The element of social control is a reaction to behavior. social behavior. Concepts of human behavior

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The concept of "behavior" came to sociology from psychology. The meaning of the term "behavior" is different from the meaning of such traditionally philosophical concepts as action and activity. If action is understood as a rationally justified act that has a clear goal, a strategy that is carried out with the involvement of specific conscious methods and means, then behavior is just a reaction of a living being to external and internal changes. This reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. Thus, purely emotional reactions - laughter, crying - are also behavior.

social behavior - it is a set of human behavioral processes associated with the satisfaction of physical and social needs and arising as a reaction to the surrounding social environment. The subject of social behavior can be an individual or a group.

If we abstract from purely psychological factors and reason at the social level, then the behavior of the individual is determined primarily by socialization. The minimum of innate instincts that a person possesses as a biological being is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend on the qualities acquired in the process of socialization and, to some extent, on innate and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

In addition, the social behavior of individuals is regulated by the social structure, in particular the role structure of society.

Social norm of behavior- this is a behavior that is fully consistent with status expectations. Due to the existence of status expectations, society can predict the actions of the individual in advance with sufficient probability, and the individual himself can coordinate his behavior with the ideal model or model accepted by society. Social behavior corresponding to status expectations is defined by the American sociologist R. Linton as social role. This interpretation of social behavior is closest to functionalism, since it explains behavior as a phenomenon determined by social structure. R. Merton introduced the category of "role complex" - a system of role expectations determined by a given status, as well as the concept of a role conflict that occurs when the role expectations of the statuses occupied by the subject are incompatible and cannot be realized in some single socially acceptable behavior.

The functionalist understanding of social behavior was subjected to fierce criticism from, first of all, representatives of social behaviorism, who believed that it was necessary to build the study of behavioral processes on the basis of achievements. modern psychology. The extent to which psychological moments were really overlooked by the role-based interpretation of the command follows from the fact that N. Cameron tried to substantiate the idea of the role-based determinism of mental disorders, believing that mental illness is the incorrect execution of one’s social roles and the result of the patient's inability to perform them in the way that society needs. Behaviorists argued that at the time of E. Durkheim, the successes of psychology were insignificant and therefore the functionality of the expiring paradigm met the requirements of the time, but in the 20th century, when psychology reached a high level of development, its data cannot be ignored when considering human behavior.

Forms of human social behavior

People behave differently in this or that social situation, in this or that social environment. For example, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize riots, and others provoke mass clashes. These various actions of the actors of social interaction can be defined as social behavior. Hence, social behavior is the form and method of manifestation by social actors of their preferences and attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction. Therefore, social behavior can be considered as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction.

In sociology, social behavior is interpreted as: o behavior, expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms; o external manifestation of activity, a form of transformation of activity into real actions in relation to socially significant objects; about the adaptation of a person to the social conditions of his existence.

To achieve life goals and in the implementation of individual tasks, a person can use two types of social behavior - natural and ritual, the differences between which are of a fundamental nature.

"Natural" behavior, individually significant and egocentric, is always aimed at achieving individual goals and is adequate to these goals. Therefore, the individual does not face the question of the correspondence between the goals and means of social behavior: the goal can and must be achieved by any means. The "natural" behavior of the individual is not socially regulated, therefore, as a rule, it is immoral or "cavalier". Such social behavior has a "natural", natural character, since it is directed to the provision of organic needs. In society, "natural" egocentric behavior is "forbidden", therefore it is always based on social conventions and mutual concessions on the part of all individuals.

ritual behavior("ceremonial") - individually-unnatural behavior; It is precisely through such behavior that society exists and reproduces itself. Ritual in all its variety of forms - from etiquette to ceremony - so deeply permeates the entire social life that people do not notice that they live in a field of ritual interactions. Ritual social behavior is a means of ensuring the stability of the social system, and the individual who implements various forms of such behavior participates in ensuring the social stability of social structures and interactions. Thanks to ritual behavior, a person achieves social well-being, constantly being convinced of the inviolability of his social status and maintaining the usual set of social roles.

Society is interested in the social behavior of individuals to be of a ritual nature, but society cannot abolish the “natural” egocentric social behavior, which, being adequate in goals and unscrupulous in means, always turns out to be more beneficial for the individual than “ritual” behavior. Therefore, society seeks to transform the forms of "natural" social behavior into various forms of ritual social behavior, including through the mechanisms of socialization using social support, control and punishment.

Such forms of social behavior are aimed at the preservation and maintenance of social relations and, ultimately, the survival of a person as homo sapiens (a reasonable person), such as:

cooperative behavior, which includes all forms of altruistic behavior - helping each other during natural disasters and technological disasters, helping young children and the elderly, helping future generations through the transfer of knowledge and experience;
parental behavior - the behavior of parents in relation to offspring.

Aggressive behavior is presented in all its manifestations, both group and individual - from verbal insults to another person and ending with mass extermination during wars.

Concepts of human behavior

Human behavior is studied by many areas of psychology - in behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, etc. The term "behavior" is one of the key terms in existential philosophy and is used in the study of a person's relationship to the world. The methodological possibilities of this concept are due to the fact that it allows you to identify the unconscious stable structures of the personality or the existence of a person in the world. Among the psychological concepts of human behavior that have had a great influence on sociology and social psychology, we should first of all name the psychoanalytic trends developed by Freud, C. G. Jung, and A. Adler.

Freud's representations are based on the fact that the individual's behavior is formed as a result of a complex interaction of the levels of his personality. Freud distinguishes three such levels: the lowest level is formed by unconscious impulses and urges determined by innate biological needs and complexes formed under the influence of the subject's individual history. Freud calls this level It (Id) to show its separation from the conscious Self of the individual, which forms the second level of his psyche. The Conscious Self includes rational goal setting and responsibility for one's actions. The highest level is the Superego - what we would call the result of socialization. This is a set of internalized by an individual social norms and values, exerting internal pressure on him in order to force out of his consciousness undesirable (forbidden) impulses and inclinations for society and prevent them from being realized. According to Freud, the personality of any person is an ongoing struggle between the id and the superego, which loosens the psyche and leads to neuroses. Individual behavior is wholly conditioned by this struggle and fully explained by it, since it is only a symbolic reflection of it. Such symbols can be images of dreams, slips of the tongue, slips of the tongue, obsessions, and fears.

The concept of C. G. Jung expands and modifies the teachings of Freud, including in the sphere of the unconscious not only individual complexes and attraction, but also the collective unconscious - the level of key images common to all people and peoples - archetypes. Archaic fears and value representations are fixed in archetypes, the interaction of which determines the behavior and attitude of the individual. Archetypal images appear in basic narratives - folk tales and legends, mythology, epic - historically specific societies. The socially regulating role of such narratives in traditional societies is very great. They contain ideal behaviors that shape role expectations. For example, a male warrior should behave like Achilles or Hector, a wife like Penelope, and so on. Regular recitations (ritual reproductions) of archetyonic narratives constantly remind the members of society of these ideal patterns of behavior.

Adler's psychoanalytic concept is based on the unconscious will to power, which, in his opinion, is an innate personality structure and determines behavior. It is especially strong in those who, for one reason or another, suffer from an inferiority complex. In an effort to compensate for their inferiority, they are able to achieve great success.

Further splitting of the psychoanalytic direction led to the emergence of many schools, in disciplinary terms occupying a border position between psychology, social philosophy, and sociology. Let us dwell in detail on the work of E. Fromm.

Fromm's positions - representative of neo-Freudianism in and - more precisely, can be defined as Freilo-Marxism, since, along with the influence of Freud, he experienced no less strong influence social philosophy Marx. The peculiarity of neo-Freudianism in comparison with orthodox Freudianism is due to the fact that, strictly speaking, neo-Freudianism is more of a sociology, while Freud is, of course, a pure psychologist. If Freud explains the individual's behavior by complexes and impulses hidden in the individual unconscious, in short, by internal biopsychic factors, then for Fromm and Freilo-Marxism in general, the individual's behavior is determined by the surrounding social environment. This is his similarity with Marx, who explained the social behavior of individuals in the final analysis by their class origin. Nevertheless, Fromm seeks to find a place for the psychological in social processes. According to the Freudian tradition, referring to the unconscious, he introduces the term "social unconscious", implying one psychic experience that is common to all members of a given society, but for most of them does not fall on the level of consciousness, because it is displaced by a special mechanism that is social in nature, belonging not to the individual, but to society. Thanks to this mechanism of displacement, society maintains a stable existence. The mechanism of social repression includes language, the logic of everyday thinking, a system of social prohibitions and taboos. The structures of language and thinking are formed under the influence of society and act as an instrument of social pressure on the psyche of the individual. For example, coarse, anti-aesthetic, absurd abbreviations and abbreviations of "Newspeak" from the Orwellian dystopia actively disfigure the consciousness of people who use them. To one degree or another, the monstrous logic of formulas like: "The dictatorship of the proletariat is the most democratic form of power" became the property of everyone in Soviet society.

The main component of the mechanism of social repression is social taboos that act like Freudian censorship. That in the social experience of individuals that threatens the preservation of the existing society, if it is realized, is not allowed into consciousness with the help of a "social filter". Society manipulates the minds of its members by introducing ideological clichés that, due to frequent use, become inaccessible to critical analysis, withholding certain information, exerting direct pressure and causing fear of social exclusion. Therefore, everything that contradicts socially approved ideological clichés is excluded from consciousness.

Such taboos, ideologemes, logical and linguistic experiments form, according to Fromm, the "social character" of a person. People belonging to the same society, against their will, are, as it were, marked with the seal of a “common incubator”. For example, we unmistakably recognize foreigners on the street, even if we do not hear their speech, by their behavior, appearance, attitude towards each other; these are people from a different society, and, getting into a mass environment alien to them, they stand out sharply from it due to their similarities. Social character - it is a style of behavior brought up by society and unconscious by the individual - from social to everyday. For example, Soviet and former Soviet people are distinguished by collectivism and responsiveness, social passivity and undemandingness, obedience to the authorities, personified in the person of the "leader", a developed fear of being different from everyone else, and gullibility.

Fromm directed his criticism against modern capitalist society, although much attention was paid to the description social character generated by totalitarian societies. Like Freud, he developed a program to restore the undistorted social behavior of individuals through the awareness of what was repressed. “By transforming the unconscious into consciousness, we thereby transform the simple concept of the universality of man into the vital reality of such universality. This is nothing but the practical realization of humanism.” The process of derepression - the liberation of socially oppressed consciousness - is to eliminate the fear of realizing the forbidden, to develop the ability to think critically, to humanize social life as a whole.

A different interpretation is offered by behaviorism (B. Skinner, J. Homans), who considers behavior as a system of reactions to various stimuli.

Skinner's concept in fact, it is a biologization one, since it completely removes the differences between the behavior of a person and an animal. Skinner identifies three types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex, and operant. The first two types of reactions are caused by the impact of appropriate stimuli, and operant reactions are a form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. They are active and spontaneous. The body, as it were by trial and error, finds the most acceptable way of adaptation, and if successful, the find is fixed in the form of a stable reaction. Thus, the main factor in the formation of behavior is reinforcement, and learning turns into "guiding to the desired reaction."

In Skinner's concept, a person appears as a being whose entire inner life is reduced to reactions to external circumstances. Reinforcement changes mechanically cause behavioral changes. Thinking, the higher mental functions of a person, the whole culture, morality, art turn into a complex system of reinforcements designed to evoke certain behavioral reactions. This leads to the conclusion about the possibility of manipulating people's behavior through a carefully developed "technology of behavior". With this term, Skinner denotes the purposeful manipulation control of some groups of people over others, associated with the establishment of an optimal reinforcement regime for certain social goals.

The ideas of behaviorism in sociology were developed by J. and J. Baldwin, J. Homans.

The concept of J. iJ. Baldwin is based on the concept of reinforcement, borrowed from psychological behaviorism. Reinforcement in the social sense is a reward, the value of which is determined by subjective needs. For example, for a hungry person, food acts as a reinforcement, but if a person is full, it is not a reinforcement.

The effectiveness of the reward depends on the degree of deprivation in a given individual. Sub-deprivation refers to the deprivation of something that the individual experiences a constant need for. As far as the subject is deprived in any respect, so much his behavior depends on this reinforcement. The so-called generalized reinforcers (for example, money) do not depend on deprivation, acting on all individuals without exception, due to the fact that they concentrate access to many types of reinforcements at once.

Reinforcers are divided into positive and negative. Positive reinforcers are anything that the subject perceives as a reward. For example, if a certain exposure to the environment brought a reward, it is likely that the subject will seek to repeat this experience. Negative reinforcers are factors that determine behavior through the withdrawal of some experience. For example, if the subject denies himself some pleasure and saves money on it, and subsequently benefits from this saving, then this experience can serve as a negative reinforcer and the subject will always do so.

The effect of punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. Punishment is an experience that makes you want to never repeat it again. Punishment can also be positive or negative, but here everything is reversed compared to reinforcement. Positive punishment is punishment with a suppressive stimulus, such as a blow. Negative punishment affects behavior by depriving something of value. For example, depriving a child of sweets at dinner is a typical negative punishment.

The formation of operant reactions has a probabilistic character. Unambiguity is characteristic of reactions of the simplest level, for example, a child cries, demanding the attention of his parents, because parents always come to him in such cases. Adult reactions are much more complex. For example, a person who sells newspapers in train cars does not find a buyer in every car, but knows from experience that a buyer will eventually be found, and this makes him persistently walk from car to car. In the last decade, the receipt of wages at some Russian enterprises has taken on the same probabilistic character, but nevertheless people continue to go to work, hoping to receive it.

Homans' behavioral concept of exchange appeared in the middle of the 20th century. Arguing with representatives of many areas of sociology, Homans argued that a sociological explanation of behavior must necessarily be based on a psychological approach. At the heart of the interpretation historical facts there must also be a psychological approach. Homans motivates this by saying that behavior is always individual, while sociology operates with categories applicable to groups and societies, so the study of behavior is the prerogative of psychology, and sociology should follow it in this matter.

According to Homans, when studying behavioral reactions, one should abstract from the nature of the factors that caused these reactions: they are caused by the influence of the surrounding physical environment or other people. Social behavior is just an exchange of socially valuable activities between people. Homans believes that social behavior can be interpreted using Skinner's behavioral paradigm, if supplemented with the idea of the mutual nature of stimulation in relations between people. The relationship of individuals among themselves is always a mutually beneficial exchange of activities, services, in short, it is the mutual use of reinforcements.

Homans briefly formulated the exchange theory in several postulates:

the postulate of success - those actions that most often meet with social approval are most likely to be reproduced;
incentive postulate - similar reward-related stimuli are highly likely to cause similar behavior;
postulate of value - the probability of reproducing an action depends on how valuable the result of this action seems to a person;
the postulate of deprivation - the more regularly a person's act was rewarded, the less he appreciates the subsequent reward;
the dual postulate of aggression-approval - the absence of an expected reward or an unexpected punishment makes aggressive behavior likely, and an unexpected reward or the absence of an expected punishment leads to an increase in the value of the rewarded act and makes it more likely to be reproduced.

The most important concepts of the theory of exchange are:

the price of behavior is what this or that act costs an individual, Negative consequences caused by past actions. In worldly terms, this is retribution for the past;
benefit - occurs when the quality and size of the reward exceeds the price that this act costs.

Thus, the theory of exchange depicts human social behavior as a rational search for benefits. This concept seems simplistic, and it is not surprising that it has provoked criticism from a variety of sociological schools. For example, Parsons, who defended the fundamental difference between the mechanisms of human and animal behavior, criticized Homans for the inability of his theory to provide an explanation of social facts on the basis of psychological mechanisms.

In his exchange theories I. blau attempted a kind of synthesis of social behaviorism and sociologism. Understanding the limitations of a purely behaviorist interpretation of social behavior, he set the goal of moving from the level of psychology to explaining on this basis the existence of social structures as a special reality that cannot be reduced to psychology. Blau's concept is an enriched theory of exchange, in which four successive stages of transition from individual exchange to social structures are singled out: 1) the stage of interpersonal exchange; 2) the stage of power-status differentiation; 3) the stage of legitimation and organization; 4) the stage of opposition and change.

Blau shows that, starting from the level of interpersonal exchange, exchange may not always be equal. In those cases where individuals cannot offer each other sufficient rewards, the social ties formed between them tend to disintegrate. In such situations, there are attempts to strengthen disintegrating ties in other ways - through coercion, through the search for another source of reward, through subordination of oneself to an exchange partner in the form of a generalized loan. The latter path means a transition to a stage of status differentiation, when a group of persons capable of giving the required remuneration becomes more privileged in terms of status than other groups. In the future, legitimation and consolidation of the situation and the separation of opposition groups take place. In analyzing complex social structures, Blau goes far beyond the paradigm of behaviorism. He argues that the complex structures of society are organized around social values and norms, which serve as a kind of mediating link between individuals in the process of social exchange. Thanks to this link, the exchange of rewards is possible not only between individuals, but also between an individual and a group. For example, considering the phenomenon of organized charity, Blau determines what distinguishes charity as a social institution from the simple help of a rich individual to a poorer one. The difference is that organized charity is socially oriented behavior, which is based on the desire of a wealthy individual to conform to the norms of the wealthy class and share social values; through norms and values, a relationship of exchange is established between the sacrificing individual and the social group to which he belongs.

Blau identifies four categories of social values on the basis of which exchange is possible:

particularistic values that unite individuals on the basis of interpersonal relationships;
universalist values, acting as a measure for evaluating individual merits;
legitimate authority - a system of values that provides the power and privileges of a certain category of people in comparison with all others:
oppositional values - ideas about the need for social change, allowing the opposition to exist at the level of social facts, and not just at the level of interpersonal relations of individual oppositionists.

It can be said that Blau's exchange theory is a compromise, combining elements of Homans theory and sociologism in the treatment of reward exchange.

Role concept by J. Mead is a symbolic interactionist approach to the study of social behavior. Its name is reminiscent of the functionalist approach: it is also called role-playing. Mead considers role behavior as the activity of individuals interacting with each other in freely accepted and played roles. According to Mead, the role interaction of individuals requires them to be able to put themselves in the place of another, to evaluate themselves from the position of another.

Synthesis of exchange theory with symbolic interactionism also tried to implement P. Singelman. Symbolic actionism has a number of points of intersection with social behaviorism and exchange theories. Both of these concepts emphasize the active interaction of individuals and consider their subject from a microsociological perspective. According to Singelman, relationships of interpersonal exchange require the ability to put oneself in the position of another in order to better understand his needs and desires. Therefore, he believes that there are grounds for merging both directions into one. However, social behaviorists were critical of the emergence of the new theory.

In the broad sense of the word, social control is defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society (moral, state, industrial, legal control). In a narrow sense, social control is an assessment of people's activities by public opinion.
Forms of social control changed as society developed.
In a traditional society, social control existed in the form of customs, traditions, unwritten rules of conduct. IN modern society individual mechanisms of social control are formalized, their basis is the norms fixed in writing: decrees, laws, instructions.
Examples of social control in modern society: examination grades at school, the taxation system, product control authorities.

In sociology, there are different types and forms of social control.

Internal and external control.
A person who has mastered social norms is able to independently regulate his actions, coordinating them with the generally accepted system of values and approved patterns of behavior. This is internal control (self-control), which is based on the moral principles of a person.
External control is a set of social institutions that regulate people's behavior and ensure compliance with generally accepted norms and laws.

Informal and formal control.
Informal (intra-group) control is carried out by participants in a social process and is based on the approval or condemnation of the actions of the individual by the immediate environment (colleagues, acquaintances, friends, family members), public opinion.
Formal (institutional) control is carried out by special public institutions, control bodies, government organizations and institutions (army, court, municipal institutions, media, political parties, etc.).

The mechanism of social control is formed by certain elements:
1) social norms - prescriptions indicating how one should behave in society;
2) positive and negative social sanctions - means of encouragement (reward) or censure (punishment), regulating people's behavior, stimulating them to comply with social norms and act for the benefit of society;
3) methods of social control (isolation, separation, rehabilitation);
4) specific measures (certain forms of physical, economic, emotional impact on the individual).

Social sanctions are different types of reaction on the part of society to the behavior of a person or group and certain forms of influence on it.
Depending on the method of influence on the individual, formal and informal sanctions are distinguished.
Social sanctions can be negative (blaming) and positive (encouraging).
Formal negative sanctions - punishments and measures to prevent deviant behavior coming from official organizations (for example, a fine, reprimand, demotion, dismissal, deprivation of civil rights, imprisonment, confiscation of property).
Formal positive sanctions are various ways of encouraging the activities of an individual that come from official bodies and institutions (for example, announcing gratitude, conferring an honorary title, government award, election to a high office).
Informal negative sanctions - an expression of dissatisfaction, condemnation of a person coming from informal persons and social groups (for example, ridicule, unfriendly feedback, remark, complaint, defiant ignorance).
Informal positive sanctions - approval of a person's actions coming from informal persons and social groups (for example, praise, gratitude, compliment, approving smile).

Self-control, or internal control, is the application by a person of positive and negative sanctions in relation to himself.

Assessing his actions, a person compares them with the system of norms, customs, moral rules, value orientations, standards of proper behavior adopted by him.
Self-control is an important mechanism for maintaining social stability, based on a conscious volitional effort, restraint of involuntary impulsive urges. The higher the level of development of self-control among members of society, the less society has to resort to external control and negative sanctions.
Conscience is a manifestation of internal control, the ability of a person to independently formulate his own moral duties. Conscience is an indicator of a developed self-awareness of a person, a sense of duty, responsibility.

The efforts of society aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing and correcting deviants are defined by the concept of "social control".

Social control is a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

In the broad sense of the word, social control can be defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society *, moral, state control, etc., in the narrow sense, social control is the control of public opinion, publicity of the results and evaluations of activities and people's behavior.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

Sanctions - any reaction on the part of others to the behavior of a person or group.

There is the following classification of sanctions.

Types of sanctions

Formal:

- negative - punishment for breaking the law or violating the administrative order: fines, imprisonment, etc.

- positive - encouragement of a person's activity or act by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.

Informal:

- negative - condemnation of a person for an act by the society: offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, defiant ignoring of a person, etc.

- positive - gratitude and approval of unofficial persons - friends, acquaintances, colleagues: praise, approving smile, etc., etc.

Sociologists distinguish two main forms of social control.

social control

Internal (self-control)

A form of social control in which the individual independently regulates his behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms

A set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws

Informal (intra-group) - based on approval or condemnation from a group of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as from public opinion, which is expressed through traditions and customs or through means mass media

Formal (institutional) - based on the support of existing social institutions (army, court, education, etc.)

In the process of socialization, norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness or guilt, pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.

Generally accepted norms, being rational prescriptions, remain in the sphere of consciousness, below which is located the sphere of the subconscious, or unconscious, consisting of elemental impulses. Self-control means containment of the natural elements, it is based on volitional effort.

In a traditional society, social control rested on unwritten rules; in modern society, it is based on written norms: instructions, decrees, decrees, laws. Social control has gained institutional support. Formal control is carried out by such institutions of modern society as the court, education, the army, production, the media, political parties, and the government. The school controls thanks to examination grades, the government - thanks to the system of taxation and social assistance to the population, the state - thanks to the police, the secret service, state channels of radio, television, and the press.

IN Russian Federation created special bodies for the implementation of social control. These include the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, federal Service security, various financial control bodies, etc.

social behavior

Deputies of various levels are also vested with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations play an increasing role in Russia, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in monitoring labor relations, the state of the environment, etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, corrects, etc., is called supervision. Supervision is carried out not only at the micro, but also at the macro level of society. The state becomes its subject, and it turns into a specialized public institution.

The more self-control developed among members of a society, the less that society has to resort to external control. And vice versa, the less self-control is developed in people, the more often the institutions of social control come into action, in particular the army, the court, the state. The weaker the self-control, the tighter the external control must be. However, strict external control, petty guardianship of citizens hinder the development of self-consciousness and expression of will, muffle internal volitional efforts.

Methods of social control

Insulation

Establishment of impenetrable partitions between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempt to correct or re-educate him

Isolation

Limiting the deviant's contacts with other people, but not his complete isolation from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready to fulfill the generally accepted norms again

Rehabilitation

The process by which deviants can prepare to return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society

SIBERIAN ACADEMY OF PUBLIC SERVICE

INSTITUTE FOR RETRAINING SPECIALISTS

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT

Course work

in sociology

Topic: social control (on the example of Russia)

Completed by: Vlasova T.N.

gr. 08611 GMU

Checked by: Shukshina Z.A.

Novosibirsk 2010

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………3

Chapter I. The essence of social control………………………………………….5

1.1. The concept of social control, its functions………………………..…….5

1.2. Social norms as a regulator of behavior…………………………………7

1.3. Sanctions as an element of social control……………………….………9

1.4. self control……………………………………………………………………………………..12

Chapter II. Social control in modern Russia……………………….14

2.1. Organized crime in modern Russia…………..……….14

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….19

List of literature used…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Introduction

Society is a self-regulating complex social system. The most important role in social regulation public life plays social culture, social values, norms, social institutions and organizations. However, in social structure society there is and plays an important role a special structural formation - the institution of social control. He acts as part of common system social regulation and is called upon to ensure by various means the normal orderly functioning and development of society, as well as to prevent and correct such social deviations that are capable of disorganizing public life and social order.

This topic is relevant, because. society is a dynamic system, and as this system develops, various traditions, norms, and values are formed and developed. In addition, a person is interested in a calm and prosperous life, in social order, in the successful development and functioning of society. All this is provided by the institution of social control, and the more it develops and improves, the more organized and prosperous the society will be. Therefore, the system of social control needs to be studied more deeply, to find various ways to resolve social conflicts and improve the current social culture.

Target term paper- to determine the role of social control in society, to identify the dependence of the direction and content of social control on the economic, political, ideological and other characteristics of a given social system, historically determined by the level of its development.

The set goal determined the following tasks:

Consider the essence of social control.

Familiarize yourself with the various functions of social control.

Explore forms of social control.

object this course work is directly the institution of social control, public relations, and subject- its close relationship with society, the forms in which it is carried out, as well as the effectiveness of the impact of social control on society.

ChapterI. The essence of social control

1.1 The concept of social control, its functions

Term "social control" was introduced into scientific vocabulary by a famous French sociologist, one of the founders of social psychology, G. Tardom, who proposed to consider it as one of critical factors socialization. Later, in the works of a number of scientists - such as, for example, E. Ross, R. Park, A. Lapierre - a theory of social control was developed.

So, social control - it is a way of self-regulation of the social system (society as a whole, social group and others), which ensures through normative regulation the purposeful impact of people and other structural elements of this system, their orderly interaction in the interests of strengthening order and stability 1.

The main purpose of social control is to maintain order and stability in society, as well as to ensure social reproduction (continuity) in the direction corresponding to the development strategy chosen by a particular society. Thanks to the mechanisms of socialization, prescription, encouragement, selection and control, the social system maintains a balance.

The following distinguishing features of social control can be pointed out:

1) orderliness, categoricalness and formality: social norms are often applied to an individual without taking into account his personal characteristics; in other words, a person must accept a norm only because he is a member of a given society;

2) connection with sanctions - punishments for violation of norms and rewards for their observance;

3) collective implementation of social control: social action is often a reaction to a particular human behavior, and therefore can be both a negative and a positive incentive when choosing goals and means to achieve them 2.

The mechanism of social control plays a crucial role in strengthening the institutions of society. Figuratively speaking, this mechanism is the “central nervous system» social institution. Social institution and social control consist of the same elements, i.e.

e. identical rules and norms of behavior, fixing and standardizing the behavior of people, making it predictable.

Social control in relation to society performs two main functions:

protective function. This function sometimes prevents social control from acting as a supporter of progress, but the list of its functions does not include the renewal of society - this is the task of others. public institutions. So, social control protects morality, law, values, requires respect for traditions, opposes the new, which has not been properly tested.

stabilizing function. Social control acts as the foundation of stability in society. Its absence or weakening leads to disorder, confusion and social discord.

Conclusion: social control - component a more general and diverse system of social regulation of people's behavior and public life. Its specificity lies in the fact that such regulation is of an orderly, normative and rather categorical nature and is ensured by social sanctions or the threat of their application.

1.2. Social norms as a regulator of behavior

Everyone understands that no one could successfully build their relationships with other people and social organizations without mutual correlation of actions with the rules approved by society.

Element of social control reaction to the behavior of a person or group

These rules, which serve as a standard in relation to our actions, are called social norms.

social norms- these are prescriptions, instructions and wishes of varying degrees of severity, forcing individuals to act as it is customary to do in a given society, in a specific situation 3. Social norms act as regulators of people's behavior. They establish boundaries, conditions, forms of action, determine the nature of relations, stipulate acceptable goals and ways to achieve them. The assimilation of social norms of society, the development of an individual attitude towards them occur in the process of socialization.

Norms impose obligations and mutual responsibility on the participants in social interaction. They concern both individuals and society. Based on them, the whole system is formed social relations. At the same time, norms are also expectations: society expects predictable behavior from an individual who performs a certain role. The individual also assumes that society will justify his trust and fulfill his obligations.

Social norms perform an important function - they support and preserve social values, what is recognized in society as the most important, significant, indisputable, deserving of attention: human life and dignity of the individual, attitude towards the elderly and children, collective symbols (coat of arms, anthem, flag) and the laws of the state, human qualities (loyalty, honesty, discipline, diligence), religion. Values are the basis of norms.

Social norms in a generalized form reflect the will of society. Unlike values that are recommended for choice (which predetermines differences in the value orientations of many individuals), norms are more stringent, mandatory 4.

There are several types of social norms:

1) customs and traditions, which are habitual patterns of behavior;

2) moral norms based on collective authority and usually having a rational justification;

3) legal norms enshrined in laws and regulations issued by the state. More clearly than all other varieties of social norms, they regulate the rights and obligations of members of society and prescribe penalties for violations. Compliance with legal norms is ensured by the power of the state;

4) political norms that relate to the relationship between the individual and power. between social groups and between states are reflected in international legal acts conventions, etc.;

5) religious norms, which are supported primarily by the belief of the adherents of religion as a punishment for sins. Religious norms are distinguished on the basis of the scope of their functioning; in reality, these norms combine elements characteristic of legal and moral norms, as well as traditions and customs;

6) aesthetic norms that reinforce ideas about the beautiful and the ugly 5.

Social norms are determined by the diversity of social life, any direction human activity regulated by them. Different kinds social norms can be classified according to the following criteria:

by the scale of distribution - universal, national, social group, organizational;

by functions - orienting, regulating, controlling, encouraging, prohibiting and punishing;

according to the degree of increasing severity - habits, customs, manners, traditions, laws, taboos. Violation of customs or traditions in modern society is not considered a crime and is not strictly condemned. A person bears strict responsibility for violating laws 6.

Conclusion: thus, social norms perform very important functions in society. features:

Regulate the general course of socialization;

Integrate individuals into groups, and groups into society;

Control deviant behavior;

They serve as models, standards of behavior.

Deviation from the norms is punished with sanctions.

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Social norms constitute one of the elements of the mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society, which is called social control .

social control- a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.

Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.

social sanction- any reaction to the behavior of a person or group by others.

Types of social sanctions:

Formal negative - punishment for breaking the law or violating the administrative order: fines, imprisonment, correctional labor, etc.
Informal negative - Condemnation of a person for an act by society: offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, defiant ignoring of a person, etc.
Formal positive - encouragement of a person's activity or act by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.
Informal positive - gratitude and approval of informal persons (friends, acquaintances, colleagues): praise, approving smile, etc.

The purposeful influence of this system on the behavior of people in order to strengthen order and stability is provided by social control. How does the mechanism of social control work? Any activity is diverse, each person performs many actions, interacting with the social environment (with society, social communities, public institutions and organizations, the state and other individuals). These actions, individual actions, behavior of a person are under the control of the people around him, groups, society.

As long as they do not violate public order, existing social norms, this control is invisible. However, it is worth breaking the established customs, rules, deviating from the patterns of behavior that are accepted in society, social control manifests itself. The expression of dissatisfaction, the announcement of a reprimand, the imposition of a fine, the punishment imposed by the court - all this sank tions ; along with social norms, they are the most important element of the mechanism of social control. Sanctions are either positive, aimed at encouraging, or negative, aimed at curbing undesirable behavior.

In both cases, they are classified as formal if they are applied in accordance with certain rules (for example, awarding an order or punishment by a court sentence), or informal sanctions if they manifest themselves in an emotionally colored reaction of the immediate environment (friends, relatives, etc.). neighbors, colleagues). Society (large and small groups, the state) evaluates the individual, but the individual also evaluates society, the state, and himself. Perceiving the assessments addressed to him by the people around him, groups, state institutions, a person accepts them not mechanically, but selectively, rethinks through his own experience, habits, previously learned social norms. And the attitude to the assessments of other people turns out to be purely individual for a person: it can be positive and sharply negative. A person correlates his actions with social patterns of behavior approved by him in the performance of those social roles with which he identifies himself.

Forms of social control: external control and internal control.

Thus, along with the highest control on the part of society, group, state, other people, the most important is internal control, or self-control , which is based on norms, customs, role expectations, assimilated by the individual. In the process of self-control plays an important role conscience , i.e. feeling and knowing what is good and what is bad, what is fair and what is unfair; subjective awareness of the conformity or inconsistency of one's own behavior with moral standards. In a person who, in a state of excitement, by mistake or succumbing to the temptation of a bad deed, conscience causes a feeling of guilt, moral feelings, a desire to correct a mistake or atone for guilt.

So, the most important elements of the mechanism of social control are social norms, public opinion, sanctions, individual consciousness, self-control. Interacting, they ensure the maintenance of socially acceptable patterns of behavior and the functioning of the social system as a whole.

The process of social control

In the process of socialization, the norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of embarrassment, the emergence of a sense of guilt, pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.

In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control: the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies, etc. Deputies of various levels are also endowed with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in the control of labor relations, the state of environment etc.

Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, pulls, etc., is called supervision. The more self-control developed among members of a society, the less that society has to resort to external control. Conversely, the less self-control people have, the more institutions of social control come into play. The weaker the self-control, the tighter the external control must be.

Methods of social control:

Insulation- the establishment of impenetrable partitions between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him.
Isolation- limiting the deviant's contacts with other people, but not his complete isolation from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready not to violate generally accepted norms
Rehabilitation- a process in which deviants can prepare for the return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society.

Interests as Factors of Influence on Social Action

A very important role in social interaction interests play. These include: social institutions, institutions, norms of relationships in society, on which the distribution of objects, values and benefits (power, votes, territory, privileges, etc.) depends. The social nature of interests is due to the fact that they always contain an element of comparison of a person with a person, one social group with another. A set of specific social interests, along with a set of certain rights and obligations, is an indispensable attribute of each social status. First of all, these social interests are aimed at preserving or transforming those institutions, orders, social norms on which the distribution of benefits necessary for a given social group depends. Therefore, the difference in interests, as well as the difference in the level of income, working and leisure conditions, the level of prestige and the opening prospects for advancement in the social space, refers to manifestations of social differentiation.

Social interest underlies all forms of competition, struggle and cooperation between people. Habitual, well-established interests recognized by public opinion are not subject to discussion, thus acquiring the status of legitimate interests. For example, in multinational states, representatives of various ethnic groups are interested in preserving their language and their culture. Therefore, schools and classes are being created in which the study of national language and literature, cultural-national societies are being opened. Any attempt to infringe on such interests is perceived as an attack on the vital foundations of the relevant social groups, communities, and states. Modern world represents the most complicated system of interaction of real social interests. The interdependence of all peoples and states has increased. The interests of preserving life on Earth, culture and civilization come to the fore.

The system of social control is one of the elements of the mechanism of socialization of the individual. We imagined socialization as a process of mastering cultural norms and social roles. Socialization primarily concerns the individual and occurs under a certain control of society, others (not only teach children, but also control the correctness of assimilation of patterns of behavior). It is believed that social control is achieved by a combination of factors of predisposition to subjugation, coercion and obedience to social norms, rules of conduct, values. It is also interpreted as a purposeful impact of society on the behavior of an individual, and provides a normal ratio between social forces, expectations, requirements and human nature, as a result of which a "healthy" social order arises, adheres to the normal way of social life (theories of E. Ross, P. Park). The problem of social control is essentially a component of the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, the citizen and the state. Figuratively speaking, social control performs the function of a policeman who monitors the behavior of people and "fines" those who do not comply with appropriate measures. If there were no social control, people could do whatever they want and in the way they want. Therefore, social control is the foundation of stability in society, its absence or weakening leads to unrest, social anomie (ignoring norms and rules).

social control- this is a way of self-regulation of the social system, which ensures the orderliness of interactions between people due to normative regulation. His system includes all methods of reaction as large public entities, and a specific individual on various specific actions of a person or groups, all means of social pressure in order to put behavior and activities within certain social boundaries.

Considering social institutions, we see that they perform a controlling, influential, regulatory function, are reduced to a certain "social control" (we can give examples from Everyday life). Schematically, it can be explained as follows: each member of society is aware of how to behave in different situations to be clear, to know what to expect both from him and - what will be the reaction of the groups. That is, the "organized course" of our social life can be ensured due to the fact that people's behavior is mutually transferable.

Each social group develops a system of means by which each person behaves in accordance with the norms, patterns of behavior in various situations. In the process of social control, relations are formed, which, however, are much more complicated than the "fitting" of individual qualities to certain social standards. Here it is necessary to take into account the fundamental feature of the functioning of individual consciousness and social consciousness. The individual and society (social group) are interacting constituent elements of social control. This is a process of interaction between individuals and socialized (groups, classes), the scheme of which includes two types of actions: individual actions and social (group, collective) actions. But even this is not enough. It is fundamentally important to take into account some kind of additional intermediate elements of this system, variables of a socio-psychological nature: self-assessment of the subject of action (both an individual and a social group), perception and assessment of the social situation (social perception) by both an individual and a social group.

Self-assessment and assessment of the situation are important socio-psychological indicators, the manifestation of which makes it possible to largely predict the content and direction of individual and social actions. In turn, self-esteem, assessment and perception of the social situation depend on the specifics of the social and individual rating scale. Schematically, the mechanism of action of social control is shown in fig. 2.

The system of means of social control includes:

■ a system of measures, norms, rules, prohibitions, sanctions, laws, a system of suppression (including physical destruction);

■ a system of incentives, rewards, positive, benevolent incentives, etc.

All this is called the system of "social control". It is a mechanism for maintaining public order and requires two main groups of elements - norms and sanctions.

Norms are guidelines, instructions: how to behave in society. This is primarily the duty of the individual or group to others, as well as expectations (desirable behavior). They form a network of social relations, interactions in a group, society. Social norms are also "guardians" of order and values.

Sanctions are means of encouragement and punishment that encourage people to comply with the norms.

The elements of the social control system can be called:

■ habit - as an established way of an individual's behavior in various situations where he does not have a negative reaction from the group;

■ custom or tradition - as an established way of behavior, where the group binds their moral assessments and the violation of which the group causes negative sanctions;

■ laws - as normative acts adopted by the highest body of state power;

■ Sanctions - as a system of events, actions that regulate people's behavior (they were discussed above). By law, society protects the precious: human life, state secrets, property, human rights and dignity.

Social norms perform very important functions in society, namely:

■ regulate the general course of socialization;

■ integrate people into groups, and groups into communities;

■ control deviations from normalized behavior and activities;

■ serve as a model, a standard of behavior.

Sanctions- the guards of the norms, they are "responsible" for the observance of the norms by people. Social sanctions are a fairly extensive system, on the one hand, rewards, incentives for the implementation of norms, that is, for conformity, consent. On the other hand, punishments for deviation and non-compliance with them, that is, for deviance. Conformism, consistency and correctness of actions are the goal of social control. Thus, sanctions can have a positive and negative character. Another criterion for the division of social sanctions is the presence of fixing their actions in the regulatory and legislative framework. Therefore, they are divided into formal and informal. The same goes for social norms. Consequently, norms and sanctions are combined into a single whole. Based on this, the norms and sanctions can be conditionally reflected in the form of a logical square (Fig. 3).

By themselves, the rules do not directly control anything. People's behavior is controlled by other people on the basis of the same norms and on the basis of sanctioning circulars.

Formal control, as already noted, is based on condemnation or approval from official authorities or administration. It is global, it is carried out by people empowered - agents of formal control: law enforcement officers, administrative and other authorized persons.

Informal control is based on the approval or condemnation of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, public opinion. For example: the traditional local community still controls all aspects of the life of its members to this day. Religion (strict adherence to rituals and ceremonies associated with holidays and rituals) was organically woven into a single system of social control. There is a system of control and informal relations between members criminal group or incarceration communities.

A special kind of elements of social control is public opinion and self-control. Public opinion is a set of ideas, assessments, assumptions, common sense judgments that are shared by the majority of the population. It exists both in the production team and in a small settlement, in the social stratum.

Self-control is also called internal control, which manifests itself through consciousness and conscience, and is formed in the process of socialization. Scientists have found that more than 2/3 of social control is carried out through self-control. The more self-control is developed among members of a society, the less this society has to apply external control. And vice versa. The less a person has developed self-control, the more this society has to use external leverage factors.

If we expand in the coordinate system all the elements of rules and norms (X) in ascending order depending on the degree of punishment (Y), then their ordering will have the following form (Fig. 4).

Compliance with the norms is regulated by society with varying degrees of rigor. Most of all, violations of legal laws and prohibitions are punished (murder of a person, disclosure of state secrets, desecration of a shrine, etc.); and least of all - habits (elements of uncleanliness, bad manners, etc.).

Social control always has as its object undesirable behavior, action - deviations (deviations from the norm). At all times, society has sought to overcome undesirable norms of human behavior. The behavior of thieves, and geniuses, and lazy, and too hardworking, can be attributed to an undesirable norm. Various deviations from the average norm, both in a positive and negative direction, threaten the stability of society, which is most valued at all times. Sociologists call behavior rejected from the norm - deviant. It is any action that does not comply with written or unwritten norms. So, any behavior that does not cause the approval of public opinion is called deviant: "crime", "drunkenness", "suicide". But this is in a broad sense. In a narrow sense, deviant behavior is considered a violation of informal norms, enshrined in customs, traditions, etiquette, manners, and the like. And all serious violations of formal norms, laws, the observance of which is guaranteed by the state, which means that such violations are illegal, act as delinquent behavior. Therefore, the first type of behavior is relative (deviant), and the second is an absolute (delinquent) violation. Delinquency includes: theft, robbery, another type of crime.

But, as mentioned above, manifestations of deviant behavior can be not only negative, but also positive.

If we make statistical calculations, it will turn out that in civilized societies, under normal conditions, each of these groups accounts for about 10-15% of the total population. About 70% of the population are the so-called "middle peasants" - people with minor deviations in behavior and activities.

More often deviant behavior observed in adolescents. The reason is, in particular, psychological features age: the desire for thrills, the desire to satisfy curiosity, as well as the lack of ability to predict their actions, the desire to be independent. A teenager often in his behavior does not meet the requirements that society imposes on him, and at the same time is not ready to fulfill certain social roles, provided that others expect him to. In turn, the teenager believes that he does not receive from society what he has the right to count on. All these contradictions are the main source of deviation. About 1/3 of young people somehow participate in any illegal actions. The most common forms of deviation among young people are: alcoholism, prostitution, drug addiction, hooliganism, suicide.

Thus, at one pole there is a group of persons showing the most unflattering behavior (criminals, rebels, terrorists, traitors, vagrants, cynics, vandals, etc.). At the other extreme, there is a group of people with the most acceptable deviations (national heroes, outstanding figures in science, sports, culture, talents, successful civilized entrepreneurs, missionaries, patrons of the arts, etc.).