Both world wars affected Africa. In each of them, the African continent, seemingly so far from European political conflicts, was forced to take an active part. However, the contribution of Africans to the victory over fascism remains largely underestimated.
For Africans, World War II began in 1935 when Italy invaded Ethiopia. In a sense, it continued - in the form of a struggle for independence - long after 1945, when Africans demanded recognition of their contribution to the Allied victory over Nazi Germany. The Second World War had a profound impact on the understanding of class, racial, political problems throughout the world. In fact, the Second World War became a catalyst for the crisis in the colonial empires and served to transform the nature of political activity throughout the African continent. If before 1945 the struggle of the African peoples against colonial oppression was for the most part not so much for self-government as for some degree of participation in existing governments, then after the war the demand for independence became the basis of the program of all African organizations that counted on popular support. “1945 was the greatest watershed in modern Africa. The most important factor contributing to the growing spirit of indignation in Africa during this period was the return home of African soldiers who participated in the Second World War. African troops were rarely completely reliable for the imperialists, and their uprisings and protests played an important role in the development of African national consciousness. Especially great unrest among the African troops occurred during the Second World War. Fighting in distant countries, they were imbued with the spirit of the anti-fascist war and returned home completely different. In their own countries, former war veterans were resolutely unwilling to return to low-paid hard work, to the military and post-war years there were mass rallies, demonstrations, mutinies of military personnel and former soldiers.
Not much is said about the African campaigns of World War II in Russia. However, by the beginning of the war, Africa (especially northeast) had become a strategic foothold, for which a fierce battle unfolded. In many ways fighting on the "dark continent" they predetermined the delay in the opening of the second front. While the Allies were fighting for Africa, the Red Army had already launched a counteroffensive.
American soldiers land on
shore at Azreve in Algiers during an operation
"Torch"
The North African campaign (June 10, 1940 - May 13, 1943) was military operations between the Anglo-American and Italian-German troops in North Africa - on the territory of Egypt and the Maghreb during the Second World War. In its course, the famous battles of the British with the troops of the German General Rommel, known as the "desert fox", and the landing of American-British troops in Morocco and Algeria took place ( landing operation"Torch", November 1942). The East African campaign officially lasted less than a year and a half - from June 10, 1940 to November 27, 1941, however, Italian soldiers continued to fight in Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea until the end of 1943, until the surrender order reached them. De Gaulle and British troops landed on Madagascar, which was a supply base for Japanese submarines in the Indian Ocean, in May 1942, and by November of that year the island was liberated from Vichy and Japanese troops.
Academician A.B. Davidson wrote that during the Second World War, military operations in Tropical Africa were conducted only on the territory of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somalia. “In 1941, British troops, together with Ethiopian partisans and active participation Somalis occupied the territories of these countries. There were no hostilities in other countries of Tropical and South Africa. But hundreds of thousands of Africans were mobilized in the armies of the mother countries. More more people had to serve the troops, work for military needs. Africans fought in North Africa, in Western Europe, in the Middle East, in Burma, in Malaya. On the territory of the French colonies, there was a struggle between the Vichy and supporters of the "Free France", which, as a rule, did not lead to military clashes. The policy of the mother countries in relation to the participation of Africans in the war was ambivalent: on the one hand, they sought to use the human resources of Africa as fully as possible, on the other, they were afraid to allow Africans to modern species. Most of the mobilized Africans served in the auxiliary troops, but many still completed full combat training, received military specialties as drivers, radio operators, signalmen, etc. ”
By the beginning of the war, Africa (especially northeast) had become a strategic foothold, for which a fierce battle unfolded.
Over a million African soldiers fought on the side of the colonial powers in World War II. Few of them initially understood the causes of the war and the meaning of what they fought for. Only a few soldiers knew more about Hitler and fascism.
One of the veterans, John Henry Smith of Sierra Leone, recalled that his teacher gave him to read " Mein Kampf» Hitler. “We read what this man was going to do to black Africans if he came to power. It was a book that would make every African revolt against someone like it happened to me." So John became a volunteer and joined the ranks of the Royal air force Great Britain, where he served as a navigator.
Africans in World War II found themselves, as in 1914, drawn into a "not their own" war. Since 1939, hundreds of thousands of soldiers from West Africa have been sent to the European front. Many inhabitants of the British colonies served as porters or did other work in the service of the troops. Although there were Africans willing to fight fascism voluntarily, in most cases there was a forced mobilization of Africans to the front.
French African soldiers
colonial army
Whether soldiers or prisoners of war, Africans at the front were in close contact with European soldiers and the realities of European life. They realized that Europeans are the same mortal, vulnerable people, no higher and no better than themselves. It should be noted that the attitude towards black soldiers on the part of their white comrades in arms and commanders was often biased and unfair. The well-known South African politician Ronnie Kasrils noted in his article dedicated to the visit of South African President J. Zuma to Moscow to celebrate the 70th anniversary of the Victory over Nazi Germany that “racial discrimination in the South African army was so deeply rooted that the dead, black and white were buried separately. He gave examples of the feats that some of the South African soldiers had accomplished and noted that if they were not black, they would certainly have received the highest British military award, the Victoria Cross. Instead, black soldiers received overcoats and bicycles as rewards at the end of the war.
The war experience has changed Africans' understanding of their own situation in many ways. Many veterans took part in the liberation movements upon their return to their homeland, but some of them were reproached by the independence fighters for fighting on the side of the colonialists and oppressors. Many of the living African veterans of the second world feel bitterness, because their contribution to the victory over fascism was not appreciated. Deutsche Welle quotes 93-year-old war veteran Albert Kuniuku from Kinshasa (DR Congo), chairman of the Veterans Union: “I receive a monthly pension for participation in the war in the amount of 5,000 Congolese francs (this is equal to 4.8 euros, ). This is not worthy of someone who defended the Belgian interests.
Africans in World War II found themselves, as in 1914, drawn into a "not their own" war.
Africans also knew about the role Soviet Union in the fight against fascism. More educated, politically active Africans who participated in the war had, apparently, a sufficient idea about this. However, there were also curiosities. Senior member of the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, veteran of the Great patriotic war P.I. Kupriyanov, at the celebration of Victory Day within the walls of the Institute in 2015, told a curious incident: a few years after the end of the war, he visited Liberia, where an elderly Liberian once came to his hotel, who, in wartime, listened on the radio about the successes of the Red Army and came look at the Soviet soldier. He noted with surprise that soviet soldier young enough, not huge, and his skin color is not red. From listening to the radio, he got the image of a giant soldier with a red skin tone, because only such amazing people, as it seemed to a simple African, could crush the Nazi army.
Congolese bugler, 1943
In the article already mentioned above, the South African politician Ronnie Kasrils noted that “the victory over fascism saved the world from slavery and catastrophe. It also led to the collapse of the colonial system and contributed to the independence of Africa and the emergence of armed liberation movements, such as ours, which received support from the USSR and the countries of the socialist camp. He noted that attempts are being made to downplay and distort the role of the USSR in the victory over fascism, to rewrite history, and pointed out the danger of such attempts. They are dangerous because the concealment of the truth about the Second World War for the sake of geopolitical interests entails the oblivion of the lessons of history by modern youth around the world. R. Kasrils noted that fascism is now on the rise in different parts of Europe and that the world must jointly prevent its new spread.
Despite the efforts to present England and America as the main winners, and despite the real importance of the Allied victories in North Africa, the Battle of Britain, the opening of the second Western Front, R. Kasrils emphasized that the main theater of the war was Eastern front, the confrontation between the USSR and Nazi Germany, where the outcome of the war was decided. “Propaganda and lies are generated by the West in order to hide the true nature of the Second World War and the huge debt in which humanity is in front of the Russian people and peoples former USSR. They, without any doubt, took the brunt and saved the world from fascism.
For African countries, as well as for Russia, it is important to remember the history of their participation in the Second World War as it was, not allowing its distortion, downplaying the role of those who fought against fascism, forgetting their important contribution to the common victory over this evil.
Charter of the Organization of African Unity. We, the African Heads of State and Government, assembled in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,...
www.uiowa.edu/ifdebook/issues/africa/docs/doc15.shtml
Charter of the Organization of African Unity
We, the African Heads of State and Government, gathered in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, are convinced that it is the inalienable right of all people to control their own destiny, Aware of the fact that freedom, equality, justice and dignity are important goals for achieving legitimate aspirations of the African peoples, Conscious of our responsibility to use the natural and human resources of our continent for general development our peoples in all spheres of human activity.
Encouraged by common aspirations to promote mutual understanding between our peoples and cooperation between our states in response to the aspirations of our peoples for brotherhood and solidarity, overcoming ethnic and national differences into larger unities.
Convinced that, in order to translate this determination into a dynamic force in the cause of human progress, the conditions for peace and security must be created and maintained, determined to preserve and consolidate the hard-won independence, as well as the sovereignty and territorial integrity of our state, and fight against neo-colonialism in all its forms,
Dedicated to the overall progress of Africa,
Convince that the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, principles to which we reaffirm our commitment, provide a solid foundation for peaceful and constructive cooperation among States,
Desiring that all African states should henceforth be united so that the well-being and well-being of their peoples can be assured,
Determined to strengthen ties between our countries through the creation and strengthening of common institutions,
Agreed to this Charter.
INSTITUTION
1. The organization must include the continental states of Africa, Madagascar and other nearby islands.
1. The organization has the following goals:
() to promote the unity and solidarity of African states;
(b) coordinate and intensify cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa;
(c) to protect their interests, their territorial integrity and independence;
(d) for the purpose of eradicating all forms of colonialism from Africa, and
(e) promoting international cooperation, taking into account the Charter of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
2. For these purposes, the Member States ~ to coordinate and harmonize their common policies, especially in the following areas:
() Political and diplomatic cooperation;
b) economic cooperation, including transport communication;
(c) educational and cultural cooperation;
(d) health, sanitation and nutrition cooperation;
(f) Scientific and technical cooperation and
(g) cooperation for defense and security purposes.
PRINCIPLES
Article III
The Member States, in achieving the objectives referred to in the article, solemnly affirm and declare their commitment to the following principles:
1. Sovereign equality of all Member States.
2. Non-intervention in the internal affairs of states.
3. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of every Santa "and his inalienable right to an independent existence.
4. Peaceful settlement of disputes through negotiations,
5. Unconditional condemnation, in all its forms, of political "murder, as well as subversive activities of any other states.
6. Absolute commitment to the total emancipation of Africa: the territories that remain dependent.
MEMBERSHIP
Every independent sovereign African state has the right to become a member of the organization.
Rights and obligations of a SIATES member
All Member States shall enjoy equal rights and have equal obligations.
Member States undertake to strictly observe the principles enumerated in Article III of this Statute.
INSTITUTIONS
Article VII
The organization must achieve its objectives through the following main institutions:
1. Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
2. Council of Ministers.
3. General Secretariat.
4. Commission for Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration.
Assemblies of Heads of State and Government of Countries
Article VIII
The Assembly of Heads of State and Government should be the supreme body of the Organization. This proposal, subject to the provisions of this Constitution, is a discussion of common interest to Africa for the purpose of coordinating and harmonizing the general policy of the Organization. Possibly, in addition to considering the structure, functions and activities of all bodies and any specialized agencies that may be established in accordance with this Charter.
The Assembly will be composed of the Heads of State and Government, or their duly accredited representatives, and shall meet at least once a year. At the request of any Member State, and upon the approval of a two-thirds vote of the Member States, the Assembly shall meet in extraordinary session.
2. All resolutions must be determined by a two-thirds vote of the members of the Organization.
3. Questions of procedure require a simple majority. Whether or not it is a matter of procedure, determined by a simple majority vote of all member states of the Organzation.
4. Two thirds of the total number of members of the organization form a quorum at meetings of the Assembly.
The Assembly has the authority to determine its own rul' procedures.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Article XII
1. The Council of Ministers consists of the Ministers for Foreign Affairs or other ministers who are appointed by the governments of the Member States.
2. The Council of Ministers shall meet at least twice a year. At the request of any Member State and approved by two-thirds of all Member States, it meets in extraordinary session.
Article XIII
1. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. She should be given responsibility for preparing the Conference of the Assembly.
2. It shall accept any question referred to it by the Assembly. It should be entrusted with the implementation of the decision of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. He shall coordinate inter-African cooperation as directed by the Assembly in accordance with Article II (2) of this Statute.
Article XIV
2. All resolutions are determined by a simple majority vote of the members of the Council of Ministers.
3. Two-thirds of the total number of members of the Council of Ministers shall constitute the Quorum for any meeting of the Council.
The Council has a POVA to determine its own rules of procedure.
GENERAL SECRETARIAT
Article XVI
There must be General Secretary Organizations that are appointed by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. The Secretary General directs the affairs of the Secretariat.
Article XVII
There shall be one or more Assistant Secretary-Generals of the United Nations who are appointed by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
Article XVIII
The functions and conditions of service of the Secretary-General, of the Assistant Secretaries-General and other members of the Secretariat, shall be governed by the provisions of this Constitution and the rules approved by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
1. In the performance of their duties, the Secretary-General and the staff of the Secretariat shall not seek or receive instructions from any government or from any other body outside the Organization. They must refrain from any action that might affect their position as international officials responsible only to the Organization.
2. Each Member of the Organization undertakes to respect the exclusive nature of the duties of the Secretary-General and the staff and not to seek to influence them in the performance of their duties.
CONCILIATION COMMISSION AND ARBITRATION
Article XIX
The Member States undertake to resolve all disputes among themselves by peaceful means and, to this end, to decide on the establishment of a commission for mediation, conciliation and arbitration, a separate protocol is established to be approved by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. Said protocol cannot be considered as an integral part of this Statute.
Special Commission
The Assembly to establish such specialized commissions as this to me shall be deemed necessary, including the following:
1. Economic and social commission.
2. Education, Science, Culture and Health Commission.
3. Defense Committee.
Article XXIII
The organization's budget prepared by the Secretary General must be approved by the Council of Ministers. The budget must contain contributions from Member States in accordance with the United Nations scale of assessments, provided, however, that no Member State shall determine an amount exceeding twenty per cent of the annual regular budget of the Organization. Member States agree to pay their contributions regularly.
Article XXIV
1. This Charter is open for signature to all independent sovereign states of Africa and is subject to ratification by signatory states in accordance with their own constitutional processes.
2. The original document, made if possible in the African languages, in English and French, all texts being authentic, shall be deposited with the Government of Ethiopia, which shall be certified copies of this Convention to all the sovereign states of Africa.
3. Instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Government of Ethiopia, which shall notify all signatories of each such deposit.
ABOUT REGISTRATION OF THE CHARTER
Article XXVI
This Charter, after due ratification, shall be registered with the Secretariat of the United Nations through the Government of Ethiopia in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.
Article XXVII
Any question that may arise as to the interpretation of this Constitution shall be decided by a two-thirds vote of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the Organization.
Article XXVIII
1. Any independent sovereign African State may at any time notify the Secretary General of its intention to join the t.c. or accede to this Charter.
2. The Secretary General, upon receipt of such notification, shall communicate copies of it to all Member States. Admission must be decided by a simple majority vote of the Member States. The decision of each Member State shall be submitted to the Secretary General, who shall, upon receipt of the required number of votes, take common decision states.
Article XXIX
The IHO working languages of the Organization and all its institutions should be, as far as possible, African languages, English and French, Arabic and Portuguese.
The Secretary General may accept, on behalf of the organization, gifts, bequests and other donations to the organization, provided this is approved by the Council of Ministers.
Article XXXI
The Council of Ministers decides on the privileges and immunities to be accorded to the employees of the Secretariat in the respective territories of the Member States.
Termination of membership
Article XXXI
Any state that wishes to resign its membership shall send a written notification to the Secretary General. At the end of one year from the date of such notice, if not withdrawn, the Charter shall cease to apply in respect of the relinquishment of a State which thereby ceases to belong to the Organization.
Amendments to the Charter
Article XXXII
This Constitution may be amended and modified if any Member State makes a written request to the Secretary-General to that effect, provided, however, that the proposed amendment is not submitted to the Assembly for consideration until all Member States have been duly notified by one year has passed. Such an amendment would not be effective if approved by at least two-thirds of all Member States.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, we, the Heads of Government of the States of Africa, have signed this Charter.
Done at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
GLOSSARY OF MAIN TERMS
AUTONOMY self-government, the right of the population of any national-territorial unit to independently decide the affairs of internal government.
APARTHEID - race separation policy.
ARAB SOCIALISM - a political movement in the Arab world, which is a mixture of pan-Arabism and socialism in 1050-1960, the ideological basis of the Baath Arab Renaissance Party.
AFGHANIYAT- Pashtun nationalism "from above" in Afghanistan.
VAKUF - land (property) provided as a gift to religious institutions that are not subject to taxation and alienation.
WAFD - nationalist political party in Egypt.
VELAYAT-E-FAQIH- The rule of the theologian-jurist in Iran.
WESTERNIZATION - borrowing the Anglo-American or Western European way of life in the field of economics, politics, education and culture.
STATE- MONOPOLISTIC CAPITALISM a new, more developed form of monopoly capitalism, which is characterized by the combination of the strength of the capitalist monopolies with the strength of the state in order to preserve and strengthen the capitalist system, enrich the monopolies, suppress the labor and national liberation movements, and unleash aggressive wars.
DECOLONIZATION independence process.
JAMAHIRIA form state structure in Libya.
DISCRIMINATION 1) restriction or deprivation of the rights of a certain category of citizens on the basis of race or nationality, on the basis of gender, etc. 2) D. in international relations - the establishment of less rights for representatives, organizations or citizens of one state than for representatives, organizations or citizens of another state.
DOMINION state, former English colony, which is part of the British Commonwealth (formerly the British Empire). The English king is considered the head of state in the domain, but internal administrative and political self-government is preserved.
DURANI Pashtun tribal group in Afghanistan.
DUSTUR political party in Tunisia.
FOR people in Eastern Nigeria.
INKATA Zulu Party in South Africa, leader M. Buteleze.
INTIFADA Palestinian uprising.
YORUBA people in Western Nigeria.
"IRGUN-BET" radical Jewish organization in Palestine.
INVESTMENTS long-term investment in industry, Agriculture, transport and other sectors of the economy both within the country and abroad for the purpose of making a profit.
INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY this is a society characterized by a developed and complex system of division of labor with a high degree of specialization, mass production of goods, automation of production and management, and widespread introduction of innovations in production and people's lives. Thus, the determining factor in the development of an industrial society is industry. An industrial society implies the emergence of an integral nation-state organized on the basis of a common language and culture, a reduction in the share of the population employed in agriculture, urbanization, an increase in literacy, the expansion of the electoral rights of the population, the application of scientific achievements in all areas public life.
INFRASTRUCTURE a complex of economic sectors serving industrial and agricultural production (construction of highways, canals, ports, bridges, airfields, warehouses, energy management, rail transport, communications, water supply and sewerage, general and professional education, spending on science, healthcare, etc.), as well as the population.
ISLAMIC FACTOR - politicization of Islam.
ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALISM- A politicized Islamic trend, the ultimate goal of which is the creation in the Muslim world of a state-political system of "righteous caliphs", a radical political movement "painted" in Islamic tones, the top of which mostly consists of Muslim religious figures who advocate a significant strengthening of the role of Islam in political, social, economic spheres of states - for the transfer of the highest state power into the hands of the religious elite.
INTIFADA - Palestinian uprising.
KIBBUTS agricultural Jewish communes in Palestine.
COLONIALISM political, economic and spiritual enslavement of countries, as a rule, less developed in socio-economic terms, by the ruling classes of exploiting states. Most often this concept is applied to the era of monopoly capitalism, when the territorial division of the world was completed and the colon, the system of imperialism, was formed. The origin and formation of the colonial system began in the 15th century. and took place mainly in direct violent forms (military seizures, looting, etc.). The colonies were direct sources of enrichment for the metropolises, the basis for the initial accumulation of capital. During the industrial revolution in Europe, the export of raw materials from the colonial countries increased. Later, the export of capital to the colonies began, the world was divided among the imperialist powers, and the colonial system arose. After the 2nd World War, the collapse of the colonial system began. By the beginning of the 1980s, as a result of the victories of the national liberation movements, colonialism as a system had been eliminated everywhere.
COMPRADO BOURGEOSIS part of the bourgeoisie of economically backward countries (both colonies and independents), carrying out trade intermediation with foreign companies in the domestic and foreign markets and closely connected with the colonialists.
CONDOMINIMUM (CONDOMINATE) joint possession, domination; joint exercise in one territory of state power by two or more states.
CONCESSION an agreement for the commissioning on certain conditions of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities belonging to the state or municipalities.
XENOPHOBIA hatred for strangers, foreigners.
CLANS - kindred associations, an element of the social system in the countries of the East.
Likud - bloc of right-wing parties in Israel.
LOYA JIRGA - emergency congress of tribal leaders in Afghanistan.
MEJLIS - parliament in Muslim countries (Türkiye, Iran).
MASLAKHAT– the principle of interest and expediency, reconciliation of religious-ideological norms and rationality in Iran.
MENTALITY (MENTALITY) a kind of warehouse of various mental qualities and properties, as well as their manifestations.
MILITARISM in a broad sense - building up the military might of the exploiting state with the aim of implementing a policy of aggressive wars and suppressing the resistance of the working masses within the country.
NATIONALIZATION the transition from private ownership to state ownership of land, industry, transport, communications, banks, etc. H. has a different socio-economic and political content, depending on who, in the interests of which class and in what historical era it is carried out. The legal basis of N. is the sovereign right of the state to freely dispose of its own natural resources and wealth.
NEGRITUDE theory emphasizing the superiority of the black race.
NEOCOLONIALISM a system of unequal (economic and political) relations imposed by the imperialist states on the sovereign developing countries of Asia, Africa and Lat. America; aimed at preserving the imperialist exploitation and dependence of the peoples of these countries. The material basis of H. in developing countries is the monopoly capital of the imperialist powers - foreign companies (or their branches), banks, etc.
NEPOTISM - patronage of relatives.
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN UNITY(OAU), a union of African states. It was formed at a conference in Addis Ababa, independent states of Africa in May 1963. In 1999, the OAU included 53 states. The goals of the OAU: strengthening the unity and coordination of the actions of African countries, the economic development of African countries, etc. Ch. bodies of the OAU - the Assembly of Heads of State and Government (meets at least once a year, each state has one vote in the assembly, the decision of the assembly is considered adopted if 2/3 of the members of the OAU voted for it); Council of Ministers (meeting at least 2 times a year). Headquarters in Addis Ababa. In 2002, the African Union was created instead of the Organization of African Unity.
ORGANIZATION "ISLAMIC CONGRESS"(OIC; Organization of the Islamic Conference), founded in 1969. Unites most of the Muslim states and the Palestine Liberation Organization. According to the charter, the activities of the OIC are aimed at strengthening "Muslim solidarity" and cooperation between member states. Headquarters in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia).
UNITED NATIONS (UN) international organization founded in 1945. Conferences were held in San Francisco. The UN Charter, adopted on June 26, 1945, entered into force on October 24 after the deposit of instruments of ratification with the US government by five great powers: the USSR, the USA, Great Britain, China, and France. The 50 states that participated in the conference and signed the Charter are considered the founders of the UN. Purposes of the UN under the Charter; maintenance of international peace and security, prevention and elimination of the threat of war, suppression of acts of aggression, resolution of conflicts, development of friendly relations between peoples, establishment of cooperation. Principal organs of the UN; General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, and Secretariat. UN headquarters in New York, offices in Geneva and Vienna. Geneva is the headquarters of the United Nations specialized agency for education, science and culture (UNESCO).
ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL CONTRACT OF CENTO military-political grouping in the Near and Middle East. Created in 1955 as part of the UK, Turkey, Iraq (withdrew from the organization in 1958), Iran and Pakistan. After Iran and Pakistan left the organization in March 1979, on the initiative of the Turkish government, it ceased its activities in August 2979.
OTENBA tribe in Saudi Arabia.
OPPOSITION 1) opposition, resistance, opposition of one's views, one's policy to any other policy, other views. 2) A party or group acting contrary to the opinion of the majority or to the prevailing opinion.
Palmach Jewish special forces created in Palestine during the Second World War.
PANAFRICANISM ideological and political movement of African nationalists advocating political independence, economic liberation and unity of the peoples of Africa.
PANARABISM - a nationalist trend among the Arab bourgeoisie in favor of the political unification of all Arab states.
PANTURKISM - the ideology of the unity of all Turkic peoples.
PARCHAM- a faction in the People's Democratic Party in Afghanistan.
PATERNALISM a special type of patronage relationship that involves the provision of certain social and economic guarantees and benefits in exchange for personal loyalty. Modern forms paternalism spread and formed in the countries of catch-up development, as well as in European countries that went through the stage of the “economic miracle” after the Second World War. Driven by paternalism's resurgence modern era connected with the need to adapt the traditional forms of creation and social ties to the realities of the modernization process. The experience of organizing labor relations of Japanese corporations became a symbol of the new paternalism after the Second World War. In the 80s. cooperation of paternalism was extended to the problem social aspects state policy.
POLITICAL SYSTEM of society - a holistic, ordered set of political institutions, political roles, relationships, principles of political organization, subordinate to the code of political, social, legal norms, the installations of the political regime of a particular society.
POLITICAL CULTURE of the states of Asia and Africa - interweaving of features, institutions, stereotypes of thinking, norms traditional for Afro-Asian countries with borrowing from the theories and practices of the Western world.
"POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY" common in modern bourgeois sociology and futurology designation of a new stage community development, allegedly following the industrial capitalist society. The concept of P. o ”is a further development of the popular in the 60s. the theories of the "industrial society" of the French sociologist R. Aron and the "stages of economic growth" of the American sociologist W. Rostow. Its most prominent representatives are D. Bell, G. Kahn, Z. Brzezinski (USA), J. J. Servan-Schreiber, and A. Touraine (France). The main provisions of the concept "P. O." are also shared by many other bourgeois sociologists, economists, political scientists and futurologists. In the concept of "P. O." these authors contribute unequal content. In general, the concept of P. o” claims the role of a general sociological theory of the postulate, the development of mankind. The basis of membership world history pre-industrial (agrarian), industrial (capitalist and socialist), and post-industrial (D. Bell and others) society is subject to the level of production technology, as well as sectoral and prof. division of labor; the importance of societies, relationships, property, and class struggle is diminished. In the concept of P. O." contains a clear desire to formulate a theoretical alternative to the Marxist doctrine of socio-economic formations, to replace social revolutions with technological revolutions, to oppose communism with a different social ideal, which predetermined its popularity among bourgeois ideologists.
In the concept of P. O." it is argued that, depending on the level of technology (the so-called technological determinism), society is consistently dominated by the “primary” sphere of economic activity (agriculture), the “secondary” (industry), and now it is entering the “tertiary” sphere of services, where science and education take the leading role. Each of these three stages has specific forms. social organization(church and army - in an agrarian society, a corporation - in an industrial one, universities - in a post-industrial one), as well as the dominant role of a certain class (priests and feudal lords, businessmen, scientists and professional specialists). This concept actually tries to perpetuate antagonistic social relations, for in P. o” social heterogeneity, inequality and alienation of the individual, division into the ruling, technocratic elite and controlled masses of the population, private property and political conflicts. Thus, ultimately “P. O." by no means a "new stage" in social progress, but only a projected into the future, modernized, rationalized and idealized state-monopoly capitalism. Such a society, of course, cannot serve as a social ideal attractive to the working people. The concept of P. O." speculates on the relative independence of modern scientific and technological revolution and expresses the interests of the top scientific intelligentsia, seeking to enter the ruling class capitalist society. It is one of the extreme forms of bourgeois-liberal reformism as applied to modern conditions the general crisis of capitalism, the coexistence of the two systems and the scientific and technological revolution. It is characterized by the readiness noted by V. I. Lenin to declaratively renounce capitalism, but at the same time the refusal to recognize that socialism and communism are its historical successor.
PROTECTORATE a form of colonial rule; dependent state or territory.
PROTECTIONISM economy, state policy aimed at supporting the national economy. It is carried out with the help of trade and political barriers that protect the domestic market from the import of foreign goods and reduce their competitiveness.
PASHTONS residents of Afghanistan, the main national group.
SEPARATISM the desire for separation, isolation; movement for the separation of part of the state and the creation of a new public education or for granting autonomy to part of the country.
SYNCRETISM fusion, indivisibility, characterizing the initial, undeveloped state of something, for example, the norms of law, morality and religion in a primitive society.
ZIONISM the most reactionary variety of Jewish bourgeois nationalism, which became widespread in the 20th century. among the Jewish population of capitalist countries. Contemporary socialism is a nationalist ideology, an extensive system of organizations, and a policy that expresses the interests of the big Jewish bourgeoisie, which is closely connected with the monopoly bourgeoisie of the imperialist states. The main content of modern S. is militant chauvinism, racism, anti-communism, and anti-Sovietism. S. emerged as a political trend in the late 19th century. It was designed to distract the Jewish working masses from the revolutionary struggle to preserve the dominance of the bourgeoisie over the working people. In pursuance of these goals, the ideologists of S. put forward plans for solving " Jewish question"by creating a "Jewish state" with the help of the great powers. The ideological doctrine of S. is very eclectic. It actively uses many dogmas of Judaism, and also includes the theories of bourgeois nationalism, social chauvinism, and others transformed by S. ideologists. Its main provisions are to the following: the Jews of various countries of the world represent an extraterritorial "single worldwide Jewish nation"; Jews are a "special", "exceptional", "chosen by God" people; all the peoples among which the Jews live are, one way or another, anti-Semites; anti-Semitism is a phenomenon " eternal "; assimilation, i.e., the merging of Jews with the peoples surrounding them, is "unnatural and sinful", Jews do not have "historical rights" to the "lands of biblical ancestors." After the formation in 1948 by decision of the UN, the state of Israel ) S. became the official state ideology of Israel.The main goals of S. proclaim the unconditional support of this state by the Jews of the whole world, the gathering in Israel of Jews from all over the world, the treatment in the Zionist spirit of the Jewish population of various countries. S. sets the task of expanding this state to the borders of the so-called. "Great Israel".
SOTO people in South Africa.
The second half of the twentieth century was the time of the liberation of the African continent from colonial dependence (see Fig. 1). Many former colonies of European states gained freedom and independence, but at the same time, these countries faced a fierce struggle for power by political and military groups, civil wars, famine and mass epidemics. At the same time, young African countries became objects of observation by the great powers. Under the conditions of the Cold War, the two military-political blocs began to try to draw African countries into their orbits. The development of African countries in the second half of the twentieth century will be discussed in this lesson.
background
By the end of World War II, almost all of Africa was divided between colonial empires. Second half of the 20th century - the time of active processes of decolonization, the collapse of colonial empires.
Events
South Africa
1948. - the Nationalist Party (white minority party) comes to power in South Africa and begins to pursue a policy of apartheid.
1950. - in accordance with the policy of apartheid, a number of laws were passed:
- Group Settlement Act (led to the removal of Africans from large cities),
- Population Registration Act (obliging to always carry a certificate indicating the ethnic group),
- The law on the suppression of communism.
1959. - A law was passed on the development of "Bantu self-government". Under this law, it was supposed that different races and ethnic groups should live separately.
1960. - 17 African states received freedom from colonial dependence ( Year of Africa and the collapse of the colonial system).
1963. - the Organization of African Unity arose, which advocated strengthening the national sovereignty of African states, against colonialism and neo-colonialism.
Mid 1970s. - the collapse of the last (Portuguese) colonial empire.
1983. - the United Democratic Front of all the forces that fought against apartheid was created (it included the previously existing African National Congress and Inkata).
1994. The first free presidential elections were held in South Africa. Nelson Mandela became president.
Angola
1950s. - three organizations participate in the struggle for the liberation of Angola:
- People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA),
- Union of the population of the North of Angola. Later - National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA),
- National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).
1975. - an agreement between Portugal and three organizations on the procedure for the transition of Angola to independence.
1980s. - After gaining independence in the country, a struggle for power began between the three organizations. A truce was reached in 1989.
Late 1960s - early 1970s. - national democratic revolutions in a number of African countries (1969 - Somalia, 1972 - Benin, 1974 - Ethiopia and a number of others). These countries formed a group of countries with a socialist orientation and maintained close relations with the USSR, which provided them financial assistance. After the collapse of the USSR in 1991, these countries changed their course.
2001. - Created the African Union. Its aims are to contribute to the economic and political independence African states. By 2000, the total external debt amounted to $370 billion.
Members
Kwame Nkrumah- the first president of the Republic of Ghana from 1960 - 1966.
Agostinho Neto- President of Angola from 1975 to 1979
During the second half of the 20th century, part of the "young" African countries began to receive assistance from the capitalist world led by the United States, and the other part from the USSR. Thus, according to their ideological and political principle, African countries, for the most part, were divided and fell into the orbits of two superpowers. There remained one more part of the states - those that decided to enter the so-called. " Non-Aligned Movement”, i.e. stay away from warring military-political blocs.
The countries that joined the blocs began to receive large sums of money aimed at their development, weapons, equipment and specialists who helped develop the economy. Trade agreements were concluded, according to which, for the assistance provided, developing countries paid with certain resources.
The acquisition of national independence faced a constant struggle for power and armed coups. If initially all power went to a few educated people who aspired to create a state on the principles of freedom and democracy, then over time the military took power, establishing the most brutal dictatorship (see Fig. 2).
A striking example of such a struggle for power is the following. The former colony - the Belgian Congo - gained independence in 1960. new country led by a young democratic leader Patrice Lumumba, who aspired to create a single state, to overcome disagreements between tribes (see Fig. 3). Lumumba enlisted the support of the USSR, but was soon overthrown by the military leader Joseph Mobutu and killed.
In the 1960s dictatorial regimes were established in most African countries. One of the worst is the Jean Bokassa who proclaimed himself Emperor of Central Africa. This ruler ate the meat of his dead enemies.
In the 1970s in the territories of African states, the interests of the two superpowers clashed. So, after 1975 in Angola broke out Civil War(although, in fact, it has been going on for 10 years). The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), led by Agostinho Neto, was pro-communist, and the Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Savimbi, spoke from nationalist positions with US support. As a result of this struggle, Netto won (see Fig. 4). The USSR, Cuba, and a number of socialist countries rendered invaluable assistance to Angola in its development, modernization of industry, medicine, education, and so on.
In southern Africa, in the Republic of South Africa, an apartheid regime was established - racial oppression of the black population by whites. Whites did not want to give power to the black majority. The attitude of whites towards blacks was practically the same as during the colonial expansion and slavery. The leader volunteered to lead the struggle of blacks for their rights African National Congress (ANC)Nelson Mandela who was eventually sentenced to life in prison. Only in 1989, Mandela was released, and in 1994 he became President of South Africa. To date, apartheid has been established in this republic, but already in relation to the white minority.
At the turn of the XX -XXI centuries Africa is a continent whose countries, like 50 years ago, face the same social, economic and political problems.
Bibliography
- Shubin A.V. General history. recent history. Grade 9: textbook. For general education institutions. Moscow: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
- Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. M.: Education, 2010.
- Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: Education, 2011.
Homework
- Read paragraph 25 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. and answer questions 1-4 on page 284.
- How can one explain the existence of tacit apartheid in South Africa today?
- What periods are usually divided into the collapse of the colonial system in Africa? Why these particular periods?
- Internet portal Kinshasa.ru ().
- Internet portal Coldwar.ru ().
- Internet portal Publicevents.ru ().
Lecture 18 Africa between the two world wars
I. Africa after the end of the First World War
Until relatively recently, it was customary in Europe to ignore African history - many believed that it did not exist. Nevertheless Africa is a special world it is a multitude of peoples and cultures, social structures and religions, completely different in their spirit. And Africa had its own history, more than once large states arose and collapsed there, although, of course, this had its own specifics. Africa can be broadly divided into two regions: Northern and Tropical.
northern edge African continent became part of Arab-Islamicskoy civilization. It has always been stronger gravitation towards the nearerhim to the East, than links with the rest of Africa. Traditional societies relied on their own strong religious and civilized foundation - back in the Middle Ages, the Islamic Ottoman Empire dominated North Africa.
However, from the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. Europeans impose their masterstvo through the establishment of protectorates, unequal treaties, military agreements and direct annexation, opening the way for the penetration of a new civilization. The peoples faced a kind of choice, which was reflected in the struggle between reformers and traditionalists.
South of the Sahara, in Tropical Africa, there was no choice between modernization and traditionalism. One could either remain at the level of primitiveness, or borrow European innovations, develop, although this led to colonial dependence.
By the start of World War I, much of Africa was bydivided among the European powers. Essentially independent Ethiopia, which, unlike most African countries, had its own civilizational foundation - Orthodoxy.
In the middle of the XIX century. V West Africa descendants of slaves once settled in Africa founded Liberia. were semi-independent Egypt and the Union of South Africa. The rest of Africa was colonial.
France had the largest colonial system in Africa in terms of territory - 43% of the territory. In addition to dominance in countries Mageriba (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia), V Tropical parts of the continent had two main French colonies.
French West Africa arose in 1904 and included territories of 8 countries(French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey, Mauritania, Niger, French Sudan and Senegal). Its administrative center was Dakar.
Another colony - French Equatorial Africa- was established in 1910; it included Gabon, Chad, French Congo and Ubangi-Shari. The capital was Brazzaville.
In East Africa, France owned a small territory of French Somalia and the Comoros. During the First World War, she captured a huge the island of Madagascar.
In addition, a League of Nations mandate was issued to the former German colonies: France got most of Cameroon and halfTogo.
French colonization was carried out in three directions: from north to south (from Morocco), from west to east (from Senegal) and from south to north (from Congo).
Dominions of England in Africa covered 38% of the territory. In the west, it had two small colonies - the Gambia and Sierra Leone, the oldest colony of the Gold Coast (Ghana) and the largest country in Africa in terms of population - Nigeria. The latter was created literally on the eve of the war, in 1914.
But the main area of English colonization was in the south: in addition to positions in South Africa (Union of South Africa - British dominion), the British founded a self-governing "white colony" - Southern Rhodesia and four protectorates (Basutoland, Swaziland, Bechuanaland and Northern Rhodesia).
In East Africa, Sudan was ruled by an Anglo-Egyptian condominium from 1899. True, in 1936 a new treaty was concluded that expanded the powers of Egypt, but still the British government sought to gain a foothold in Sudan. In addition, in eastern Africa, England had two protectorates: Nyasaland and British Somalia and the colony of British East Africa, which consisted of Kenya and Uganda.
After the war, England received League of Nations mandate to control the former German East Africa (Tanganyika), as well as byshared territories in West Africa (Togo and Cameroon) with France.
Another former German colony - South West Africa (Namibia) was transferred under the control of the Union of South Africa, the British dominion. Under the mandate of other countries passed all the possessions of Germany, with a total area of 2.5 million km 2 and with a population of 13 million people. Belgium also received a mandate for the former German territories of Rwanda and Urundi; in addition, she ruled a vast territory in the center of Africa - the Belgian Congo.
The oldest colonial power in Africa was Portugal (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau). A number of small areas Spain(Spanish Sahara, Spanish Guinea, Fernando Po Island, Spanish Morocco). On the eve of the war, she began to create her own colonial empire and Italy- she settled in Somalia, Eritrea, sought to gain a foothold in Libya.
What motivated the Europeans to seize the colonies? Obviously, not only the desire to grab more territories for themselves, although this also took place. They were attracted to Africa by resources: in the 18th century. - slaves; from the 19th century - fossil resources (rare and non-ferrous metals, precious stones); in the 20th century -- Agricultural products (coffee, cocoa beans, cotton, peanuts, bananas, pineapples) and valuable timber.
Only at the beginning of the XX century. began intensive development interior areas: European settlements, plantations, farms were created, mining developed, a system of monetary taxation was introduced. The local population had difficulty accepting innovations, even in everyday life: the need to work regularly, observe discipline, strictly fulfill their duties, etc.
Infrastructure facilities were built in Africa: railways, ports, a communication system, as well as European-style administrative institutions, schools, and hospitals. Christianity spread through missionary work.
It would seem that over the decades of colonialism, there has been a trend towards the modernization of Africa, towards the penetration of European elements into traditional society. Outwardly, it looked like this:
A) in economics a sector connected with the external market was created, producing export crops, serving the needs of African territories in industrial goods;
b) in the social sphere qualified cadres from the local African elite appeared who received a European education and gradually occupied posts in the colonial apparatus;
V) in the political sphere European elective institutions and authorities were planted, political associations arose along the lines of European parties;
G) in the field of culture European languages became the languages of communication for the educated part of the population, Western legislation and the Christian religion were accepted; many Africans began to join Western culture, get an education at the Sorbonne, Oxford and Cambridge.
However, these were only external signs, often camouflaging the true situation.
In economics as before, the majority of the population was employed in the traditional way, led agriculture in a primitive way, practiced handicrafts, otkhodnichestvo - many did not even have the skills of regular intensive labor.
3 social sphere the old structure was preserved (large family, clans, communities, tribes), there was a former hierarchy of local leaders and princelings, a complex system of inter-clan and inter-tribal relations, slavery; the authority of local healers and priests was high.
In the political realm, even where new political institutions arose, it happened on the basis of the old social system - they were dominated by leaders, priests and other former authorities.
In the field of culture achievements were also often purely external: Christianity was perceived formally, traditional cultures and primitive ideas still dominated in the minds and behavior of the local population. Especially in social behavior, in everyday life, Africans were guided not so much by the postulates of Christianity as by the customs and traditions of their peoples.
Thus, the achievements of European colonization were only limited. They failed to turn into a gradual acceptance by Africa of the standards of Western civilization, although sometimes it looked like this. Many traditions of the past, above all commonality, dragged Africa back. Structures adapted, terribly resisting the new, that which violated their usual way of life.
ІІ . Features of the policy of metropolitan countries in Africa
The First World War increased the interest of the mother countries in their African colonies. Natural resources began to be intensively exploited, in some places even the production potential was developed. Hundreds of thousands of African soldiers took part in the fighting on the fronts (France alone mobilized over 250 thousand soldiers in its colonies).
This had important consequences for the activation of the local African elite: various kinds of “compatriots”, ethnic associations, cultural and educational societies and other centers of a nationalist orientation were springing up everywhere. The African intelligentsia is grouped around the editorial offices of newspapers, publishing houses, and elected city municipalities.
In the 1920s appear Africa's first political parties:in 1920 - the African National Congress (SAC), in the same year - the National Congress of British West Africa, in the British colonies of East Africa "welfare associations", the Association of Africans of Tanganyika, etc. professional career. The first African unions.
The so-called Pan African congresses. Back in 1900, the 1st Pan-African Conference took place in London, and in 1919, during the Paris Peace Conference, the 1st Constituent Congress of the Pan-African Movement took place. For the first time, not only specific demands were put forward (to abolish corporal punishment, racial discrimination of the local population, the use of forced labor in the colonies), but also a strategic task was set: to involve Africans in managing the affairs of the colonies, to develop the political institutions necessary to achieve independence in the future.
Although subsequent congresses in the 1920s were dominated by Negroes from the United States and the West Indies, this intensified national consciousness in the African colonies themselves. The leaders of the Pan-African movement at that time were William Dubois ("the father of Pan-Africanism") and Marcus Garvey.
The latter saw a way out in encouraging the resettlement of American Negroes in Africa and demanded in this regard, in particular, to annex the Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone to Liberia, proposed to deprive England and France of mandates to manage African colonies. Pan-Africanists also preached the theory of the racial exclusivity of the Negro peoples, the ideas of "Negritude" and the "African personality".
One form of nationalism in Africa was the so-called afro-christian movement. In 1926 was founded "Association youmovecev from Equatorial Africa" led by Andre Grenar Matsua- this organization used the forms of civil disobedience proposed by the Indian M.K. Gandhi. in Belgian Congo in1920s sharply intensified simon kimbangu sect, preaching "God's chosen people of Africans". Her followers often resorted to violent action against Christian missionaries. In areas dominated by Islam, the movement against the European colonialists often took place under the slogans of "jihad" - the fight against "infidels".
The policy of the metropolitan countries in relation to their African colonies was supposed to gradually form there political institutions operating on the basis of a democratic procedure, that is, according to European principles. This adaptation of Africa was difficult, slow and uneven - everything depended on the regions.
In most of their colonies England policy for a long time "indirect control" that is, it sought to rely on traditional social structures, on tribal leaders, although it had its own English governors. Administrative control over the territories was transferred by the British to local leaders, according to the "Law on Native Authorities" of 1907. But the supreme power was still in the hands of the British residents. They also controlled the activities of the "native courts" on the basis of the law of 1913.
Gradually the policy changed. In the British colony of the Gold Coast (Ghana) and in other territories, elected Legislative Assemblies were formed. The number of Africans in them constantly increased, their powers expanded. The British spoke of their intention to accustom Africans to democratic self-government, starting from their usual forms.
The British subordinated the Executive Councils under the governors to the Legislative Assemblies. They also included Africans. Subsequently, they even began to be appointed by the governors to the posts of prime ministers. At the next stage, with the granting of independence, the posts of governors were also to be abolished - Africans became presidents. That's in in general terms the policy of the British in the development of the system of government in their African colonies.
France from the very beginning, it adhered to a slightly different policy: it sought to adapt the local African population, to introduce it to French culture. Introduced into the colonies French, a lot of missionary work was carried out among the population, education and health systems were introduced according to European models, representatives of the tribal aristocracy studied at the Sorbonne.
A system was created direct administrative control: in the colonies, bureaucratic structures were reproduced along the lines of France. Gradually, the people in this apparatus were replaced by those trained in top universities West Africans.
Some Africans were given the opportunity to become full citizens. According to the naturalization law of 1912, this required serving in the French service for at least 10 years, being able to read and write, and also having the means of subsistence - those by the end of the 1930s. in the French colonies there were 80 thousand people. Thus, the French hoped over time to adapt the African population, turning it into loyal subjects of France. Certain categories of the population of the African colonies gradually received the right to be elected to local self-government bodies and even the right to send their representatives to the French parliament (Senegal received such a right as early as 1848).
A similar system, with an even more obvious goal - the speedy assimilation of the African population, was carried out in the colonies Portogallium. She could rely there on numerous Portuguese colonists and their organizations. Local residents were divided into two categories: "civilized" and "uncivilized". Moreover, the process of "civilization" was strictly monitored; original criteria for belonging to the “civilized” category were even developed: knowledge of the Portuguese language, professing Christianity, “good character”; an African had to have a "good income", pay taxes, serve in the administration or in the army, "lead the Portuguese way of life."
However, the process of "Portuguese" was slow: on the eve of the Second World War in Angola, 24 thousand Africans were classified as "civilized", in Mozambique - only 1.8 thousand. In the 1920s. Portugal in its colonies contributed to the transition to a commodity economy, demanding the payment of taxes in cash. Compulsory labor contracting systems were also widely used.
The most rigid policy towards the local population was pursued by Belgium in the Belgian Congo. This gigantic country, inhabited by various peoples, was ruled from 1908 by the Belgian civil administration, headed by a governor-general. Forced labor was widely used there, and the death rate among Africans was high in the first 20 years. 20th century The population has more than doubled.
Shortly before the First World War, in one of the provinces of the Congo - Katanga, copper mining began, thanks to which Katanga in the 1920s-1930s. became much richer than the rest of the Congo. But this was of little concern to the Belgians - their main efforts were directed to the intensive exploitation of natural resources.
Little attention has been paid to the economic well-being of Africans. No political activity was not allowed in the Congo, the education and health systems were in their infancy. Education above primary was considered unacceptable for Africans. The transfer of power into the hands of the local population was not part of the plans of the Belgians, so no steps were taken to educate even the elite.
| " |
| Country (old name) | part of the world | Year of Independence | Metropolitan country |
| 1. Korea 2. Vietnam 3. Indonesia 4. Jordan (Transjordan) 5. Lebanon 6. Syria 7. Philippines 8. India 9. Pakistan 10. Myanmar (Burma) 11. Israel (Palestine) 12. Sri Lanka (Ceylon) 13. Laos 14. Libya 15. Cambodia (Kampuchea) 16. Morocco 17. Tunisia 18. Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan) 19. Ghana (Gold Coast) 20. Malaysia 21. Republic of Guinea 22. Ivory Coast (Coast Ivory) 23. Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) 24. Gabon 25. Benin (Dahomey) 26. Cameroon 27. Zaire (Congo) 28. People's Republic of the Congo 29. Mauritania 30. Mali 31. Madagascar 32. Niger 33. Nigeria 34. Senegal 35. Somalia 36. Togo (Togoland) 37. Central African Republic 38. Chad 39. Cyprus 40. Kuwait 41. Sierra Leone 42. Tanzania (Taganyika) 43. Yemen Arab Republic 44. Algeria 45. Burundi 46. Rwanda 47. Uganda 48. Trinidad and Tobago 49. Jamaica 50. Western Samoa 51. Kenya 52. Zambia (N. Rhodesia) 53. Malawi (Nyasaland) 54. Malta 55. Republic of Maldives 56. Singapore 57. Gambia 58. Guyana (Brit. Guiana) 59. Botswana (Bechuanaland) 60. Lesotho (Basutoland) 61. Barabados 62. Democratic People's Republic of Yemen (Aden) 63. Mauritius 64. Nauru 65. Swaziland 66. Equatorial Guinea (Rio Muni) 67. Kingdom of Tonga 68. Fiji 69. Bahrain 70. Qatar 71. United Arab Emirates (Oman Negotiated) 72. Bangladesh (East Pakistan) 73. Commonwealth of the Bahamas 74. Guinea-Bissau 75. Grenada 76. Mozambique 77. Cape Verde (Cape Verde Islands) ) 78. Sao Tome and Principe 79. Comoros 80. Papua New Guinea 81. Angola 82. Suriname (Netherlands Guiana) 83. Seychelles 84. Djibouti (French Coast of Somalia) 85. Solomon Islands 86. Tuvalu (o- wa Ellis) 87. Dominica 88. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 89. Saint Lucia 90. Kiribati (Gilbert Islands) 91. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 92. Zimbabwe 93. Vanuatu (New Hebrides) 94. Belize (UK) Honduras) 95. Antigua and Barbuda 96. Saint Kitts and Nevis 97. Brunei 98. Federated States of Micronesia (Caroline Islands) 99. Republic of the Marshall Islands 100. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 101. Namibia (South West Africa) 102. Eritrea 103 Republic of Palau 104. East Timor | Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Asia Africa Asia Africa Africa Africa Africa Asia Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Africa Asia Asia Africa Africa Asia Africa Africa Africa America America Oceania Africa Africa Africa Europe Asia Asia Africa America Africa Africa America Asia Africa Oceania Africa Africa Oceania Oceania Asia Asia Asia Asia America Africa America Africa Africa Africa Africa Oceania Africa America Africa Africa Oceania Oceania America Oceania America Oceania America Africa Oceania America America America Asia Oceania Oceania Oceania Africa Africa Oceania Oceania | Japan France Netherlands Great Britain France France Spain, USA Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain France Italy France France, Spain France and Egypt United Kingdom United Kingdom France France France France France Germany, UK Belgium France France France France France UK France UK Germany, France, UK France France UK UK UK Germany, UK Great Britain France Germany, Belgium Germany, Belgium Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Germany, USA Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain, New Zealand and Australia Great Britain Spain France UK and Germany, Australia ward Portugal Netherlands UK France UK UK UK Germany, Japan, US ward UK UK UK UK and France Great Britain Great Britain Great Britain Germany, Japan, US ward Germany, Japan, US ward Germany, Japan, US ward Germany, Great Britain, South Africa Italy, since 1950 - as part of Ethiopia Germany, Japan, US guardianship Indonesia |
APPENDIX 3
End of the world colonial system
As noted earlier, by the beginning of the 20th century. the leading European powers completed the colonization of vast expanses of Asia, Africa, Latin America, Australia and Oceania.
In 1919, the colonies and dependent countries accounted for 72% of the territories and 69.4% of the world's population.
Timeline of gaining independence
The African continent was subjected to the greatest extent of colonialist expansion. Six "great powers" of Europe seized 25 million square meters. km of land, i.e., a space 2.5 times the size of all of Europe, and enslaved over half a billion (523 million) of the population.
The following figures are eloquent: France owned a territory of 10,545 thousand square meters. km, England - 8973 thousand, Germany - 2459 thousand, Belgium - 2337 thousand, Italy - 2259 thousand, Portugal - 2076 thousand, Spain - 333 thousand.
sq. km. Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained formally independent.
The decolonization of countries and continents began in parallel with the process of colonial expansion.
The countries of Latin America were the first to join the process of decolonization. Also in early XIX V. powerful national liberation movements swept through this continent, as a result of which most of the countries of Latin America gained independence.
By 1826, Spain had only Cuba and Puerto Rico left of the entire huge national empire.
The First World War and the economic and political crises that followed it in the leading colonial powers contributed to the rise of the national liberation movement. However, the colonies have not yet formed enough social forces capable of victorious performances.
In 1917, only three countries gained political independence.
The intensive disintegration of the colonial system began after the Second World War. In 1943-1959. 20 countries gained independence. In the 1960s-1970s.
About 50 countries. During this entire period, about 100 new sovereign states emerged in place of colonies and politically dependent countries.
In Asia, the most impressive was the victory of the national liberation movement over British imperialism.
In India, this struggle was waged by the Indian National Congress party under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. In 1947, the territory of the British colony of India was divided into two dominions - the Indian Union and Pakistan. In 1950, the Indian Union became the sovereign Republic of India. Following India, Pakistan also proclaimed its sovereignty.
Similar processes developed in Southeast Asia. During the Second World War, a significant part of the territory of Southeast Asia was captured by the Japanese imperialists.
The defeat of Japan in the Second World War was accompanied by the growth of the national liberation movement and the independent declaration of independence by the colonies of European states.
In 1945, one of the largest states in this region, Indonesia, was the first to independently proclaim its independence from the Netherlands.
In 1949, the Netherlands were forced to recognize the sovereignty of this republic.
In August 1945, an uprising broke out in French Indochina led by Ho Chi Minh. In September 1945, an independent state, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, was proclaimed by the rebels on the territory of Vietnam. The French colonialists did not want to accept the loss of Indochina. They launched hostilities and tried to restore their former status as a metropolis by force. In 1949, they created the state of Vietnam on the occupied territory.
In 1954, as a result of major military defeats, they signed the Geneva Accords, in which they recognized the sovereignty of Vietnam. The year before, in 1953, two other states of French Indochina, Cambodia (Kampuchea) and Laos, gained independence.
The most intensive process of decolonization in the 50-60s.
took place in Africa. This process began in the north of the continent. At the end of 1951, Libya achieved national independence from Italy. In 1952, in the struggle against the British colonialists, Egypt gained independence.
In 1954, the former French colonies of Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan won their independence.
From the north, the wave of the national liberation movement moved south and swept through West, Central and East Africa. In 1957, the British colony of the Gold Coast - Ghana, was the first among the colonial countries of tropical Africa to gain independence. In 1958 Guinea became free.
1960 was named "Year of Africa".
In that year 17 colonies were proclaimed independent states: Cameroon, Togo, Senegal, Mali, Madagascar, Zaire, Somalia, Benin (Dahomey), Niger, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Central African Empire, Congo, Gabon, Nigeria, Mauritania.
In 1962, Algeria, Rwanda and Burundi gained independence. In 1963 - Kenya and Zanzibar. In 1964 - Malawi (New Seland) and Zambia. In 1966 - Lesotho. In 1968 - Swaziland, Equatorial Guinea and Mauritius (Republic of Guinea-Bissau). Thus, with the exception of a number of territories in the south of the country, by the 80s. 20th century The African continent was decolonized, which means that the colonial system collapsed throughout the globe.
However, gaining political independence did not automatically ensure economic independence, let alone prosperity.
In most of these countries, there was a mixed economy, primitive, archaically backward relations, a low level of education of the population, hunger and poverty.
In economic terms, they were completely dependent on their mother countries, remained the "world village" of the capitalist economic system. The former metropolises continued to consider these countries as treasuries of raw materials, areas for capital investment and sales markets, as a source of multimillion-dollar superprofits.
Colonialism was replaced by neo-colonialism - a system of various forms and methods used by developed capitalist countries to keep the liberated countries in a subordinate, dependent position.
This system included various agreements forcibly imposed by the mother countries that limited the sovereignty of the young states and granted various privileges to the former mother countries or other industrial states - from military bases to the exclusive right to strategic raw materials.
One of the important instruments of neo-colonialist policy is the so-called "financial aid". As a result of this assistance, the liberated states fell into such debt bondage, from which they do not dream of getting out even in the third millennium. Thus, thanks to the neo-colonialist policy, the former mother countries retain strong levers of influence on the newly freed countries: technical and economic, financial, trade, military and political.
However, the liberated countries, with increasing perseverance, advocate a radical restructuring of the entire system of their relations with the capitalist world.
At this stage, the struggle for a new economic order (NMEI) is of decisive importance. At the center of this struggle is the question of revising the international division of labor that developed during the period of the colonial system, for equality and mutually beneficial cooperation.
No less, and perhaps more important for the fate and well-being of the former colonies and other states that developed according to the eastern type of civilization, are internal transformations, the modernization of all spheres of their life.
This modernization is aimed at achieving four main goals: 1) accelerating development; 2) industrialization; 3) development of a Western-type culture; 4) preservation of one's own cultural tradition, one's cultural identity.
Historians identify three most common types of modernization.
The first type is the introduction in full and the adaptation of elements of Western civilization to their own conditions. We are talking about a full-scale transition to a system of market relations, the creation of developed institutions of democracy and the rule of law. The most striking examples of the implementation of this modernization option are Japan and India. Following the course of modernization, these countries have achieved impressive success.
Japan achieved the greatest results, reaching the second place in the world in terms of gross national product. It is no coincidence that publicists in the 80-90s. they talked about the "Japanese miracle".
The Japanese and Indian experience shows that their success is due to the fact that the transfer of elements of the Western type of civilization in these countries was not carried out mechanically. They skillfully adapted to the peculiarities of Eastern societies.
In particular, in Japan, a significant role of community relations has been retained. As a result, Japanese capital acquired a collectivist, corporate character. A Japanese company is a corporate community where the worker, employee, manager and shareholder are guided not only by their personal interests, but above all by the interests of the company.
In the political sphere, the clan principle plays a significant role. Political parties are more rigidly organized, they are dominated by strict party discipline.
The second type is associated with the predominant introduction of organizational and technological elements of an industrial society while maintaining the most important elements of the eastern system of social relations.
The most striking example of this type of modernization is Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. The economic basis for the implementation of modernization in these countries was the sharp jump in oil prices that occurred as a result of the Arab-Israeli war of 1973. A stream of petrodollars poured into the oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf. At the expense of these funds, a modern oil-producing and oil-refining industry was created, transport infrastructure was developed, universities, libraries, schools, and hospitals were built.
However, the values of the Arab-Islamic civilization remained unchanged, including the monarchical form of government and Islamic judiciary, Sharia as the basis for regulating public and personal relations.
The third type is characterized by the desire to master the organizational and technological structures of an industrial society while denying the economic and political mechanisms of the Western type of civilization: the market, democracy, the rule of law.
With this option, an industrial base, scientific potential, and a layer of qualified specialists are created. However politic system remains a classic oriental type. In this system, the personality cult of the leader, the dominance of the bureaucracy, the restriction of human rights and freedoms, and strict public control over the behavior of individuals flourish.
The third option is the most common modernization option, followed by most Asian and African countries.
In the political science literature, this option was called the socialist and non-capitalist paths of development. The socialist path was realized by China of the era of Mao Zedong and North Korea. Non-capitalist path - Libya, Syria, Iraq, Ghana, etc. However, as experience shows, this option does not solve the pressing problems of countries. The market necessarily demands democracy.
In some countries from this group, in the 80-90s, the democratization of public life began. Thus, the existence of different types of civilization shows that this process is faced with significant difficulties, but at the same time, it is still going on. Therefore, it can be argued that humanity is gradually moving to a new, more high level civilizational development.
The end of World War II served as a powerful impetus for national liberation movements around the world. Already since the late 1940s. decolonization processes began in Asia, which increased their strength with each new decade. The decolonization of the countries of Asia and Africa will be discussed in this lesson.
Preview
Until the end of the Second World War, ko-lo-ni-al-nye vla-de-nia for-ni-ma-li almost a third of the land.
Many countries were lu-ko-lo-ni-i-mi or sub-man-dat-us-mi ter-ri-to-ri-i-mi. After the Second World War, in the foreign countries, the movement for independence intensified. This is a pre-ve-lo to the processes of de-ko-lo-ni-za-tion (about-re-te-niya ne-vi-si-mo-sti was-shi-mi-ko-lo-ni -i-mi).
Events
1946 - 1950.
- in Asia and Africa, there are 13 independent states.
1946 - 1954- War in Viet Nam. For-ver-shi-las in-ra-same-ni-em France.
1951. - Libya ob-re-la independence-vi-si-bridge.
1954 - 1962- the war in Al-zhi-re, in re-zul-ta-te-something Algeria gained independence-vi-si-bridge.
1955- The first conference of the Af-ri-Kan-sky and Asian-At-states, in which 28 countries took part.
1956- Ne-ve-si-bridge about-re-whether Ma-rok-ko and Tunisia.
1960- Ne-vi-si-bridge in Lu-chi-la So-ma-li.
1960 - Year of Af-ri-ki: about 45 states-of-states about-re-whether independence-vi-si-bridge.
1974- Ne-vi-si-bridge in-lu-chi-li An-go-la and Mo-zam-bik.
1990- Na-mi-biya became an independent state-su-dar-stvo.
2001- the African Union was created.
Its goals: to contribute to the achievement of eco-but-mi-che-sky and in-li-ti-che-ne-vi-si-mo-sti af-ri-kan -sky state-states. By 2000, the total foreign debt amounted to 370 billion dollars.
India
1947“Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niya provides the independence of India. On the territory of the former British colony, there are two independent states - India and Pa-ki- mill.
1950- India pro-voz-gla-she-on re-pub-li-koy.
The first pre-mier-mi-ni-strom becomes Ja-va-har-lal Nehru.
Indonesia
In the na-cha-le of the 20th century, almost the entire ter-ri-to-riya of In-do-ne-zii was the Dutch ko-lo-ni-her and no-si-la in the name of Ni- der-land-sky (Dutch-sky) East India. In 1942, In-do-ne-ziyu for-hwa-ti-la Japan.
After the defeat of Japan in the Second World War in Ying-do-ne-zii, there was a struggle for independence si-bridge.
1945- pro-voz-gla-she-on the ne-vi-si-bridge of In-do-not-zii.
1950- Holland-dia recognized the ne-vi-si-bridge of In-do-ne-zii and you-la-la your troops.
1959- ust-new-le-nie in In-do-ne-zii av-to-ri-tar-no-go re-zhi-ma Ah-me-da Su-kar-no.
1967- Su-kar-but from-strange from the ru-ko-vod-stvo of the country.
Participation
Mohandas Gandhi- leader of the na-tsi-o-nal-no-osvo-bo-di-tel-no-go movement of India.
Po-lu-chil in na-ro-de the name Ma-hat-ma (“great soul”).
Ja-wa-har-lal Nehru- Prime Minister of the Republic of India since 1947
(Seven days of is-to-rii).
Ahmed Su-kar-no- headed the na-qi-o-nal-no-master-bo-di-tel-noe movement in In-do-ne-zii. The first pre-zi-dent of the Res-pub-li-ki In-do-ne-zia (1945–1967).
Conclusion
The process of de-co-lo-ni-za-tion, which began after the Second World War, led to the fact that practically all former co -lo-nii about-re-whether ne-vi-si-bridge.
To-be-chi-shie-independence of the country-we should-we were sa-mo-sto-I-tel-but define-de-lyat your own way, decide eco -but-mi-che-problem-we (see the lesson “Countries of Africa in the second half of the 20th century - on the cha-le of the 21st century”). Ak-tu-al-noy for-da-whose was the fight-ba with neo-ko-lo-ni-a-liz-mom.
Abstract
Asia. One of the main countries of re-gi-o-na - India - pearl-chu-zhi-na in the ko-lo-ni-al-noy crown of the British im-pe-rii at the end of the Second World War, she began to strive for independence.
IN feb-ra-le 1946, a resurrection broke out in Bom Bay; In-du-sy, ra-bo-tav-shie in local English ad-mi-ni-stra-tsi-yah, do-ka-for-whether they themselves can manage their go- su-dar-stvo. The English government of Attlee, trying to resolve the conflict, was able to make India do-mi-ni-on with the management le-ni-eat it from Lon-do-na, but still, in August 1947 India pro-voz-gla-si-la its independence-vi-si-bridge (Fig.
1). Ja-va-har-lal Nehru became the pre-mier-mi-ni-strom of India.
IN 1946 ter-ri-to-riya Near-not-go In-a-hundred-ka, someone-paradise on-ho-di-las in ko-lo-ni-al-noy si-ste-me Ve-li-ko -bri-ta-nii, eye-behind-ne-vi-si-mine.
Lon-don from-ka-zal-sya from their claims to these lands, mo-ti-vi-ruya this by the fact that they cannot find acceptance-le-mine for arabs and ev -re-ev re-she-nie vza-im-no-go community.
In 1947, the UN took-nya-la-she-nie about the de-le-nii Pa-le-sti-na - the stone of stubbornness - into the Arab and Jewish parts that was pri-nya-ev-re-i-mi, but there was no under-der-ma-but ara-ba-mi.
In the same year, 1947, flashed-well-la ara-bo-from-ra-il-war (1947-1949) for a given territory (Fig. 2). Each of the sides of pre-ten-do-va-la on the lands of Pa-le-sti-na and Jeru-sa-lim is a city sacred both to christian and to mu-sul-man and Jews.
With the help of the USSR and with its all-entire support, in In 1948, during the ongoing war, it was pro-voz-gla-she-but the state-su-dar-stvo Is-ra-il. In Moscow, it’s on-de-I-fox that From-ra-il you-take pro-so-vet-sky in-zi-tion, and all-che-sky in-mo-ga-whether to him.
Pre-mier-mi-nistre From-ra-i-la Golda Meir was a good friend of the USSR. From-at-the-start-but, the USA is under-der-zh-va-li ara-bov, but as soon as the pra-vi-tel-stvo From-ra-i-la, after-beam under-support -ku from the USSR and got a little stronger, in the face of the USA, Washington began to support Is-ra-il. In this way, since the late 1940s. ofor-mi-elk is a kind of pro-ty-in-one-stop-i-nie of the great powers in this region - The USSR began to support the Arab states, and the USA - Iz-ra-il.
1. Neza-vi-si-maya India (Is-toch-nick)
In those 1950s. in Iz-ra-il, many Jews from the countries of Europe and Asia began to re-re-se-ly, creating a new society, on, as they consider whether, their land. In a short time, with fi-nan-co-howl supported by the USA, Iz-ra-il became one of the best co-yuz-ni-kov Vashing-to -on and began to develop his eco-no-mi-ku.
2. Ara-bo-iz-ra-il-sky conflict (Is-toch-nick)
Pe-ri-od the collapse of the co-lo-ni-al-noy si-ste-we in Af-ri-ke at once once-de-lyat into three main stages:
First stage (1946-1947), when almost all the countries of Af-ri-ki became for-mal-but not-vi-si-we-mi, but the real freedom was not about-re-whether. Many co-lo-ni-al-Euro-pean countries increasingly began to talk about from-ka-ze from co-lo-ni, so they began to pull them back.
If before the met-ro-po-lii practice-ti-che-ski everything is you-ka-chi-va-li from co-lo-ni, then now, na-o-bo-mouth, they are tra -ti-whether huge money-gi for the support of co-lo-ni.
Second stage (1960-1965) connected with sa-we-mi main-us-mi co-ti-i-mi. In 1960, 17 countries at once con-ti-nen-ta in-lu-chi-li re-al-ny independence-vi-si-bridge. 1960 - "the year of Af-ri-ki" (Fig.
3). To maintain peace and tranquility, it was the creation of Or-ga-ni-za-af-ri-kan-th unity (OAU), the goal of someone -roy was ure-gu-li-ro-va-nie ter-ri-to-ri-al-ditch disputes between countries, because
the citizens of the former co-lo-nies became the citizens of the independent-vi-si-my states, and hwa-ta-lo to disputes.
Third stage (since 1975) ha-rak-te-ri-zu-et-sya lik-vi-da-qi-her fragments of ko-lo-ni-al-noy si-ste-we, when you don’t-vi-si-bridge in- lu-chi-li such countries as An-go-la, Guinea-Bi-sau, Mo-zam-bik.
3. "Year of Af-ri-ki" (Is-toch-nick)
Ob-re-te-nie on-qi-o-nal-noy ne-vi-si-mo-sti became-ki-va-elk with a hundred-yan-th struggle for power and weapons wives-ny-mi re-re-in-ro-ta-mi.
If, from the beginning, all the power went to a little-number-len-ny about-ra-zo-van-ny people, striving to create a go-su-dar -stvo on the principles of freedom and de-mo-kra-tii, then with those-che-no-times, the power is for-bi-ra-whether in-en-nye, usta-nav-li-vav-shie the same-hundred-tea-shu dik-ta-tu-ru. A striking example of such a struggle for power can be the following.
The former co-lo-niya - the Belgian Congo - in 1960, in lu-chi-lo ne-vi-si-bridge. The new country was led by mo-lo-doy de-mo-kra-ti-che-sky leader Pat rice Lou-mum-ba, striving for the creation of a single state-of-su-dar-stva, for the pre-o-do-le-difference between the tribes-me-on-mi . Lu-mum-ba for-ru-chil-sya under the support of the USSR, but was soon overthrown in-e-on-head-no-one Jo-ze-fom Mo-bu-tu and killed.
Question 24. Achievement of independence by Arab countries: general and special
1) First, the Arab countries were not full colonies. The only exceptions are Algeria (1830 - 1962, France), Libya (1911 - 1951, Italy, after its withdrawal from the war in 1942 - British occupation), Aden - the southwestern part of Arabia (1839 - 1918, a stronghold of England on the sea route to India).
The rest of the Arab countries were protectorates or mandated territories of Great Britain, France, Italy and Spain.
Morocco was a French protectorate under the Treaty of Fez from 1912 to 1956 (there was also a separate zone of Spanish Morocco).
Egypt - in 1882 occupied by British troops, but formally - under the rule of Turkey.
In 1914 England proclaimed Turkey its protectorate (until 1922). Until 1951 there was a condominium - a joint Anglo-Egyptian management (?). Joint Anglo-Egyptian control was exercised over the Sudan (until 1951).
2) The Arab countries gained partial independence as a result of the NOD after the First World War.
1922 - formal independence of Egypt (but British troops remained until 1953)
1930 - the formal independence of the kingdom of Iraq, led by the English protege King Faisal from the alien Hashemite dynasty (actual independence was obtained only after the revolution of 1958, which overthrew the monarchy).
Same situation with Saudi Arabia and Aden
3) Thus, one can observe a temporary gap between formal and real independence as a consequence of dependence on the great powers.
Real independence was achieved after the Second World War. For example, Syria was proclaimed independent in 1941, but gained real independence in 1946 after the withdrawal of British troops.
4) All Arab countries, one way or another, gained independence after the Second World War, and this was a regularity, since the great powers weakened.
5) It is typical for Arab countries to gain independence by peaceful means.
But there is one exception - Algeria (French campaign, independence - in 1962).
By country
Syria - 1941 (but the withdrawal of British and French troops in 1946)
Lebanon - 1943. (but the withdrawal of British and French troops in 1946)
Libya - 1951
For more than 300 years, Libya (=Tripolitania, Cyrinaica, Feitsan) was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1912, as a result of the Italo-Turkish war, it came under Italian control, and in 1943 - into the hands of England (Tripolitania and Cyrinaica) and France (Feitsan). In 1951, Libya became an independent kingdom, and Idris I as-Senusi became the first (and last) king of Libya. Subsequently, Gaddafi will call this independence "wrong". In 1955 a treaty of friendship was concluded with France, and its troops were withdrawn from the territory of Libya.
British and American military bases remained (the British and Americans considered Libya an important strategic foothold in the Middle East), in exchange for which Britain and the United States provided economic assistance to Libya. 1968 - Gaddafi's revolution, the overthrow of the monarchy.
Morocco - 1956. Independence as a result of the NOD led by the Istiklal party. France waged war in Vietnam, so went to the abolition of the protectorate.
Tunisia - 1956. Independence as a result of the NOD led by the Dostur party of Habib Bourguiba.
But there was no army of national liberation, the struggle was carried out by political methods.
Sudan - 1956. Back in 1953. an Anglo-Egyptian agreement was concluded recognizing the right of the Sudanese people to self-determination and the beginning of a three-year transitional period (elections to the Constituent Assembly of Sudan, the withdrawal of British troops).
Algeria - 1962
The last of the Arab countries (and in the world) to receive independence were the petty monarchies of the Persian Gulf.
Kuwait - 1961
UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman - 1971.
All these countries, except for the UAE, were British protectorates from the middle to the end of the 19th century.
Question 25.
Stages of political and socio-economic development of the Arab countries after the Second World War.
Stages of development of the Arab countries:
1940 - 1950 - the rise of the NOD after the Second World War, the processes of decolonization. Most Arab countries gain independence during this period, or by the beginning of the 60s.
1) 1950-60 years: by the beginning of the 60s in the most developed countries, the national tasks had been basically solved.
National Democratic. the revolution is entering a new stage, they begin to pay attention to socio-economic problems. The national bourgeoisie is deprived of dynamism and energy - they invest in what brings a quick and stable income (services, usury) ... Thus, the bourgeoisie cannot strengthen political sovereignty and promote industrialization. Growing social inequality.
The big role of the army. (Egypt, Syria, Iraq).
2) 1960-70 . The ideas of socialism (Egypt, Algeria, Libya ..), but with a petty-bourgeois national character, are becoming widespread. In the 60s, the petty bourgeoisie was able to act as the vanguard of the nation.
They are carrying out social transformations, a blow has been dealt to the old bourgeoisie. Creation of the public sector - how essential tool redistribution of income in favor of workers. There is a construction boom in the Arabian Peninsula (oil).
Leads to rapid urbanization and industrialization, which promotes the development of classes. States fall into two camps: Holy Union led by Saudi Arabia and progressive forces led by Egypt. Antagonism is observed on the basis of: the socio-political system and attraction to different world centers.
3) 1970-80 .
1973 - the rise in world oil prices. Income from petrodollars led to the strengthening of social. contrasts. Coexistence of modern and traditional sectors of the economy; there is a movement of capital from rich to poor countries.
Inter-Arab migration to oil-exporting countries. Strong dependence of the economy on oil exports and imports of products (primarily food).
4)1980 e. Very high rates of urbanization in the Gulf countries. Countries are throwing their forces into neutralizing potential popular opposition, maintaining low prices on products, maintaining an effective security system. The process of political and socio-economic differentiation has led to:
a) modernization of secularism into narrow religious and ideological views
b) strengthening of fundamentalism (various reasons - see question 34)
c) an increase in the proportion of the working class
d) increasing the role of the state in regulating economic processes.
Modern stage
Now almost all Arab countries (except Mauritania, Yemen, Jordan, Sudan) are developing quite successfully and at a fast pace.
Affects high civilizational foundation. But indigenous and the most important factor that divided the countries became oil production.
For countries such as Algeria or Tunisia, petrodollars are a necessary source of livelihood, while in the Arabian monarchies, in Libya, oil acts as the basis of the economy, a guarantee of prosperity and wealth for the whole country. These countries are even able to pay subsidies to the poor (Jordan, Syria, Lebanon).
there are no oil resources at all.
Countries that achieved independence after World War II
Without these subsidies, poor countries would not be able to solve the problem of poverty. Oil and petrodollars play a decisive role in the development of the region. Maghreb countries do without oil because they do not have it. For example, Egypt has resolutely embarked on the capitalist path of development and is developing successfully.
Without oil and petrodollars, there is clearly a minority of countries left. Most of them depend on oil at the same time. Armament (in Iraq and Syria), risky social experiments with a Marxist bias (Algeria, Syria, Libya, Iraq) are paid for by the same petrodollars.
The civilizational features of the Arab region fade into the background before the abundance of oil. In industries, the oil-producing and oil-refining industries are primarily developing in order to ensure the uninterrupted operation of wells and the sale of oil. All oil-exporting countries have oil ministry, plays an important role Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries — OPEC.
Egypt achieved the greatest results in non-oil development.
You can also highlight Syria, Algeria and especially Iraq in the military industry. Development Agriculture highly uneven across countries. In some countries, agrarian reforms have yielded positive results, while in others they have been aimed at cooperating the peasantry and against the private sector, which has led to negative results (Algeria, Libya).
In general, the Arab world has achieved high results.
It should also be taken into account that they were achieved in conditions risky social experiments, frequent Middle Eastern wars, a constant arms race, Islam's rejection of capitalist norms, values and orders.
The reasons are all the same petrodollars, as well as the trend towards all-Arab solidarity. But the defining factor in this solidarity is the problem Palestine.
The wealthy Arabian monarchies spare no expense to help Palestine, as well as other countries in the region that oppose Israel.
Economic transformations in the Arab countries in the post-bipolar period:
The main problems of the economies are mono-commodity and hypertrophied dependence on market conditions.
There is a desire
Use petrodollars to create other sectors of the economy in order to be less dependent on oil-importing countries.
Diversify budget receipts
Conduct industrialization
All this really began to be done only after the fall in oil prices. Start using five-year development plans. Steps:
1) prepare the infrastructure (since the mid-80s)
2) to include national private capital in the production sphere.
3) the creation of the so-called.
industrial zones (in one place there are many many factories ...)
4) construction of diversified industrial centers.
Directions: energy production, fresh water, development of petrochemistry, agriculture. They are trying to increase the role of national capital, carry out a partial denationalization of the public sector (privatization of low-profit companies), involve market factors instead of government administration, and encourage foreign investment. Reduce military spending (free up money) - because.
now Iraq is no longer a threat. Thus, it is very important to relieve the budget and restructure the economy. But so far no radical reforms have begun. This is partly due to the fact that by destabilizing the situation in the country, the authorities risk getting a sharply increased influence of fundamentalists (against whom they always fight).
Features of the formation of the colonial system
In a slave society, the word "colony" meant "settlement". Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome had colonies-settlements in foreign territory. Colonies in the modern sense of the word appeared in the era of the Great geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.
As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, the formation of colonial system. This stage in the development of colonialism is associated with the formation of capitalist relations.
Since that time, the concepts of "capitalism" and "colonialism" have been inextricably linked. Capitalism becomes the dominant socio-economic system, colonies are the most important factor accelerating this process.
Colonial plunder and colonial trade were important sources initial accumulation of capital.
A colony is a territory deprived of political and economic independence and dependent on metropolitan countries.
Initial period
The period of primitive accumulation of capital and manufacturing production predetermined the content and forms of relations between the colonies and mother countries.
For Spain and Portugal, the colonies were primarily sources of gold and silver. Their natural practice was frank robbery up to the extermination of the indigenous population of the colonies. However, the gold and silver exported from the colonies did not accelerate the establishment of capitalist production in these countries. Much of the wealth plundered by the Spaniards and the Portuguese contributed to the development of capitalism in Holland and England.
The Dutch and English bourgeoisie profited from the supply of goods to Spain, Portugal and their colonies. The colonies in Asia, Africa and America captured by Portugal and Spain became the object of colonial conquests by Holland and England
Period of industrial capitalism
The next stage in the development of the colonial system is associated with the industrial revolution, which begins in the last third of the 18th century.
and ends in developed European countries around the middle of the 19th century. There comes a period exchange of goods, which draws the colonial countries into world commodity circulation.
This leads to double consequences: on the one hand, the colonial countries turn into agrarian and raw material appendages of the metropolises, on the other hand, the metropolises contribute to the socio-economic development of the colonies (the development of the local industry for the processing of raw materials, transport, communications, telegraph, printing, etc.).
By the beginning of the First World War, at the stage of monopoly capitalism, the colonial possessions of three European powers were formed:
At this stage, the territorial division of the world is completed. The leading colonial powers of the world are intensifying the export of capital to the colonies.
Colonialism in the XVI-XVII centuries.
Colonization of the African continent.
In the colonial policy of the European powers of the XVI-XVII centuries.
African continent occupies a special place. Slavery existed in Africa for a number of centuries, but it was mainly patriarchal in nature and was not so tragic and destructive before the arrival of Europeans.
slave trade the Portuguese began in the middle of the 15th century, then the British, Dutch, French, Danes, and Swedes joined it. (The centers of the slave trade were located mainly on the West Coast of Africa - from Cape Verde to Angola, inclusive.
Countries that achieved political independence after World War II
Especially many slaves were exported from the Golden and Slave Coasts).
Colonialism of the period of industrial capitalism. The role of the colonies in economic development metropolises
Under the new historical conditions, the role of the colonies in the economic development of the metropolises is growing considerably.
The possession of colonies contributed to industrial development, military superiority over other powers, maneuvering resources in the event of wars, economic crises etc. In this regard, all the colonial powers are striving to expand their possessions.
The increased technical equipment of armies makes it possible to realize this. It was at this time that the “discoveries” of Japan and China took place, the establishment of colonial domination of the British in India, Burma, Africa was completed, Algeria, Tunisia, Vietnam and other countries were seized by France, Germany began to expand in Africa, the United States - in Latin America, China, Korea, Japan - in China, Korea, etc.
At the same time, the struggle of the mother countries for possession of colonies, sources of raw materials, and strategic positions in the East is intensifying.
