Great geographical discoveries began with the search for the rich treasures of India. In 1456, the Portuguese reached the Cape Verde Islands, in 1486 the expedition of Bartalameo Dias circled Africa, in 1492. At the end of the 15th century, the Spaniards were also looking for new ways. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella and proposed his project approved by Toscanelli - to reach the coast of India by sailing west across the Atlantic (before that, he had vainly offered the Portuguese, French, English monarchs). The situation after the end of the reconquista among the Spaniards was financially difficult. The nobles were not engaged in households, they were used to free lands from the war. By virtue of its geographical location and a long struggle with the Arabs Spain in the XV century. was cut off from the Mediterranean trade, which was controlled by the Italian cities. Expansion at the end of the 15th century. Turkish conquests made it even more difficult for Europe to trade with the East. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since the advance in this direction meant a collision with Portugal. The idea of overseas expansion was supported by the tops of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to 1/10 of the income from the newly discovered possessions and 1/8 of the profits from trade.
On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Palos (near Seville), heading southwest. Pass the Canary Islands, reached the Sargasso Sea, algae created the illusion of the proximity of the earth. For several days we wandered among the algae, there was no shore. A mutiny was brewing on the ships. After two months of sailing, under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved to the southwest. On the night of October 12, 1492, one of the sailors saw the land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored its northern coast. Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his largest ship and was forced to leave part of the crew in Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. The fortress on Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - became the first Spanish settlement in the New World. In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor. The discoveries of Columbus worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tordesillas, according to which Spain was given the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal to the east.
Columbus made three more trips to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and in 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered, and there were also coast surveyed Central America. And in the following ways, rich deposits of gold and precious metals were not found, income from new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Especially great was the discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. Soon Columbus was rehabilitated, all his titles were returned to him. During the last trip, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba, explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea for 1,500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. While sailing along the coast of the Yucatan, Columbus encountered tribes that wore colored clothes and knew how to melt metal. Which later turned out to be part of the Mayan state.
Portuguese colonization. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes that were at the tribal stage were pushed back into the interior of the country. The absence of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the originality of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of merchant capital. The beginning of the organized colonization of Brazil was laid in 1530, and it took place in the form of economic development of coastal regions. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captaincies, the owners of which had full power.
Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. In 1500-1510. expeditions led by members of Columbus' travels explored the northern coast South America , Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. The Spaniards captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became the outpost of the Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which they called "the key to the New World." Fortresses, settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices arose. The gold deposits were insignificant. The Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants who were given plots of land was especially encouraged, they were exempted from taxes for 20 years. The labor force was not enough, and from the middle of the XVI century. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles. From 1510, a new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle of the 17th century, is called the conquest (conquest). The beginning of this stage was laid by the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). In 1513, Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of Eldorado. Coming to the coast of the Pacific Ocean, he hoisted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. In 1519, the city of Panama was founded - the first on the American continent. In 1517-1518. the detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the Yucatan coast in search of slaves, encountered the oldest of the pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards found a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, chased gold discs with types of battles and scenes of sacrifice. By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided among several city-states. The Spaniards learned from local residents that precious metals were brought from the country of the Aztecs, which lies north of the Yucatan. In 1519, a Spanish detachment led by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set off to conquer these lands. The Aztec state stretched from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes conquered by the Aztecs lived on its territory. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. Unlike the Maya, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization, the transition to the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually carried out. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power facilitated the victory of the Spaniards in this unequal struggle. The final conquest of Mexico stretched over more than two decades. The last Maya stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697, i.e. 173 years after their invasion of the Yucatan. Mexico justified the hopes of the conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in the 20s of the XVI century. began the development of silver mines. The merciless exploitation of the Indians in the mines, in construction, mass epidemics led to a rapid decline in the population. In 1524, the conquest of the territory of present-day Colombia began, the port of Santa Marta was founded. From here, the conquistador Jimenez Quesada reached the plateau of Bogotá, where the Chibcha Muisca tribe lived - among other things, jewelers. Here he founded Santa Fede Bogota.
The second stream of colonization was from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. One of the detachments was led by a semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura, Francisco Pizarro. In 1524, together with his countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the western coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquil (modern Ecuador). Returning to Spain in 1531, Pizarro signed a capitulation with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - the leader of the conquistadors. The expedition was joined by two of his brothers and 250 hidalgos from Extremadura. In 1532, Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. Before him opened the way to the conquest of the state of the Incas - Tauantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which at the time of the Spanish invasion was experiencing a period of its highest rise. In 1532, when several dozen Spaniards undertook a campaign deep into Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. Encountering almost no resistance. In 1535, Pizarro made a campaign against Cusco, which was conquered as a result of a hard struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of the territory of Peru dragged on for more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. In remote mountainous areas, a new Indian state arose, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572. Simultaneously with the campaign of Pizarro in Peru in 1535-1537. adelantado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to return to Cuzco, which was besieged by the rebel Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d Almagro died in it. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucan tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in At the end of the 17th century, the colonization of La Plata began in 1515, the lands along the rivers La Plata and Paraguay were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. In 1542, two streams of colonization joined here. If at first they exported precious metals accumulated by Indian civilizations, then the development of mines begins.
Story New America is not so many centuries old. And it began in the 16th century. Just then on discovered by Columbus continent began to arrive new people. Settlers from many countries of the world had different reasons for coming to the New World. Some of them just wanted to start new life. The second dreamed of getting rich. Still others sought refuge from religious persecution or government persecution. Of course, all these people belonged to different nationalities and cultures. They were distinguished from each other by the color of their skin. But all of them were united by one desire - to change their lives and create almost from scratch new world. Thus began the history of the colonization of America.
Pre-Columbian period
Humans have inhabited North America for thousands of years. However, information about the indigenous inhabitants of this continent before the period when immigrants from many other parts of the world appeared here is very scarce.
As a result of scientific research, it was found that the first Americans were small groups of people who moved to the continent from Northeast Asia. Most likely, they mastered these lands about 10-15 thousand years ago, passing from Alaska through shallow or frozen. Gradually, people began to move inland, to the continent. So they reached Tierra del Fuego and the Strait of Magellan.
The researchers also believe that in parallel with this process, small groups of Polynesians moved to the continent. They settled in the southern lands.
Both those and other settlers who are known to us as the Eskimos and Indians are rightfully considered the first inhabitants of America. And in connection with long-term residence on the continent - the indigenous population.
Discovery of a new continent by Columbus
The first Europeans to visit the New World were the Spaniards. Traveling to a world unknown to them, they marked on geographical map India, and the western coastal territories of Africa. But the researchers didn't stop there. They began to look for the shortest route that would lead a person from Europe to India, which promised great economic benefits to the monarchs of Spain and Portugal. The result of one of these campaigns was the discovery of America.
It happened in October 1492, it was then that the Spanish expedition, led by Admiral Christopher Columbus, landed on a small island located in the Western Hemisphere. Thus was opened the first page in the history of the colonization of America. Immigrants from Spain rush to this outlandish country. Following them, the inhabitants of France and England appeared. The period of colonization of America began.
Spanish conquerors
The colonization of America by Europeans at first did not cause any resistance from the local population. And this contributed to the fact that the settlers began to behave very aggressively, enslaving and killing the Indians. The Spanish conquerors showed particular cruelty. They burned and plundered local villages, killing their inhabitants.
Already at the very beginning of the colonization of America, Europeans brought many diseases to the continent. The local population began to die from epidemics of smallpox and measles.
In the mid-16th century, Spanish colonists dominated the American continent. Their possessions stretched from New Mexico to Cape Gori and brought fabulous profits to the royal treasury. During this period of the colonization of America, Spain fought off all attempts by other European states to gain a foothold in this resource-rich territory.
However, at the same time, the balance of power began to change in the Old World. Spain, where the kings unwisely spent huge flows of gold and silver coming from the colonies, began to gradually lose ground, giving way to England, in which the economy was developing at a rapid pace. In addition, the decline of the previously powerful country, and the European superpower, was accelerated by the long-term war with the Netherlands, the conflict with England and the Reformation of Europe, which was fought with huge funds. But the last point of Spain's withdrawal into the shadows was the death in 1588. Invincible Armada. After that, England, France and Holland became leaders in the process of colonization of America. Settlers from these countries created a new immigration wave.
Colonies of France
Settlers from this European country were primarily interested in valuable furs. At the same time, the French did not seek to seize land, since in their homeland the peasants, despite the burden of feudal duties, still remained the owners of their allotments.
The colonization of America by the French began at the dawn of the 17th century. It was during this period that Samuel Champlain founded a small settlement on the peninsula of Acadia, and a little later (in 1608) - in 1615, the possessions of the French extended to lakes Ontario and Huron. These territories were dominated by trading companies, the largest of which was the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1670, its owners received a charter and monopolized the purchase of fish and furs from the Indians. Local residents became "tributaries" of companies, caught in a network of obligations and debts. In addition, the Indians were simply robbed, constantly exchanging the valuable furs they obtained for worthless trinkets.
UK dominions
The beginning of the colonization of North America by the British started in the 17th century, although their first attempts were made a century earlier. The settlement of the New World by subjects of the British crown accelerated the development of capitalism in their homeland. The source of the prosperity of the English monopolies was the creation of colonial trading companies that successfully worked in the foreign market. They also brought fabulous profits.
The peculiarities of the colonization of North America by Great Britain consisted in the fact that in this territory the government of the country formed two trading companies that had large funds. It was the London and Plymouth firms. These companies had royal charters, according to which they owned lands located between 34 and 41 degrees north latitude, and extended inland without any restrictions. Thus, England appropriated to itself the territory that originally belonged to the Indians.
At the beginning of the 17th century. established a colony in Virginia. From this enterprise, the commercial Virginia Company expected great profits. At its own expense, the company delivered settlers to the colony, who worked off their debt for 4-5 years.
In 1607 a new settlement was formed. It was the Jamestown colony. It was located in a swampy place where many mosquitoes lived. In addition, the colonists turned against themselves the indigenous population. Constant clashes with the Indians and disease soon claimed the lives of two-thirds of the settlers.
Another English colony, Maryland, was founded in 1634. In it, British settlers received allotments of land and became planters and big businessmen. The workers at these sites were the English poor, who worked off the cost of moving to America.
However, over time, instead of indentured servants in the colonies, the labor of Negro slaves began to be used. They began to be brought mainly to the southern colonies.
Over the course of 75 years after the formation of the Virginia colony, the British created 12 more such settlements. These are Massachusetts and New Hampshire, New York and Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Maryland.
Development of the English colonies
The poor of many countries of the Old World sought to get to America, because in their view it was the promised land, giving salvation from debt and religious persecution. That is why European colonization America was vast. Many entrepreneurs have ceased to be limited to recruiting immigrants. They started rounding up people, soldering them and putting them on the ship until they sobered up. That is why there was an unusually rapid growth of the English colonies. This was facilitated by the agrarian revolution carried out in Great Britain, as a result of which there was a mass dispossession of peasants.
The poor, robbed by their government, began to look for the possibility of buying land in the colonies. So, if in 1625 1980 settlers lived in North America, then in 1641 there were about 50 thousand immigrants from England alone. Fifty years later, the number of inhabitants of such settlements amounted to about two hundred thousand people.
Behavior of settlers
The history of the colonization of America is overshadowed by a war of extermination against the native inhabitants of the country. The settlers took away the land from the Indians, completely destroying the tribes.
In the north of America, which was called New England, people from the Old World took a slightly different path. Here the land was acquired from the Indians with the help of "trade deals". Subsequently, this became the reason for asserting the opinion that the ancestors of the Anglo-Americans did not encroach on the freedom of the indigenous people. However, people from the Old World acquired huge tracts of land for a bunch of beads or for a handful of gunpowder. At the same time, the Indians, who were not familiar with private property, as a rule, did not even guess about the essence of the contract concluded with them.
The church also contributed to the history of colonization. She raised the beating of the Indians to the rank of a charitable deed.
One of the shameful pages in the history of the colonization of America is the award for scalps. Before the arrival of the settlers, this bloody custom existed only among some tribes inhabiting eastern territories. With the advent of the colonialists, such barbarism began to spread more and more. The reason for this was the unleashed internecine wars, in which firearms began to be used. In addition, the process of scalping greatly facilitated the spread of iron knives. After all, the wooden or bone tools that the Indians had before colonization greatly complicated such an operation.
However, the relations of the settlers with the natives were not always so hostile. Simple people tried to maintain good neighborly relations. The poor farmers took over the agricultural experience of the Indians and learned from them, adapting to local conditions.
Immigrants from other countries
But be that as it may, the first colonists who settled in North America did not have common religious beliefs and belonged to different social strata. This was due to the fact that people from the Old World belonged to different nationalities, and, consequently, had different beliefs. For example, English Catholics settled in Maryland. Huguenots from France settled in South Carolina. The Swedes settled in Delaware, and Virginia was full of Italian, Polish and German artisans. The first Dutch settlement appeared on Manhattan Island in 1613. Its founder was the center of which was the city of Amsterdam, became known as the New Netherland. Later these settlements were captured by the British.
The colonialists entrenched themselves on the continent, for which they still thank God every fourth Thursday in the month of November. America celebrates Thanksgiving. This holiday is immortalized in honor of the first year of life of immigrants in a new place.
The advent of slavery
The first black Africans arrived in Virginia in August 1619 on a Dutch ship. Most of them were immediately ransomed by the colonists as servants. In America, blacks became lifelong slaves.
Moreover, this status even began to be inherited. Between the American colonies and the countries of East Africa, the slave trade began to be carried out constantly. Local leaders willingly exchanged their young men for weapons, gunpowder, textiles and many other goods brought from the New World.
Development of the southern territories
As a rule, settlers chose the northern territories of the New World because of their religious considerations. In contrast, the colonization of South America pursued economic goals. Europeans, with little ceremony with the indigenous people, resettled them on lands that were poorly suitable for existence. The resource-rich continent promised the settlers to receive large incomes. That is why in the southern regions of the country they began to cultivate plantations of tobacco and cotton, using the labor of slaves brought from Africa. Most goods were exported to England from these territories.
Settlers in Latin America
The territories south of the United States were also explored by Europeans after the discovery of the New World by Columbus. And today the colonization of Latin America by Europeans is regarded as an unequal and dramatic clash of two different worlds which ended with the enslavement of the Indians. This period lasted from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century.
The colonization of Latin America led to the death of ancient Indian civilizations. After all, most of the indigenous population was exterminated by immigrants from Spain and Portugal. The surviving inhabitants fell under the subjugation of the colonizers. But at the same time in latin america the cultural achievements of the Old World were introduced, which became the property of the peoples of this continent.
Gradually, European colonists began to turn into the most growing and important part of the population of this region. And the importation of slaves from Africa began a complex process of formation of a special ethno-cultural symbiosis. And today we can say that it was the colonial period of the 16th-19th centuries that left an indelible imprint on the development of modern Latin American society. In addition, with the arrival of Europeans, the region began to be involved in world capitalist processes. This has become an important precondition economic development Latin America.
The history of the country is inextricably linked with its literature. And, thus, studying, it is impossible not to touch on American history. Each work belongs to a particular historical period. Thus, in his Washington, Irving talks about the Dutch pioneers who settled along the Hudson River, mentions seven years war for independence, the English King George III and the country's first president, George Washington. In order to make parallel connections between literature and history, in this introductory article I want to say a few words about how it all began, because those historical moments that will be discussed are not reflected in any works.
Colonization of America 15th - 18th century (brief summary)
“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.”
An American philosopher, George SantayanaIf you are asking yourself why you need to know history, then know that those who do not remember their history are doomed to repeat its mistakes.
So, the history of America began relatively recently, when in the 16th century people arrived on the new continent discovered by Columbus. These people were of different skin colors and different incomes, and the reasons that prompted them to come to the New World were also different. Some were attracted by the desire to start a new life, others sought to get rich, others fled from the persecution of the authorities or religious persecution. However, all these people, representing different cultures and nationalities, were united by the desire to change something in their lives and, most importantly, they were ready to take risks.
Inspired by the idea of creating a new world from scratch, the first settlers succeeded in this. Fantasy and dream become reality; they, like Julius Caesar, they came, they saw and they conquered.
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Julius Caesar
Back in those days, America represented abundance. natural resources and a vast expanse of uncultivated land inhabited by a friendly local population.
If you look a little more back in time, then, presumably, the first people who appeared on the American continent were from Asia. According to Steve Wingand, this happened about 14 thousand years ago.
The first Americans probably wandered over from Asia about 14,000 years ago.
Steve Wiengand
Over the next 5 centuries, these tribes settled on two continents and, depending on the natural landscape and climate, began to engage in hunting, cattle breeding or agriculture.
In 985 AD, the warlike Vikings arrived on the continent. For about 40 years they tried to gain a foothold in this country, but yielding in superiority to the indigenous people, in the end, they abandoned their attempts.
Then, in 1492, Columbus appeared, followed by other Europeans, who were attracted to the continent by greed and simple adventurism.
Columbus Day is celebrated on October 12 in America in 34 states. Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492.
Of the Europeans, the Spaniards were the first to arrive on the continent. Christopher Columbus, being an Italian by birth, having received a refusal from his king, turned to the Spanish king Ferdinand with a request to finance his expedition to Asia. It is not surprising that when, instead of Asia, Columbus discovered America, all of Spain rushed to this outlandish country. France and England followed the Spaniards. Thus began the colonization of America.
Spain got a head start in the Americas, mainly because the aforementioned Italian named Columbus was working for the Spanish and got them enthusiastic about it early on. But while the Spanish had a head start, other European countries eagerly sought to catch up.
(Source: U.S. history for dummies by S. Wiegand)
At first, meeting no resistance from the local population, the Europeans behaved like aggressors, killing and enslaving the Indians. The Spanish conquerors, who plundered and burned Indian villages and killed their inhabitants, were especially cruel. Following the Europeans, diseases also came to the continent. So the measles and smallpox epidemics gave the process of extermination of the local population a stunning speed.
But from the end of the 16th century, powerful Spain began to lose its influence on the continent, which was greatly facilitated by the weakening of its power, both on land and at sea. And the dominant position in the American colonies passed to England, Holland and France.
Henry Hudson founded the first Dutch settlement in 1613 on Manhattan Island. This colony, located along the Hudson River, was called New Netherland, and its center was the city of New Amsterdam. However, later this colony was captured by the British and transferred to the Duke of York. Accordingly, the city was renamed New York. The population of this colony was mixed, but although the British prevailed, the influence of the Dutch remained quite strong. Dutch words have entered the American language, and the appearance of some places reflects the "Dutch architectural style" - tall houses with sloping roofs.
The colonialists managed to gain a foothold on the continent, for which they thank God every fourth Thursday of November. Thanksgiving is a holiday to celebrate their first year in a new place.
If the first settlers chose the north of the country mainly for religious reasons, then the south for economic reasons. Without ceremony with the local population, the Europeans quickly pushed him to unsuitable lands for life or simply killed them.
The practical English were especially firmly established. Quickly realizing what rich resources this continent conceals, they began to grow tobacco in the southern part of the country, and then cotton. And to get even more profit, the British brought slaves from Africa to cultivate plantations.
Summing up, I will say that in the 15th century Spanish, English, French and other settlements appeared on the American continent, which began to be called colonies, and their inhabitants became colonists. At the same time, a struggle for territories began between the invaders, and especially strong hostilities were fought between the French and English colonists.
The Spanish colonization of America began with the discovery by the Spanish navigator Columbus of the first Caribbean islands in 1492, which the Spaniards considered part of Asia. For 35 years, the conquest ended finally and irrevocably. As for the conquests, all the highly developed peoples of America: the Aztecs, the Mayans, the Incas, the Muisca - all were put on their knees, their cities were destroyed, redrawn according to European regulations. It would seem that a huge number of people are needed to carry out these tasks. So what helped the conquistadors conquer America? We discussed this with our experts.
Questions:
What was the state of the Indian tribes?
Vladimir Travkin
By the time of the conquest, Indian tribes inhabited the territory of the entire Western Hemisphere practically from North America to South America, passing through Central. They were at different stages of development, but there were quite large and powerful states that could even be called empires. These are the Aztec empires in North America - in what is now Mexico. And the Inca Empire, which was located on the territory of South America - the current country of Peru and its environs. Two such big regions. These were fairly strong empires that conquered nearby peoples - various tribes of Indians, who were weaker and stronger when compared with each other, but who were at approximately the same stage of technological development, the development of their production relations, intertribal ties. This is about their relationship with each other. These peoples, these empires, these states were at a lower stage of development than the states of Europe, which rushed to the West. They came to the western hemisphere and encountered all sorts of tribes. Some tribes were destroyed, some were enslaved, but, of course, technological, organizational, military advantage was on the side of the Spaniards, Portuguese, British and French, who later came to North and South America.
Andrey Kofman
The Indian world was very diverse. Most of the tribes were at the stage of a communal-tribal system, but there were also very advanced civilizations, of which there are four: the Aztecs, the Incas, the Maya (although they have already degraded, so to speak), and the Chibcha-Muisca is also one powerful civilizational formation in Colombia. At the same time, we can say that the Incas and Aztecs had very powerful imperial armies, which were perfectly organized and imprisoned for war with their neighbors. It was quite difficult to resist these armies. Internecine warfare was a constant affair of the Indians. They fought for the sake of capturing captives, and for the most insignificant reasons. This, of course, was used by the conquistadors. Their usual practice was that they entered into an agreement with some tribe, which they attracted to their allies, and staged a punitive expedition against its enemies, thereby securing allies for themselves. And in the conquest of these empires, especially the Aztecs, colossal assistance was provided by hostile peoples.
What role did scientific and technological progress play in the conquest of America?
Vladimir Travkin
Certainly played a huge role. Not the only one, but very important. They had more powerful weapons, a more powerful military organization, they were stronger. This can be said with certainty, because the detachments of the conquistadors initially numbered several hundred people with two dozen horses, but, nevertheless, skillfully fighting and using other methods of conquering peoples, including religious ones, and so on, they quickly conquered vast territories in the western hemisphere. They had powerful artillery, they absorbed all the advantages of military art. They had horses that the Indians didn't have. They also made a huge impression with their weapons. In the field of armaments, in the field of organizing military affairs, they were technologically superior.
Andrey Kofman
He played a big role. Of course, one cannot discount iron, weapons, and so on, but this should not be exaggerated. The role of firearms in the conquest, for example, is minimal. The main role was played primarily by the cavalry. It was a very powerful tactical weapon.
Did the mythology of the Indians somehow help the conquistadors?
Vladimir Travkin
Of course they used it. Of course, at first they did not know this mythology. They came with their beliefs - they were Catholic conquerors who had just defeated the Muslims, who proved, as it seemed to them then, the advantage of their understanding of the world, their religious views. They betrayed great importance religious factor and very quickly adopted the myths that existed among the indigenous people of today's America. In particular, the myths about that winged god who flew to the East. He was white, he was red, he was armed with fire - this is a portrait of the conqueror of Mexico, Cortes. When he appeared in this territory and learned this from the locals, who later became his allies, he used it one hundred percent, judging by their quotes. The Indians, having a powerful army, good state organization and outnumbering their opponent many times over, they submitted to him, among other things, because many of them considered him the incarnation of God.
Andrey Kofman
This is a very common myth. At first, yes, it helped, but only at first. This should not be exaggerated. Of course, at first they made every possible use of the Indians' fear of horses, and played all sorts of performances, and presented themselves as gods, but this all dissipated very quickly, and in fact it cannot be considered a decisive or some significant factor in the success of the conquest. Another thing is that the Indians really were people with a very special warehouse of mythological thinking, a fatalistic attitude - they could perceive this or that defeat as a punishment of the gods or something else of that kind. But I repeat, in no case should this be exaggerated, especially since we have several examples when the Spaniards could not defeat the Indians with all the force of their weapons.
Did the Indians give a worthy rebuff to the conquerors?
Vladimir Travkin
There were cases when they fought back, but it never reached the final victory, never reached the destruction of the conquerors completely. The proof of this is that, in general, for the Europeans, for the Spaniards, the conquest ended successfully. Although there were individual victories, they were not so significant, but they showed that the Indians had brave wars, good military leaders, but the weapons and their method of warfare were much lower in quality than what the Spaniards used.
Andrey Kofman
Yes, sure. Suffice it to recall the three-month siege of Tenochtitlan, when the Spaniards could not take the city. It was a terrible siege big amount sacrifices, efforts, and so on. The most striking example is the Araucans of Chile. Spain was forced to retreat and conclude an agreement with them, in fact, there was an independent Indian territory. The same in Argentina - up to late XIX centuries, independent Indian territories were preserved. It is important to note, however, that the more wild tribe the more fragmented it is, the lower the stage of development it is, the more difficult it was to overcome it. Just powerful public entities they easily fell apart, because they took the ruler hostage - the state was falling apart, but with these tribes they had to wage long and sometimes unsuccessful wars.
What was the main reason for the success of the conquistadors?
Vladimir Travkin
It is impossible to say exactly what. On the one hand, the force that was released after the expulsion of the Moors, that is, the Arabs, when the whole country concentrated its efforts and then, like a spring, unbent and reached right up to the western hemisphere. This can be compared with what happened on the territory of Russia after centuries of Tatar-Mongol yoke- the country gathered its efforts and went to the East. And we got the largest territory after being under pressure from an external enemy for a long time, and this made it possible to concentrate this force. Approximately the same things happened to Europeans, in particular to the Spaniards, who entered American territory. Well, and secondly, that it so happened historically that that territory was at a different, lower, level of development.
Andrey Kofman
The main role was still played by the total discrepancy in the organization of the troops. The army of the conquistadors was a single harmonious organism, completely subordinate to the commander-in-chief - the captain-general. The death penalty could wait for the conquistador not only because he retreated without an order, but also because he could launch an offensive without an order. Any Indian army was built on completely different grounds. The commander had to simply lead the army to the battlefield, and then the scope of personal initiative began. Everyone fought for himself and only for himself. Moreover, the Aztecs were forbidden to come to the aid of a comrade-in-arms, therefore they could consider that he wants to take possession of his trophies. The second point is the attitude towards the commanders-in-chief. The conquistadors had no irreplaceable. If a captain-general is killed, his deputy will take his place, if a deputy is killed, any captain will take his place and lead the army. And among the Indians, the leader-commander was a kind of demigod. Everything was on him. It was enough to kill him, as the army fell apart. The conquistadors quickly realized this and began to turn the attack against the military leaders. Sometimes one well-aimed shot from an arquebus could decide the outcome of a battle. It is also necessary to add such a factor as the faith of the conquistadors in their divine mission. They sincerely believed that they came to the lands of America to Christianize the Indians. Finally, the third factor is their material interest. The conquest was organized in such a way that its participants got the opportunity to change their lives for the better. They got huge tracts of land with the Indians in the service, they could make an incredible career.
Almost half of the Viceroyalty of New Spain founded by them was located where the states of Texas, California, New Mexico, etc. are located today. The name of the state of Florida is also of Spanish origin - this is how the Spaniards called the lands known to them in the southeast North America. The colony of New Netherland arose in the valley of the Hudson River; further south, in the valley of the Delaware River, is New Sweden. Louisiana, which occupied vast territories in the basin of the Mississippi, the largest river on the continent, was the possession of France. In the XVIII century. the northwestern part of the continent, modern Alaska, began to be developed by Russian industrialists. But the most impressive success in the colonization of North America was achieved by the British.
For immigrants from the British Isles and from other countries of Europe across the ocean, wide material opportunities opened up, here they were attracted by the hope of free labor and personal enrichment. America also attracted with its religious freedom. Many Englishmen moved to America during the period of revolutionary upheavals in the middle of the 17th century. Religious sectarians, bankrupt peasants, and the urban poor left for the colony. All sorts of adventurers and adventurers also rushed across the ocean; cited by criminals. The Irish and Scots fled here when life in their homeland became completely unbearable.
The south of North America is washed by the waters Gulf of Mexico. Floating on it, the Spaniards discovered the peninsula Florida, covered with dense forests and swamps. Now it is a famous resort and a place to launch American spaceships. The Spaniards came to the mouth of the largest river in North America - Mississippi falling into Gulf of Mexico. In Indian Mississippi - "big river", "father of the waters." Its waters were muddy, uprooted trees floated along the river. To the west of the Mississippi, wetlands gradually gave way to drier steppes - prairies where herds of bison roamed like bulls. The prairie stretched all the way to the foot of rocky mountains stretching from north to south throughout the North American continent. The Rocky Mountains are part of a huge mountainous country of Cordillera. Cordillera go to Pacific Ocean.
On the Pacific coast, the Spaniards discovered peninsula california And gulf of california. Falls into it colorado river- "red". The depth of her valley in the Cordillera amazed the Spaniards. Under their feet was a cliff 1800 m deep, at the bottom of which a river flowed like a barely noticeable silvery snake. For three days people walked along the edge of the valley grand canyon, looking for a descent down and could not find.
The northern half of North America was mastered by the British and French. In the middle of the 16th century, the French pirate Cartier discovered bay And St. Lavrentie river In Canada. The Indian word "Canada" - a settlement - became the name of a huge country. Moving up the St. Lawrence River, the French reached Great lakes. Among them is the world's largest fresh lake - Upper. On the Niagara River, which flows between the Great Lakes, a very powerful and beautiful Niagara Falls.
Natives of the Netherlands founded the city of New Amsterdam. Now it is called NY and is largest city United States of America.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the first British colonies appeared on the Atlantic coast of North America - settlements whose inhabitants grew tobacco in the south, grain and vegetables in the north.
Thirteen (13) colonies
Systematic colonization of North America began after the approval of the Stuart dynasty on the English throne. The first British colony, Jamestown, was founded in 1607 in Virginia.Then, as a result of the mass migration of the English Puritans overseas, the development of New England.First Puritan colony in what is now the state Massachusetts appeared in 1620. In subsequent years, immigrants from Massachusetts, dissatisfied with the religious intolerance that reigned there, founded colonies Connecticut And Rhode Island. Massachusetts seceded from Massachusetts after the Glorious Revolution New Hampshire.
On the lands north of Virginia, granted by Charles I to Lord Baltimore, a colony was founded in 1632 Maryland.On the lands located between Virginia and New England, the Dutch and Swedish colonists were the first to appear, but in 1664 they were captured by the British. New Netherland was renamed a colony NY, and to the south of it a colony arose New Jersey. In 1681, W. Penn received a royal charter for the lands north of Maryland. In honor of his father, the illustrious admiral, the new colony was named Pennsylvania. Throughout the XVIII century. separated from her Delaware. In 1663, the settlement of the territory south of Virginia began, where colonies later appeared. North Carolina And South Carolina. In 1732, King George (George) II allowed the development of land between South Carolina and Spanish Florida, which were named after him Georgia.
Five more British colonies were founded on the territory of modern Canada.
In all the colonies there were various forms of representative government, but the majority of the population was deprived of the right to vote.
Economy of the colonies
The colonies differed greatly in types of economic activity. In the north, where small-scale farming prevailed, household crafts associated with it developed, foreign trade, shipping and sea crafts were widely developed. Large agricultural plantations dominated in the south, where tobacco, cotton, and rice were grown.
Slavery in the colonies
Growing production required workers. The presence of undeveloped territories to the west of the borders of the colonies doomed to failure any attempts to turn the poor whites into wage earners. labor force, because for them there was always the opportunity to go to free lands. The Indians could not be forced to work for the white masters. Those of them who were tried to be made slaves quickly died in captivity, and the merciless war waged by the settlers against the Indians led to the mass extermination of the red-skinned natives of America. The problem with the labor force was solved by the massive importation of slaves from Africa, who were called blacks in America. The slave trade has become the most important factor development of colonies, especially the southern ones. Already by the end of the XVII century. Negroes became the predominant labor force and, in fact, the basis of the plantation economy in the south. material from the site
The Europeans were looking for a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Englishman Henry Hudson tried to sail along the northern American coast between the mainland and the islands lying to the north. Canadian arctic archipelago. The attempt failed, but the Hudson opened a huge Hudson Bay- a real "ice bag", on which ice floes float in the summer.
In the spruce and pine forests of Canada, the French and the British hunted fur-bearing animals, bartered their skins from the Indians. In the middle of the 17th century arose English company Hudson's Bay, which bought furs. The company's agents penetrated deep into the mainland, bringing information about new rivers, mountains, lakes. IN late XVIII century Alexander Mackenzie and his companions on canoes made of birch bark made a trip along the rivers and lakes of northern Canada. They hoped that the cold river, later named after Mackenzie will lead to the Pacific Ocean. The traveler himself called it the "river of disappointment", realizing that it flows into the Northern Arctic Ocean. Mackenzie went to his homeland, to Scotland, a country in the north of the British Isles, to study geography. Returning, he climbed the river valleys and crossed over the Rocky Mountains. Having passed the mountain passes of the Cordillera, Mackenzie began to descend along the rivers flowing to the west, and in 1793 he was the first to reach the Pacific coast.
