation and formulate one judgment each, reflecting the negatively deviant and heroic nature of the act.)
Explanation.
A correct answer must contain the following elements:
1) a description of the situation, for example, a challenge thrown by Joan of Arc to the Catholic Church;
2) a judgment about the negatively deviant nature of her act, for example: "The act of Joan of Arc was a serious crime for the era in which it was committed; she was burned at the stake as a heretic";
3) a judgment about the heroic nature of her act, for example: "For people striving for freedom and independence, the act of Joan of Arc was seen as a great feat, causing the general admiration of subsequent generations; she was subsequently rehabilitated by the church and canonized."
Other situations and adequate judgments can be given.
Answer: None
Subject area: Social relations. Deviant behavior and its types
Explanation.
The correct answer should include the following:
1) disclosure of the concept, for example: deviant behavior - the behavior of an individual or group that deviates from generally accepted norms.
2) Two text positions:
- "our assessments depend on what we expect - compliance with the law or heroism";
- "deviantness is determined by the compliance or non-compliance of actions with social expectations."
Answer: None
Subject area: Social relations. Deviant behavior and its types
