The city was associated with economic development villages, with an increase in the rural population, with the development of trade. City walls were built for defense, but they also became useful for collecting taxes, since at the entrance to the city gates, it was easier to collect duties on imported goods. To this end, under Louis XVI, new walls were built around Paris, although there was no military need for them. The gates were locked at night. Control over people entering and leaving the city kept crime in check. In times of famine, the gates were closed to contain the influx of distressed people.
Because the places between medieval walls There were few, houses were built close to each other. The city streets were so narrow that the stepped upper floors of the houses almost closed above the streets. It was expensive to build from stone, so the houses were made of wood. As a result, cities have become fire hazardous. A fire that broke out in one house quickly spread through the narrow streets and could destroy the entire city, as happened, for example, in London in 1666 or in Moscow in 1752.
Due to the overcrowding of buildings, the living environment was dark, cramped and dysfunctional. Sewerage was primitive or absent altogether, often feces and other sewage poured out right on the street. Manure was added to them, because the townspeople kept pets and birds. They said about Berlin and Paris that the stench coming from the cities was felt at a distance of 10 kilometers. The streets were not paved in order to walk along them without getting wet, wooden shoes were put on directly on the shoes. unhygienic urban environment was one of the reasons for the high mortality in cities, outpacing the birth rate, so the growth of the urban population occurred at the expense of visitors. There was no shortage of immigrants, since in the city it was easier for a person without property to find work.
Citizens differed greatly in occupation, status and level of wealth. Nobles stood at the highest rung of the social ladder. The rights and privileges in force in the city extended only to citizens. To become a citizen, it was necessary to have property and a profession.
Among the citizens of the city, rich merchants stood out, from among whom they elected members of the magistrate and the city head. Wealthy merchants, industrialists and bankers in modern times formed a layer of the bourgeoisie that competed with the nobility for status and influence in society. The middle class included doctors, lawyers, scientists, and members of the clergy. The basis of the middle class was made up of artisans from among the owners of real estate, shop owners and taverns. Handicrafts were not allowed without permission. So the craftsmen secured a market for themselves and guaranteed the quality of the products. Hierarchy reigned among the artisans themselves. The skillful profession of a jeweler was considered more worthy than that of a butcher, and even less respected were the tanners and leather dyers who did the dirty work.
The poorest citizens included apprentices who had no property and ordinary workers. Each city had its own lower classes - those for whom there was no work or who were unable to work due to illness and injury. In the Early Modern period, care for the underprivileged was at a primitive level, so people from the bottom lived on alms, prostitution, or criminal activity.
A completely separate group of townspeople were Jews, who were often assigned a special area in the city so that they would have less contact with Christians.
The beginning of the New Age can be considered the opening of routes to India and America by Europeans, which dramatically changed the position of Europe on the world map, being the forerunner of its rapid industrial development. The most important trade routes, which determined the development of individual cities, also changed. For a short period in the first half of the XVI century. Lisbon in Portugal and Seville in Spain took the lead, where goods from India and precious metals from America began to flock. Italian cities, far from the new paths, on the contrary, began to lose their sign, which was aggravated by the creation in the Middle East Ottoman Empire, which blocked all land routes from Europe to India.
In the second half of the XVI century. the main trading crossroads of Europe moved to the northwest of the mainland - to the coast of the North Sea. In the most advantageous position were the cities of the Netherlands, located at the mouths of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt, which led to the interior of Europe. Antwerp became the main trading center. Along the coast of the Scheldt in this city, a whole trade and warehouse zone was formed, where goods from many countries flocked, and then distributed to the regions of Europe. The most important contracts began to be concluded not in the markets, but on the stock exchange, which dramatically increased the volume of trade. The main square of the city was intended for solemn ceremonies and holidays, and it was decorated with the buildings of the town hall and the most important trade guilds. New handicraft industries appeared, including jewelry, and the first textile manufactories. At the same time, politically, the Netherlands at that time was under the rule of Spain, where a significant part of the income of merchants and artisans went. Economic contradictions were intensified by national and religious ones. This led to an uprising of the population of the Netherlands during the era of Spanish domination. As a result of many years of struggle to gain independence at the end of the 16th century. succeeded only in the northern part of the Netherlands - Holland, populated mainly by Protestants. Antwerp, which remained in the southern part under the rule of the Spaniards, lost its dominant position. The main trading center of Europe and the whole world in the first half of the XV11 century. Amsterdam became the capital of Holland. Amsterdam is a small fishing village - growing dramatically in size. A monumental town hall (later the royal palace) is being built on its central Dam Square ("dam"), near the stock exchange and shopping districts. The coast of the sea is occupied by numerous warehouses and shipyards. Residential development diverges in rings from the city center, while the rings are formed by specially constructed canals with embankments. On the outskirts of the city there are manufactories processing raw materials from all over the world.
But the dominance of Holland and Amsterdam is also short-lived. After bourgeois revolution middle of the 17th century Greatly strengthened England. She first wins the war with Spain, and then a series of wars with Holland, becoming the leading maritime power in the world. The role of the main trade and economic center of the world is transferred to the capital of England, London. London arose as a military camp back in the days of ancient rome. It is located on the River Thames - the main route to the hinterland of England from the coast - in that place upstream from the mouth, where the river becomes narrower and a crossing can be arranged across it (there are still no bridges across the Thames below London). In the Middle Ages, London remained a relatively small city, although the most powerful royal fortress, the Tower, is being built downstream of the Thames, and Westminster Abbey, which is the site of the coronation and burial of English kings, is being built upstream.
Starting from the 17th century. London begins to develop rapidly. Downstream from the city, the area of London docks arises, consisting of numerous harbors, warehouses, shipyards. The East End adjoins this zone - working residential areas built up with multi-storey barrack-type buildings. Historic London - City - is gradually built up with buildings of banks, stock exchanges, offices of the largest companies, city public buildings (St. Paul's Cathedral, City Hall - Gidhall, court, etc.). Houses of parliament, ministries, royal palaces (Buckingham and others) are being built near Westminster Abbey. Large green areas are preserved here (Hyde Park, etc.), trade and entertainment areas are emerging (Soho, etc.). West Side London - the West End - becomes the place of residence of the privileged segments of the population. A sharp social territorial stratification first appears in London. Here, serious measures are being taken to regulate the development of the city, in particular, a green belt is being created around the city, and new suburbs are being built outside this zone, with a break from the main array of urban development. In the new suburbs, the principle of "garden city" is applied, when single-family houses, immersed in the greenery of trees, predominate. At the same time, the layout of the city center remains confusing, with narrow streets and the absence of a pronounced organizing center of the city. By the beginning of the XX century. London has a population of 4.5 million and is becoming largest city that has ever existed in history.
At the same time, other cities - industrial centers (Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, etc.) are developing in England. They consist of residential working quarters with industrial enterprises, loosely connected with each other, in fact, in the absence of a single urban center. There are also specialized port cities, military bases, resorts, while maintaining the university towns and small local centers that appeared in the Middle Ages. Thus, already in the XIX century. in England, a system of urban settlement is being formed, close to the modern one. In this country, for the first time in the world, the proportion of city dwellers exceeds half of the population, and at the beginning of the 20th century. in the UK, about 75% of the population is urban dwellers.
Of great importance for the development of urban planning was also Paris, which stood out among other cities of France in the Middle Ages. But intensive development of this city began already in modern times, when it became the capital of a large centralized state. In the middle of the XVII century. a front door is being created near Paris royal residence Versailles, which has become a model for such buildings in all European countries. New planning principles were developed, taking into account the effect of long-term perspectives, the combination of artificial structures with wildlife, the alternation of open green and water spaces. At the same time, the architectural style of classicism prevailed, which was a new "revival" of antiquity. Following the model of Versailles, the ensemble of ceremonial palaces and squares was being built in the 18th - early XIX V. and in Paris itself along the right bank of the Seine: Louvre - Tuileries - Place de la Concorde - Champs Elysees - Place des Stars with the Arc de Triomphe. In the second half of the XIX century. Haussmann (former prefect of Paris) is being reconstructed in the city, during which wide boulevards are created on the site of the former fortress walls and vast spaces are cleared along the Seine, allowing you to appreciate the architectural masterpieces of the city center: Notre Dame Cathedral, the Louvre, Les Invalides, later - the Eiffel Tower. At the same time, the city was divided into social sign: rich quarters are concentrated to the northwest of the city center, poor - to the southeast. The city center was surrounded by industrial suburbs. By the beginning of the XX century. Paris with a population of 2.7 million people. shares the 3rd-4th place among the cities of the world along with Berlin, second only to London and New York.
Berlin is another remarkable European city of that time ... It became the capital of a large centralized state (German Empire) relatively late - only in 1870. And initially it was a small fortress in the center of the Slavic lands conquered by German princes in the XIII-XIV centuries . Only since 1701 Berlin - the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia - the largest, but only one of the many German states of that time. But obtaining the status of the capital contributed to the rapid development of the city. Already in the days of Prussia, palaces and country residences were created in the city, almost t-inferior to those in Paris and London. A system of navigable canals is being built, in all directions railways, which dramatically improves the transport situation of the city and this contributes to the growth of industry. The new advantageous position is especially pronounced in times; German Empire. In the second half of the XIX century. The population of Berlin grows 5 times. The city hosts not only numerous administrative institutions of the new large European state, but also large industrial enterprises, and the latest for that time from mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, chemistry. The city becomes one of the world capitals of that time.
In general, we can say that in modern times, the main stimulus for the development of European cities is initially international trade, but subsequently the leading place passes to industry. Administrative centers are also rapidly developing - the capitals of centralized states. Industries are beginning to gain more and more importance: non-productive spheres - finance, education, science, culture
- The subject and periodization of the history of the Early Modern Age.
2. European society at the turn of the Early Modern Age. Characteristics of demographic and social processes.
3. New views on a person, society, the world, ethics, religion and culture in the era of the High Renaissance.
4. Agrarian relations and their transformation in the Early Modern Age (until 1789).
5. Urban production, trade and finance in the XVI - XVII centuries. Social and cultural changes in the life of European cities.
6. Class system and social changes in European society. Old new community groups. New types of social connections.
7. Manufacturing and factory stages of development of capitalism. The beginning and nature of the industrial revolution in the second half of the 18th century.
8. The concept of modernization. Historical reasons, types, features of modernization processes in different regions and social environments.
9. European colonialism in the Old and New Worlds in the 16th - 18th centuries. Types of colonial systems in the early modern period.
10. Features of the Renaissance in Germany. German humanism XV - XVI centuries.
11. Background and causes of the Reformation in Europe. The Crisis of Medieval Catholicism.
12. Peasant war in Germany. stages, driving forces, characteristics of programs, historical results.
13. The process of strengthening Prussia among the German states in the second half of the 17th - 18th centuries.
14. Features of the socio-economic and political development of the Netherlands in the XVI century. Formation of the prerequisites for the bourgeois revolution.
15. Revolution in the Netherlands: character, driving forces, stages, historical significance.
16. The main doctrines of the Reformation teachings (Luther, Calvin, Zwingli).
17. Counter-Reformation in Western Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries.
18. The main problems of international relations in Western Europe in the 16th century.
19. European absolutism in Early Modern times. Types of absolutist regimes, national features.
20. The main problems of the development of Spain in the Early Modern period Features of absolutism. Social, national, colonial problems.
21. Society, state and modernization processes in France of the XVI century.
22. Civil wars in France and the Edict of Nantes 1598
23. Approval of the system of French absolutism under Louis XIV in the second half of the XVII - early XVIII centuries
24. Thirty Years' War in Europe. Causes; characterization of the main conflicts and contradictions; main stages; historical results.
25. Formation of the Westphalian system of international relations. New trends in international relations II half of XVII century.
26. English society in the transitional era of the XVI - XVII centuries. The formation of the prerequisites for the English revolution.
27. Beginning of the English Revolution and civil wars 1640 - 1649
28. 28. Independent Republic and Cromwell's protectorate.
29. Restoration of the Stuarts and " glorious revolution» 1688 Formation of the English political system.
30. International relationships in Europe in 1648 - 1714. The main conflicts and directions of development of the Moscow Region.
31. International relations in 1714 - 1789 War of the Austrian Succession Seven Years' War, the state of European MOs by the beginning of the French Revolution.
32. European Enlightenment: main ideas and trends, representatives, national characteristics (England, France).
33. Features of the development of the North American colonies in the XVII - XVIII century. Contradictions between the colonies and the mother country.
34. War for the independence of the North American colonies 1776-1783. Position and participation of European powers in the war.
35. US Constitution. Development history, content, meaning.
36. French society before the revolution of the XVIII century. Crisis of absolutism.
37. Empire of the Austrian Habsburgs in the second half of the XVII - late XVIII V. The main foreign policy, socio-economic and national problems.
38. Italian states in the second half of the XVII - XVIII centuries. The problem of the national unification of Italy.
39. New development trends European culture and art in the XVII - XVIII centuries.
40. Development of science and technology in the RNV
Class: 7
Conduct form: lesson-journey.
Lesson Objectives:
- to systematize students' knowledge about the processes and phenomena that destroyed traditional society in the 16th-17th centuries;
- develop the ability to make a causal relationship between processes, events that took place in a given period;
- develop skills teamwork, group work;
- arouse interest in the Early Modern Age;
Equipment:
- map "Great geographical discoveries";
- a ship with detachable sails;
- presentation "Renaissance Painting";
- musical accompaniment: "Sound of the sea", "Captain, captain, smile ..."
- cards with the names of travelers;
- names of cities under numbers;
- signal cards with numbers;
- jury questionnaire.
During the classes
I. Organizational moment.
The teacher tells the students the topic, the objectives of the lesson, the forms of organizing the activities of schoolchildren.
Today we will have an unusual lesson, a lesson-journey. We will travel across the seas and oceans, across countries and cities, but also over time.
What time do you think we will sail?
What is this time that we call R.N.V., where did this term appear, when, what does it mean?
What is the name of the R.N.V. Society?
I know, of course, you are already adults, but even adults in their hearts want to be children at least someday, to return to childhood, to youth, and today, I think, we will have such an opportunity.
We will go on a journey on such a ship, which is called "Dream".
Today we are working in groups, we need assistants (jury's choice).
II. Organization of gaming activities.
The goal is defined, the ship is there, a team is needed.
1) D/R Presentation of commands (jury, points).
2) Stop "Portugal" (musical accompaniment "the sound of the sea")
Why? What pioneers can you name?
a) The guys are given maps, and are invited to remember and draw the route of one of the discoverers of this era in a minute. Cards with the names of sailors for each group are selected.
b) The game "Snowball". The first team answers the question, (passes com to another team), the second repeats the answer of the first team and names its answer, etc.
What has changed in Europe as a result of the V.G.O.? (jury, points)
3) Stop "Italy"
Why? Prove it.
a) "Renaissance architecture".
On the board under the numbers of the names of cities 1 Florence. 2 Rom. 3 Venice. There are signal cards with numbers on the desks. The teacher reads a text that mentions architectural monuments, the names of masters and visually. (Presentation .)
Teacher: 1 Venice, 2 Florence, 3 Rome;
Children: 3, 1, 2;
1 . This city has long been considered the center of the Renaissance. Justifying its name lat. ("Flowering City") was rich and prosperous. The citizens of the city were brought up by humanists in the spirit of admiration for ancient art. The glory of the city was multiplied by one of the richest and most influential families, the Medici, and especially by Lorenzo the Magnificent. The most famous churches and palazzos of the 16th century were created in this city. Church of Santa Maria Magdalena, Palazzo Pazzi, This city was truly the hometown of Michelangelo, Botticelli, Raphael Santi, Leonardo da Vinci . (Florence)
2. This city in the 15-16 centuries. becomes one of the centers of the Renaissance. He acquired a leading role in the development of Italian architecture: the Palazzo di Venezia, the Vatican Papal Palace, the Cathedral of St. Petra - whose architect was Bramante. At the end of the 16th century Dominica Fontana, on the orders of Pope Sixtus 5, undertook a grandiose restructuring of the main streets of the city, connecting the largest pilgrimage basilicas of the city with a single network of roads, the intersections of which - squares - were decorated with magnificent architectural monuments and fountains. On one of the squares, the Sistine Chapel began to show off, in the design of which invited masters took part: Michelangelo, Raphael. (ROME)
3. The architectural appearance of this city took shape in the 14th-16th centuries. Richly decorated church buildings, facades of palaces with openwork galleries, bridges, narrow crooked streets with continuous rows of 3-4-storey houses, many canals give the city a festive and picturesque character. In the city center is Piazza San Marco with the 5-domed Cathedral of St. Mark. The largest architect of the city was A. Palladio, who adorned the city with numerous villas in the “Roman style: Barbaro villas, the Library, the Olimpico theater, etc. Such painters as Veronese, Titian, Bellini and others lived and worked in this city. (VENICE) (jury , points).
b) Renaissance Painting.
Teams receive blank sheets, sign the team number, at the presentation of reproductions of paintings. Children must write the name of the author and the title of the works in order.
- Leonardo da Vinci "Mona Lisa (Giaconda)"
- Rafael Santi "Sistine Madonna"
- Leonardo da Vinci The Last Supper»
- Pieter Bruegel the Elder "Peasant Dance"
- Rembrandt Van Rijn - The Return of the Prodigal Son
- Michelangelo "The Creation of Adam"
Sheets are collected, checked by commands
Why do we attribute these paintings to the Renaissance? (jury, points)
4) Stop "End of the World" ».
We continue our journey and go to the end of the world, but where is it? After all, according to the ideas of medieval scientists, he was.
In R.N.V. there is a rapid development of science, especially in the field of natural sciences. On this basis, new ideas about the universe are formed, new methods of studying nature are born.
Now let's listen to these performances, achievements.
A representative from the team should tell in a minute the essence of the teachings of any scientist or inventor, (jury, points).
5) Stop "Germany".
Why Germany? What is the Reformation? What happened as a result of the Reformation?
After consulting in groups, the guys should answer the question:
Who among the leaders of the Reformation could say this phrase?
I'm standing here and I can't help it, God help me (Luther)
Power must be given to the common people (Müntzer)
If the church has determined that a thing that seems white to us is black, we must immediately recognize it as black (I. Layola)
I would rather have no subjects at all than have heretics (Philip 2)
Pray and work (J. Calvin) (jury, points)
6) Competition of captains.
The teacher says that at the end of the voyage, the sailors fold the sails, anchor the ship, put things in order. And he invites the teams to "disassemble" the ship. Namely: the captains go to the ship in turn, remove one attached part, read the concept and give its definition.
The jury counts the points, musical arrangement: Captain, captain, smile...
Absolutism, Renaissance, Humanism, Reformation, farmers.
III. Summing up the lessons.
Unfortunately, our journey is coming to an end, but I think that we will continue it in the next lessons. We still have a lot ahead of us. Counts the number of points, selects the winning team, awards, grades for the lesson.
IV. Homework : write a test on the studied topic.
Great geographical discoveries were prepared development of shipbuilding. A new type of ships has appeared - caravel. These ships could go under sail and against the wind, in addition, being small in size, they were also very roomy. Appeared astrolabe, thanks to which it was possible to establish the latitude of the location of the vessel, a compass.
Improved firearms. There was a way to preserve meat (by salting), which made it possible for sailors not to depend on trade, making long voyages.
Navigators, merchants, politicians and scientists of this era were based on the concept of a single world ocean. The idea of the World Ocean becomes a sacred and church tradition, becoming part of the religious worldview.
There were ideas that sailing from Europe to Asia in a westerly direction was possible. Cartography developed. In 1492 a German geographer Martin Beheim created a large globe and presented it to his hometown of Nuremberg. This globe is still the oldest that has come down to us and is fully preserved.
The first European country to actively embark on long-distance travel and the discovery of new lands was Portugal. After Portugal managed to separate from Spain and decided by the middle of the XIII century. its borders, it turned out to be completely cut off and isolated from Europe. Therefore, the government of this country provided patronage to sea travel.
Discoveries and conquests of Portugal during the Age of Discovery:
Henry the Navigator. A large fleet has been built. Exploring the West Coast of Africa. The Azores and Canary Islands were discovered. Creation of a caravel.
The case begun by Henry the Navigator was continued by another Portuguese traveler Bartalameo Dias. In 1487, he undertook a sea expedition along the western coast of Africa and reached its southern tip, which he called the Cape of Good Hope.
While Spain continued its sea voyages to the west in search of India, Portugal did not abandon its attempts to reach India by the east.
In the summer of 1497, the Portuguese king Manuele I appointed one of the courtiers, a representative of an old noble family, to lead the expedition to India. Vasco da Gama.
The expedition passed along the western coast of Africa, then deviated to the southwest and went in a large arc to the Cape of Good Hope and, having rounded Africa, went further (now to the north) along the eastern coast of Africa to the equator.
Moving along the East African coast, the ships tried not to lose sight of the land. In Port Malindi Vasco da Gama hired an Arab pilot who led the Portuguese to India.
In August 1498, the expedition led by Vasco da Gamma set off on the return journey, and in July 1499 the ships entered the harbor of Lisbon. Portugal triumphed. Vasco da Gama was given the title of Don and also the title of Admiral of the Indian Sea. At the age of 65 (1524) he died in the city of Cochin in southern India.
The Portuguese sought to capture not so much vast territories as strategically important points that gave them the opportunity to control trade routes.
Discoveries and conquests of Spain during the Age of Discovery:
In the second half of the XV century. there was a union of the two largest states of the Iberian Peninsula - Castile and Aragon, which led to the creation of the Spanish monarchy. Spanish troops began to liberate the lands captured by the Arabs as early as 711. The last region liberated from the Arabs in 1492 was Granada. After that, Spain became the most powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula and could no longer put up with the dominance of the Portuguese at sea. The desire for leadership pushed the royal nobility to expand their territory, extract gold and capture slaves. But navigation and shipbuilding in Spain was poorly developed. Therefore, the Spanish monarchs resorted to the services of sailors from other countries. One of these sailors was an Italian Christopher Columbus.
Columbus offered his services to the kings of Portugal and Spain several times. Only in 1492 did he receive consent and funding. The journey began on August 3, 1492 from Seville. First, the ships reached the Canary Islands, and from there headed due west to open ocean and on October 12 of the same year they reached land. It was one of the Bahamas in the Caribbean Sea, which the sailors, exhausted by a long voyage, called "San Salvador", which means "holy savior".
Continuing their navigation, the ships turned south and on October 25, 1492 reached the island of Cuba. Further, Columbus sent his ships along the coast of this island, turning east. He considered that this was not an island, but part of big continent. All members of the expedition were sure that they had reached the shores of Japan, China or India. Conventionally, they called the open lands West Indies, and the locals - Indians.
Passing along the coast of Cuba and the island of Haiti, he turned back. In the spring of 1493 the travelers returned to Spain in triumph. For this journey, Columbus was granted a personal coat of arms and was awarded the rank of admiral.
After that, in 1493, 1498 and 1504, Columbus made three more trips, discovered many islands in the West Indies, explored the coast Central America. But until the end of his life he was sure that he had reached Asia.
In subsequent years, the explorer Amerigo Vespucci proved that the lands were a new continent, and his name was soon attached to these lands - America.
In 1519-1522. - first trip around the world Ferdinand Magellan. It was the first trip around the world in history that proved the Earth's sphericity. The great geographical discoveries contributed not only to the formation of the world market, but also to the development of international and cultural relations, the formation of permanent water and sea routes, which later became tourist routes.
In the second half of the XVI century. Holland and England play the main roles in sea voyages.
Travels of James Cook. The task of the middle of the XVIII century. - search for the southern mainland. 1768-1771 - the first expedition. Explored New Zealand, proved the existence of a strait between the North and South Islands (Cook Strait). Discovered the Great Barrier Reef and the east coast of Australia. Having explored the Torres Strait, he proved that New Guinea is an island. A rich botanical collection has been assembled. 1772-1775 - the second expedition. Search for the Southern Continent (71 S). He proved that at 40-60 s. there is no land. A number of islands in Polynesia have been discovered. Easter Island. New Caledonia. 1776-1779 - the third journey. The goal is to find a northwestern path. He discovered the Hawaiian Islands, explored the coast of Alaska (Cook Inlet). Passed the Bering Strait, but the ice forced to turn back. In a clash with the Hawaiian natives, J. Cook died.
Thus, during this period, many lands were discovered in pacific ocean. Compiled detailed maps new lands. The richest scientific collection is collected. An example of travel for scientific purposes.
