The phases of the vowel and consonant. Coarticulation in the flow of speech. Give examples.
For the formation of each sound of speech, a complex of works of the organs of speech in a certain sequence is necessary, that is, a well-defined articulation is needed. Articulation is the work of the organs of speech, necessary for the pronunciation of sounds.
The articulation of the sound of speech consists of a set of movements and states of the organs of speech - the articulation complex; therefore, the articulatory characteristic of the speech sound turns out to be multidimensional, covering from 3 to 12 different features.
Articulatory, the sound of speech can be represented as a sequence of three phases, i.e. states of the vocal tract:
Excursion (attack) - the transition of the articulating organs to the state necessary for the production of a given sound;
Exposure - finding organs in a given position,
Recursion (indentation) - transition to the articulation of the next sound or transition to a neutral position.
In reality, all three phases are rarely represented in the speech chain, since the excursion of one sound is often the recursion of the previous one, and the recursion is the excursion of the next one. Phonetic segments can overlap one another. Such a phenomenon is coarticulation. For example, a voiceless fricative (s) before a labialized vowel is pronounced with rounded lips.
Strong and weak positions of phonemes in the flow of speech.
The flow of speech - continuous work speech apparatus generated by a continuous sound. From a linguistic point of view, the flow of speech is the process of formation of obligatory allophones of phonemes.
Strong positions of phonemes in terms of voicedness-deafness:
1. Before a vowel within a word
2. Before a sonant within a word
3. Before /v/, /v’/ inside a word
Weak positions in loudness-deafness:
1. Before noisy (inside the word and at the junction of words)
2. End of a word before a pause, vowel, sonant or /v/, /v’/
Strong positions in hardness-softness:
1. End of the word
2. Before the vowels /a/, /o/, /u/, /e/ (the position of the consonant before /e/ is recognized as strong only by supporters of the Shcherbov approach to the phoneme).
3. Before a hard consonant
4. Before a soft non-homogenous front-lingual consonant
Weak positions in hardness-softness:
1. Before /i/ within a word
2. Before /s/ inside a word
3. Before a soft homoorganic anterior lingual consonant
The concept of alternation. Differences between historical and positional alternations.
Morphemes in different positions can have various options sound, for example:<штука>-<штучка>.
Variants of morphemes that partially differ in their phonemic composition are called allomorphs. So allomorphs are things- And piece-. When comparing the phonemic composition of allomorphs, the fact of alternation of phonemes is revealed.
NB!: Muscovites do not have alternations.
alternation- phonemic difference of allomorphs of one morpheme.
Two types of alternations:
1) historical
2) positional (live, phonetic)
I. cause of occurrence
Historical alternations arise due to the history of the language (inexplicable from a synchronic point of view), while positional alternations arise due to the operation of phonetic laws.
NB! : at the moment of its occurrence, any alternation is positionally
II. in writing
Historical alternations are reflected in writing (creativity is a creature), while positional alternations are not due to the morphological principle of spelling.
Except i//s *play-play
III. position of alternates
Historical: all in a strong position; on the left - the historically primary alternant.
Positional: alternates are in positions of different strength; in the first place - the alternant of a strong position.
IV. pronunciation
For historical alternations, the function of reflecting pronunciation is secondary, the grammatical function is important there; and for positional alternations, pronunciation is primary, but here there is also a morphological (grammatical) function.
V. finding
Historical alternations are mostly in the verb system *run-run; positional alternations - in the system of nominal inflection *hand-hand.
40. Positional and historical vowel alternations.
Alternation is a phonemic difference between allophones of one phoneme.
Interleave types:
-Historical.
- Positional (Muscovites do not have it!) Positional alternations are very few and strictly regular, since the number of phonetic laws is countable.
Historical alternations arise because of the history of the language, but at the time of their occurrence they are also positional.
All vowel alternations:
Akanye: o//a (water-water)
Hiccup: e//i (forest-forest); a//i (hour - hours); o//i (carry-carry)
yukany: e//s (workshops); o//s (wives - wife)
Combinations: i//s (play-play)
Historical alternations: eg. creature-create, robin-dawn, burn-cinder.
Positional and historical consonant alternations
All consonant alternations:
1) Position sonority - deafness:
Sound//ch * tell-tale
Main / / sound * ask-request
2) Position hardness - softness:
TV//soft *hand-to-hand
Soft//tv *steppe-steppe ( actually they are not positional)
3) By place and method of education:
*Carrier
4) Alternate with zero
*Be late - late
Historical alternations:
k|č-ruka-ručka. k|č|c - l'ik-l'ico-l'icnyj. g|ž-nožыn'ka-naga.etc.
As already mentioned in connection with the topic "Etymology", in order to be able to determine the origin of a particular word, to find its close and distant relatives in the language, you need to know the patterns by which the sounds of the Russian language alternate with each other. For this, it is necessary to know some historical phonetic processes in the field of vowels and consonants.
However, the word "sound" is not used here quite out of place, it is more legitimate to talk about the alternation of phonemes. We all know that in writing one letter reflects one phoneme, therefore historical alternations are just alternations of phonemes, in contrast to positional alternations of soundswithin the same phoneme.
Let us consider the main historical phonetic processes in the field of consonants and vowels. All these processes stem mainly from a pattern, which in linguistics is usually called the principle of increasing sonority: each subsequent sound in a syllable must be more sonorous than the previous one (therefore, the so-called law open syllable A syllable can only end in a vowel.
Changes in diphthongic combinations of vowels with nasals *n And m*
Proto-Slavic combinations *in, *im, *en, *em, *ün, *üm split into two sounds before a vowel (sv en et, m n at←m нн-u, w m at←and um-u, see in at, vn them at etc.), and between consonants they vocalized, that is, they merged into one vowel sound [e] with a nasal overtone, which subsequently turned into a sound [a], usually transmitted in writing by the letter “I”, except when it follows the hissing (sv I kat, m I th, w A t, vn I tny etc.). The same pattern is realized with hard consonants combined with non-front vowels: *on, *om, ъn, ъm broke up before the vowel into two sounds, and between consonants they first vocalized in [o] nasal, which then turned into [y]. Compare: sv at To And sv He it, d at be And above m enny(literally "inflated").
Therefore, thanks to the alternations that we observe in the words of the modern Russian language, we can restore the common Slavic form of words, for example:
blow←*düm-ti
sound← *zvon-k-b
crush←*min-ti
reap←*güm-ti
You can give more examples of the same phonetic patterns, including words not only Slavic, but also other Indo-European languages:
This material proves that Russian word Name related to Latin nomen, Russian path- latin pons (bridge).
What other words of Indo-European origin can you remember with the same alternations?
You can give the Russian word five, related to Greek pentha and Latin quinque (pinque in early Latin) memory And opinion, related to Latin mens"mind" (hence mental) and others.
Speaking about the processes associated with diphthongic combinations, one cannot fail to mention the alternation of the so-called full-vowel and non-vowel combinations, which serve as a sign of the origin of the word (its relationship to one of the subgroups of Slavic languages).
The fate of diphthongic combinations with smooth sonorants in the middle of a word between consonants
Changing diphthongic combinations with smooth (that is, non-nasal) sonorant consonants [p] and [l] in the middle of a word between consonants (combinations of the type where t- any consonant) was reflected differently in the Slavic languages. In the South Slavic languages (which Old Church Slavonic is), as well as in some Western languages (Czech and Slovak), a rearrangement (metateza) occurred, accompanied by lengthening of the vowel (and, as a result, its qualitative change: [o] long turned into [a]).
In the eastern languages and the remaining western languages (Polish, Kashubian, Lusatian Serbo), metathesis was accompanied by vowel lengthening. Instead, a new vowel developed (at first it was only a vocal overtone), which coincided in quality with the previous one:
Then, in the East Slavic languages (in particular, Russian), this developed sound became the vowel of a complete formation, and in Western languages (for example, in Polish) it was lost:
The results of changing diphthongic combinations with smooth ones by type *cake→ spend commonly called disagreement, and according to the type *cake→ torot- full consent.
You can also give examples of words in which these combinations have retained their original common Slavic form.
When do you think this happened?
Diphthongic combinations remained as they were in the parent language, if they were
not between consonants, compare: b oro b ra uh, But zab op-b; st oro on, st ra on the, But simple op-b.
Developed in place of diphthongic combinations with smooth dissonances may coincide
with native combinations that were between consonants in one morphemein words like . In this case, the question arises: how to distinguish them from each other? To distinguish between these combinations, one should remember that the original ones sound the same in all Slavic languages; if the word contains a disagreement that has developedas a result of the transformation of a diphthongic combination with a smooth one, then him in other Slaviclanguages will correspond to other combinations of sounds (in particular, full agreement in Eastern Slavs ski languages). For example, words Brother, glory did not contain combinations by type *ol, or, because, firstly,there are no corresponding words with combinations *oro, olo, secondly, related words of other Indo-European languages confirm a different original phonemic composition of the root, compare Latin frater, Latvian slava (rumor).
Softening (palatalization) of consonants
1. Softening of consonants before the sound [j] (the so-called iot process).
In the Proto-Slavic language, a group of consonants in one syllable strove for uniformity. Therefore, the soft consonant [j] (and this was the only soft consonant in the Proto-Slavic period), if it followed the hard ones, changed their sound. He himself disappeared, dissolved in the previous sounds.
Very many words and word forms historically contained the suffix -j, what we can now guess only indirectly - from phonetic alternations.
Back-lingual consonants [k], [g], [x], which in the original phonetic system could not have a positionally semi-soft option (that is, they were “hard unpaired”), passed before iotinto hissing consonants [h], [g], [w].
se To y, But *se k-j-a se h A
stereo G y, But *stra g-j-a country and A
du X, But *dou ch-j-a → doo w A
Also, whistling consonants turned into hissing [s] and [s]:
But With it, But But w y (w ← *cj)
in h it, But in and y (w← *зj).
Sonorant consonants [r], [l], [n] (except for the labial [m]!) became soft without changing their main articulation:
horse ([н`] ← *[нj])
look ([p`] ← *[pj])
I pray ([l`] ← *[lj])
Explosive dental consonants [t], [d] turned into [h], [g] in East Slavic languages, affricates [pcs] ([u]), [zhd] in South Slavic and affricates [c], [dz] in West Slavic . This sign helps to distinguish Russian-born words from Old Slavonicisms, compare:
sve T - Russian sve h A, but st.-sl. osve sch at
in d it - Russian in and y, but st.-sl. in railway enenie
The labial consonants [p], [b], [c], [m] developed an overtone [l] before the iot, which later turned into
in consonant full education - l epenteticum(plugin [l]).
RU b it - ru bl yu, ru bl b
le P it - le pl Yu
lo V it - lo ow yu, lo ow I
ze m noah - ze ml I
The consonant groups [sk] and [st] before [j] turned into the affricate [u]:
And sk at - and sch at
about st oh - about sch e
2. Softening of back-lingual consonants [k], [g], [x] before front vowels (the so-called I, II, III palatalization of back-lingual).
First palatalization: [k], [g], [x] turned into [h], [g], [w] before the vowels [e] ([e]), [i], reduced [b].
ox To- ox h uy
other G-dru and it
mu X a - mu w other, mu w ka (mu w ka)
Second palatalization: [k], [g], [x] turned into [c], [h], [s] before front vowels.
The results of this process disappeared from the language when positionally soft consonants [k`], [g`], [x`] became possible. Compare the forms of some words in Old Russian and modern Russian:
ox To and - vlc And
(o) take G e - (o) take h e
(oh) doo X e - (o) dooWith e
The results of this palatalization have been preserved (as an exception) only in words friends, price(cf. Lithuanian kaina- price, benefit) And set expressions in the hand of God, byword("in languages"), dark water in the clouds("in the clouds").
Third palatalization: consonants k, g, x also go to c, h, s, But after front vowels.
prince G yin (kyanya G yni) - prince h b
whether To- whether c e→ face
In most cases, the Russian language has not preserved words with the original back language, and the results of palatalization, on the contrary, have been preserved: father, whole, sheep etc. All words with diminutive suffixes -ets-, -its- have undergone this process.
ancient vowel alternations
All historical alternations of vowel phonemes in Russian are associated with one of the following processes:
1) the oldest alternations, the most common of which is e (e) / o;
2) the transition of quantitative differences into qualitative ones;
3) changes in the pronunciation of diphthongs.
IN early period the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, vowel sounds were opposed
in longitude - brevity. The vowel system of the parent language consisted of 8 phonemes: a, o, u, and short and long.
Over time, this opposition was lost, quantitative differences passed
in quality.
Issues under consideration:
1. Types of sound alternations.
2. Positional alternations of sounds:
a) positional alternations of vowels;
b) positional alternations of consonants.
3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants.
Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, position of sound, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, stunning of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.
1. Types of sound alternations
In the process of speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this substitution is constant, regular, due to the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation, and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relations of regular replacement of one sound by another in the same phonetic conditions are called alternation.
The alternations associated with the position of the sound are called position alternations. Alternations due to phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.
All types of sound alternations can be represented in the form of the following table:
Types of sound alternations
|
positional (sound changes related to their position) |
historical (changes in sounds due to phonetic processes that took place in the past) |
|
|
actually positional (sound changes related only to the position of the sounds) |
combinatorial (changes related to the position of sounds and the influence of sounds on each other) |
|
|
vowel reduction; stun at the end of a consonant word |
accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution |
|
Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and hence words, because alternations are related to the relationship of sounds (phonemes) within the system, where the units are related to each other in some way. The language distinguishes two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) - relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) - relations of association of homogeneous units based on associations.
In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and the recognition of similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of the sound, are paradigmatic (for example, when the speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b ' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] is the same typical sound).
2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)
Sounds in the speech stream are pronounced with different strength and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position - this is its immediate environment, as well as the position at the beginning, at the end of the word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels - the position in relation to stress.
There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.
Positional changes - these are sound changes associated with its position (for example, stunning at the end of a word, weakening unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of positional changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, loss (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.
Combinatorial changes - these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types positional changes, except for stunning at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with the position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.
2 a) Positional vowel alternations
The main type of positional changes in vowels is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. quantitative reduction – decrease in longitude and strength of sound - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). Qualitative reduction– attenuation with some change in sound. For example, for sounds [a], [o], [e] - in an unstressed position. Cf .: the sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mult current].
Sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of a word and as a reduced sound [b] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk- [milko], beard- [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] - Rowan[r "and e b" ying], hourly[ h "s Lvoi].
The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [ and e ], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight- [n "bp" and e l "otʹ].
IN foreign words qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano- [рLjа́л "], but boa[boa], remark[r "and e mark], but metro[m "etroʹ].
Positional changes in vowels undergoing reduction can be represented in the form of the following table:
|
accent strong position |
Unstressed positions |
|||
|
absolute beginning of a word, the beginning of the word after [j], first prestressed syllable 1 weak position |
other pre-shock and post-shock positions 2 weak position |
|||
|
after tv. |
after soft |
after tv. |
after soft |
|
|
clouds |
five [p'i e t'i] |
field [p'l'i e howl] |
Private [r'dLvoy] |
|
|
wife [zhe na] |
forests [l and e sa] |
tin [zhus't'i e noi] |
heroism [g'rLizm] |
|
combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sound and are called accommodation. Wed pronunciation [o] in words they say[say], chalk[m’ hol], mole[mo l']. Accommodation can be progressive (®): chalk[m 'hol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo l'].
Thus, characterizing the changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (qualitative reduction, quantitative reduction or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonants (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, birch[b'i e r'oz] :
[and e] - positional changes(in relation to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.
[·о] – there are no positional changes, because vowel under stress; combinatorial changes - progressive accommodation.
[b] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes are absent.
2 b) Positional alternations of consonants
As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed sound [t] in words - So And That: [so] - [to from].
Much more often than accommodation, there are other changes in consonant sounds.
Assimilation – similarity in some way. Assimilation happens:
- in the vicinity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
- by the nature of the change by deafness/voicedness And hardness/softness;
- in the direction of impact - progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(impact of sounds from right to left (¬);
- by completeness of assimilation: complete And partial.
The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale- [kask] - voiced [h] under the influence of the deaf [k] assimilated into a deaf paired sound [s]. This assimilation is contact partial regressive in deafness.
Hissing consonants before hissing as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I drive .
D assimilation - distribution of sounds. In Russian, this process is rare. As a result of the process, the sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft- [m "ahk" y], easy- [l "ohk" y]. Dissimilation is subjected to pairs of the same way or place of formation of sound or similar sounds. Dissimilation can be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.
Distant progressive dissimilation has occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in the vernacular corridor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is a distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: thu, th like [sh] - What[what] and - wow, his like [ova], [yva]: blue- [with "in" bb]! These alternations are carried out regularly, in the same positions without exception, and have the character of a law.)
contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [grutskaya ® grtskaya], [ts] ® [c].
With the contraction of groups of consonants, sound loss can be observed: Sun- [sun]. Usually these are combinations [vst], [ntsk], [stl], etc.
Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:
Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)- (from the Greek diaresis - gap) - the omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant- [g'igansky].
Haplology- (from the Greek gaplos - simple + logos - concept) the omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables, due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralogy, standard-bearer, instead of standard-bearer.
Metathesis- (from the Greek metathesis - permutation) permutation of sounds or syllables in the composition of a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from talerka.
Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, indrav instead of temper, scorpionjon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in the word coffee(from coffee), the sound [in] in the word singer(from sang) in literary speech.
substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, more often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic for the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[v] instead of [w].
3. Historical alternations of sounds
Regular changes in sounds, not related to the position in the word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:
vowel alternation:
[ e] - [ and] - [ o] - [ a] - [Ø] // sound zero: died - to die; pestilence - to die - I will die; I take - collect - collect - collect;
[e] - [Ø] zero sound: stump - stump; true - true; wind - winds;
[o] - [Ø] - zero sound: forehead - forehead; bottomless - the bottom; lie - lie;
[ s] - [ Ø] - zero sound: send -ambassador - send.
Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:
[and] - [th] - [she] - [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;
[s] - [oh] - [ov] - [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim - swimmer - swim; cover - cut - cover;
[y] - [ov] - [ev]: kuyu - to forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;
[a] - [im] - [m]: reap - shake - shake;
[a] - [in] - [n]: reap - reap - reap.
consonant alternation:
[g] - [g] - [s]: friend - make friends - friends; run - run; moisture - wet;
[k] - [h]: shout - shout; hand - manual; peku - bakes;
[x] - [w]: quiet - silence; dry - land; stuffy - stuffy;
[s] - [s "] - [g]: thunderstorm - to threaten - to threaten; to carry - I drive; smear - I smear; climb - get along;
[s] - [s"] - [w]: bringing - to wear - a burden; scythe - mow - koshu; ask - demand - petition; high - height - higher;
[t] - [t "] - [h] - [w "]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return - return - return;
[d] - [f] - [f]: gardens - soot - planting;
[n] - [n "]: change - change; torn - tear;
[l] - [l "]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;
[p] - [p "]: hit - hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;
[b] - [b "] - [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;
[n] - [n "] - [pl"]: pour - rash - pour;
[in] - [in "] - [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;
[f] - [f"] - [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;
[sk] - [st] - [s"t"] - [w":]: shine - shine - shine - shine; start - let - omit;
[sk] - [w":]: crack - crack;
[st] - [w "]: whistle - whistle
4. Phonetic transcription
Phonetic transcription is a recording of sounding speech with special characters. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the shades of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, yo, yu, i. Letters b, b are used in a different sense. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È …. Z. The main signs adopted in phonetic transcription:
– square brackets to highlight transcribed sounding units;
/ - a sign above the letter to indicate stress;
’ - a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;
L- a sign for designating sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after solid consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [sLdy],;
b- a sign for denoting unstressed sounds [a], [o] after solid consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of a word: gardener- [sedLvo΄t], young- [mlLdo΄y], as well as unstressed sound[e] after non-softened [g], [w], [c] in all unstressed positions, except for the first before stress: cement- [ts'm'i en nt'i΄rv't'].
b- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly- [h’ sLvo΄y], arborist- [l'sLvo΄t];
and e- a sign for vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest- [l'i e sleepy]; nickel- [p'i e so].
s e – a sign for sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants w, w, c: regret- [zhy e l’et’], price- [tsy e na΄],
γ – letter to represent a fricative consonant denoted by a letter G in words: yeah, sir;
È - the bow under the line between the words indicates the continuous pronunciation of the service and independent words: in rows- [p È r 'and e da΄m];
j- a letter for the sound [th] at the beginning of words on e,yo,yu, i, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb- [pLdjo΄m], his- [svj and e v΄];
Ç - the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].
/ - a sign of a bar pause during the transcription of a sounding speech: [s’i e rg’e΄y / my friend//]
// - a sign of a phrasal pause in the transcription of sounding speech:
[home / and È s’t’e΄ny pmLga΄jut //] .
Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the features of the pronunciation of a word of a particular locality are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.
The literary pronunciation of the words of the Russian language implies the observance of certain norms, which are reflected in the transcription rules.
5. Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels and consonants
Rules for transcription (pronunciation) of vowels:
1. The vowels O, A, E (in the spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.
2. In all unstressed positions after solid consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika- [b llla΄yk]; garden .
The vowels I, S, Y do not change during pronunciation.
3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription it is conveyed by the sign - [vLdaʹ]. This type of pronunciation is called akanem. Norm literary language- haunting pronunciation.
4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If a word with a preposition, in the flow of speech is one phonetic word and transcribed according to general rule: to the garden[in glro΄t];
5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Y) is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the icon [and e]: watch[ch'i e sy].
6. The vowel E (in the spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced like AND and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l'i e sno΄y]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced indistinctly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the [b] sign: arborist- [l'sLvo΄t], copse- [p'yr 'and e l'e΄sk].
7. The letters E, Yo, Yu, I are not used in transcription, in their place are written the corresponding pronunciation (audible) sounds: ball[m'ach'], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prLside jb].
8. After the solid consonants Zh, Sh, Ts in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letter E, the sign [s e] is written in the transcription: want- [zhy e lat '], price- [tsy e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is transmitted with the sign [b]: yellowish[yellow].
9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in a stressed position, instead of the spelling rule And, the pronunciation [s] is written in the transcription: number- [cy΄fr], lived- [life], sewed- [shyl].
Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonants:
In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which the processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are stunned. The processes of accommodation of consonant sounds (for example, the roundness of the sound [to] in the word here) are usually not reflected in the transcription used by us.
18. Historical alternations of SRY as a reflection of the ancient laws of the phonetic system.
Due to the presence of strong and weak sounds in the phonetic system of the Russian literary language, there are positional alternation of sounds. Along with positional alternations, or phonetic, there is another kind of alternation called historical. Positional alternations of sounds are phonetically conditioned, i.e. are caused by the phonetic laws operating in the modern language, for example, reduction in the field of vowels and assimilation in the field of consonants. Historical alternations are not phonetically determined and are remnants of phonetic processes that operated in earlier eras of the development of the Russian language. Such, for example, is the alternation [r] // [g] at the root run-. In words run - run the alternation of sounds [r] // [g] is not phonetically determined, since these sounds are in the same position, and the alternation is historical.
Historical alternations in their functions in the modern language are not the same. Of particular importance is the role of historical alternations in shaping and word formation. It follows that historical alternations are studied in grammar and historical phonetics.
In modern Russian, sounds do not differ in longitude and brevity, but traces of the existence in the early period of the Common Slavic language of long and short vowels, inherited from the Indo-European base language, but then changed in different ways in the Common Slavic language, are still preserved in it. A reflection of these new alternations of vowels of different quality are the following modern Russian alternations:
"behavior-drive"; “rooster-sing” - the alternation of E-O there is a lack of a vowel sound. Since the modern Russian fluent E goes back to the reduced b, which disappeared in a weak position and turned into E in a strong position, the Russian alternation E-O, the absence of a vowel, was preceded by the common Slavic two-term alternation E-b.
“Blacksmith-forge” - the modern alternation of U-O in a position before consonants diphthongs were divided: syllabic vowels O in diphthongs (OI and AI) remained in one syllable, and the non-syllabic sound And in the form of a consonant B adjoined the next vowel. Thus arose on the common Slavic soil new alternations living in the Russian language U-OV.
“reduction-short” - the modern alternation of ORO with the non-plentiful RA arose in the late Slavic period (V-VIII centuries AD) from the diphthongic combination of the vowel O with a smooth OR in a position between consonants according to the law of an open syllable. In such combinations, the South Slavs observed the movement of the vowel and smooth and the prolongation of the vowel sound OR-RA. Among the Eastern Slavs, due to the longitude of the smooth one, a secondary vowel began to develop after it, similar to the vowel before the smooth one, which, probably, at first was shorter than the usual O and E, but with the fall of the reduced ones, it cleared up to a full vowel formation: OR'ORO.
“call-call” - the modern alternation at the root zero of the sound O reflects the Old Russian alternation of weak and strong reduced b according to the law of loss of quantitative vowels, the consequence of which is the process of loss of reduced ones. In the word “call” at the root “zv”, the reduced one was in a weak position, it ceased to be pronounced and gradually disappeared. In the word “call”, the reduced b was in a strong position and underwent a compensatory lengthening and sounded like O.
Historical alternation of consonants in the Old Russian language.
Task: write out from the sentences words in which there are results of common Slavic softening of consonants and groups of consonants under the influence of prehistoric iota and front vowels. When explaining, follow the scheme: the original sound that has been softened (or a group of consonants); the law that caused the relaxation; phonetic conditions for softening a given sound in a given word (and not in general); mitigation results; chronological framework of the process.
Stand up to me, unsimilar, slander me.
Embrace your soul with impiety.
The bysha is equally floating, starting to gallop in his boat.
Gray birds have different clothes.
Beashe is in an ace (tuga-mountain) and sadness is dejected with heart.
It's pitiful to emit a voice.
Uchrnivsha from the burning of the cave.
I say swearing: tell us, old man, that they are lying.
Morning behold God's help.
Before dying of his speech, more than before understanding the prophets.
Be the existence of self-driving all the Russian lands to Volodymyr the son of Svyatoslav.
Come to Vyshegorod the night of calling Putsha and the Vyshegorod man and speech.
It is pitiful to let out a voice.
Lying to sleep and rather sleep him in a lot of thought and in sadness, strong and heavy and terrible.
Spacious crown to receive from the hands of the ruler.
See the current blaze of weapons and sword-like appraisal.
The time is approaching for the comfort of the blessed father and teacher.
The softening of consonants and consonant groups is caused by the law of syllabic synharmonism. Some of them softened in the early common Slavic period (III-II millennium BC - up to the 5th century AD), part in the late (V-IX century AD).
Early Common Slavic period:
softening of back-lingual consonants before b: “get up”, “embrace”, “crown”; before E: “beashe”, “more”;
mitigation of sonorants (P, L, N) and anterior lingual: “issuing”, “self-driving”, “pechnago”;
mitigation of the anterior lingual Z, S: "uzre";
softening of the labials at the beginning of the word (P, B, M, C): "bysha";
Late Common Slavic period:
change of labials not at the beginning of the word: “unlike”, “Svyatoslav”;
change in the front-lingual consonants D and T before J: “come”, “before”;
In many languages, the exponents of most morphemes have a variable phonemic composition.
Alternation (from lat. alterno–alternate)- paradigmatic relations between units of the same level of the language, which are able to replace each other at the same place in the structure of the language unit. Sound quantities involved in the alternation - alternatives.
In the language, alternations of sounds are distinguished, that is, their mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes. It is important to distinguish between the types of alternations, since some of them belong to the field of phonetics, while others to the field of morphonology, and should, therefore, be studied by the corresponding sections of linguistics.
1) phonetic (live) alternations- these are changes in sounds in the speech stream, which are caused by modern phonetic processes. With phonetic (live) alternations, variants or variations of the same phoneme alternate without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes. Such are the alternations of stressed and unstressed vowels in Russian, for example, water - water - water carrier, where [and] is a variant of the phoneme [o]. Or the alternation of voiced and deaf consonants: each other, where [k] is a variant of the phoneme [g]
a) positional- HF, due to the place of the sound relative to the stress or word boundary
b) combinatorial– HF, due to the presence of certain other sounds in the environment of a given sound
2) historical alternations- alternations that cannot be explained by modern phonetic conditions: friend - friends, hand - pen, monk - monastic. Historical alternations are reflected in writing in contrast to phonetic
1) morphological (positional)- HH appearing in certain grammatical formats before certain affixes is not due to phonetic position, and is not in itself an exponent of grammatical meaning. Such alternations are called historical because they are explained only historically, and not from modern language
With morphological alternations alternate:
a) a vowel phoneme with zero, for example, sleep - sleep, stump - stump (the so-called fluent vowel)
b) one consonant phoneme with another consonant phoneme: [k] - [h], [g] - [g], [x] - [w], for example, hand - pen, leg - leg, fly - fly
c) two consonant phonemes with one consonant phoneme: sk-sch st-sch zg-zh zd-zh, for example, plane - area, simple - simplification, grumble - grumble, belated - later
2) grammatical alternations– IH that independently express grammatical meanings and associated with the formation of a new value. So, for example, alternations of paired [l] and [l], [n] and [n ’], as well as alternations of “k-h” and “x-sh” can distinguish between a short adjective male and a noun of the category of collectiveness, for example, goal - goal, rn - rn, wild - game, dry - dry. The alternation of "Ms." can distinguish between imperfect and perfect view verbs, eg. avoid, resort, run away and avoid, run, run away.
17. Methods and techniques of experimental phonetics
1. self-observation without the help of tools:
Self-observation can have both muscular sense data and auditory data as an object. During self-observation, they use a mirror (to determine the position of the lips, mouth solution), a candle (to monitor the course of the air stream), a laryngoscope (a medical device used to examine the palate, tongue and larynx). All experiments are carried out repeatedly, since a certain training is necessary to fix muscle movements and auditory impressions. Despite its simplicity, this method has its drawbacks:
1) not all organs of speech can be examined
2) in order to explore the articulation of any sound, you need to repeat given sound many times
2. somatic methods (associated with the use of devices, instruments and apparatus):
1) palatography- registration of the place of contact of the tongue with the palatine vault during the pronunciation of various sound phonemes. For this purpose, an artificial palate is used, which is prepared on a model of the upper jaw from various materials: plastic, glass, wax, celluloid. The surface of the plate facing the tongue is covered with black varnish or powdered with an indifferent powder (talc, but not powdered sugar, which can cause hypersalivation), injected into the oral cavity of the subject and pressed against the sky.
The subject pronounces the proposed sound. In this case, the tongue touches the corresponding parts of the sky, leaving prints. Next, the plate is removed from the mouth and these prints are studied.
Photopalatography- obtaining photographs of the "artificial palate" with the obtained imprints of the tongue after palatography. For this purpose, an "artificial palate" is placed on the model of the upper jaw.
A photostatic imaging technique is used to reproduce identical images before the start of orthodontic treatment, in its process, after its completion and after speech therapy training. On a negatoscope, the scheme is redrawn on tracing paper. Then, schemes of identical palatograms are compared and the results are analyzed.
2) X-ray– registering articulations with x-rays
Advantages of radiography:
- wide availability of the method and ease of research
- no special patient preparation required
- relatively low cost of research
- images can be used for consultation with another specialist or in another institution
Disadvantages of radiography:
- "frozenness" of the image - the complexity of assessing the function of the organ.
- the presence of ionizing radiation that can have a harmful effect on the organism under study
Also to this method X-ray photography can also be attributed as a combination of microphotography and radiography.
3) microphotography- photographing the articulation of the organs located inside, using a miniature camera. Filming can also be attributed to this method, as an accompaniment of photography with synchronized sound recording.
4) tomography– method of non-destructive layer-by-layer research internal structure of the object by means of its repeated transillumination in various intersecting directions, which allows shooting not through, but at a given depth.
3. electroacoustic methods:
These methods allow you to get visual sound schemes. There are many such methods, here are the main ones:
- kymography- this technique consists in direct fixation on a moving paper tape of the articulation movements of the larynx, mouth and nose with the help of scribes connected to what is in direct contact with the articulating organs of the subject. Cymography allows you to decompose the articulation of the speech apparatus into nasal, oral and laryngeal
- oscillography- allows you to turn the oscillatory movements of the air into electrical ones, which are subsequently transmitted to the oscilloscope, which converts the signal into digital form and represents it in the form of a zigzag line - an oscillogram
- spectrography- with this technique, the air jet is also converted into an electrical signal that passes through the filters of the spectrograph. This allows you to get a spectral picture of speech sounds.
Modern computer technology allows you to get a variety of acoustic characteristics sounds, for example, information about the intensity, change in pitch in a word, phrase, or larger segments of speech.
