I. The central concepts of grammar are grammatical meaning, form and grammatical category.
grammatical meaning- the abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular (standard) expression in the language (for example: the grammatical meaning of words new And old is the general meaning of "attribute", as well as private grammatical meanings - gender, number and case, which have a standard expression in the language in the affix morpheme th).
The grammatical meaning is non-individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words united by a common morphological properties and syntactic functions. Unlike the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not directly called by the word, but is expressed in it “in passing”, with the help of special grammatical means. It accompanies the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.
The abstracted linguistic content, expressed by grammatical meaning, has a different degree of abstraction, that is, by its nature, the grammatical meaning is heterogeneous (for example: in the word thought the most abstract is the meaning of the process, inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the value of the past tense; narrower and more specific is the meaning male, which is inherent only in the forms of the verb that oppose the feminine and neuter forms).
The grammatical meaning of a word is derived from its relation to other units of the same class (for example: the grammatical meaning of the past tense form is derived by relating it to other tense forms).
Grammar category- a set of homogeneous grammatical meanings, represented by rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other. The grammatical category in its connections and relations forms the core of the grammatical structure of the language.
The grammatical category exists as a class of meanings united in a system of oppositions (for example: the grammatical category of the case is united by the unity of the most abstract meaning of relations: “something refers to something” and the opposition of private relations - objective, subjective, attributive and others). The ratio of the grammatical category and the grammatical meaning is the relation of the general to the particular, the necessary feature of the grammatical category is the unity of the expression of the grammatical meaning in the system of grammatical forms.
Each language has its own system of grammatical categories, and it is established only by analyzing the grammatical facts of the language itself. It is impossible to name a single grammatical meaning that would act as a universal grammatical category.
IN different languages even the same grammatical category, depending on the number of opposed members, can be organized in different ways (for example: in Russian the category of number is two-membered, and in Slovenian it is three-membered; in Russian the category of case is six-membered, in German it is four-membered, in English - binomial).
In progress historical development language, the volume of grammatical categories may vary. For example, in the Old Russian language, the category of number was represented by the singular, dual and plural, but in the process language development the dual number was lost; the form of the vocative case that existed in the Old Russian language has also been lost, etc.
II. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic.
Morphological grammatical categories are expressed by lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (for example: the grammatical category of aspect, voice, tense is expressed by a verb). Among these grammatical categories are inflectional and classificatory.
Morphological categories classification type- these are categories whose members are not represented by forms of the same word, that is, categories that are inherent in the word and do not depend on its use in the sentence (for example: the category of noun gender in Russian, German, English).
Syntactic grammatical categories- these are categories that belong primarily to the syntactic units of the language (for example: the category of predicativity), but can also be expressed by units related to other language levels (for example: the word and its form, which participate in the organization of the predicative basis of the sentence and form its predicativity) .
III. Lexico-grammatical categories (or categories) differ from grammatical categories. Lexico-grammatical categories- associations of words that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express one or another morphological meaning. For example, in the Russian language, collective, abstract, material nouns are distinguished among nouns, which have features in expressing the category of number: they are not capable of forming number forms, they are used in the form of a single number, more often a singular ( foliage, iron, friendship; German das Gold "gold", die Liebe "love"; English coal "coal", knowledge "knowledge").
Depending on the basis on which signs these words are combined into categories, as well as their belonging to one or different parts of speech, lexico-grammatical categories are divided into two types:
1) categories that combine in their composition words of one part of speech that have a common semantic feature and similarity in the expression of morphological categorical meanings (for example: in all languages of the world, among nouns, categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished, etc.);
2) categories, which are a grouping of words belonging to different parts of speech, but united on the basis of common semantic and syntactic features. For example, in Russian, the category of pronominal words, which combines pronominal nouns in its composition - me, we, you, who; pronominal adjectives - such as any; pronouns - so many, several etc.; pronominal adverbs - where, when, there).
IV. Parts of speech- the main lexico-grammatical classes, according to which the words of the language are distributed. The term is associated with the ancient Greek grammatical tradition, in which sentence was not separated from speech.
The problem of the part of speech is the most complex and debatable problem of linguistics, which has not received a final solution. Still not developed general principles separation of parts of speech. The most recognized is the so-called "mixed principle", according to which the general (categorical) grammatical meaning of each category of words, their ability to perform a nominative or demonstrative function, grammatical categories inherent in words that are combined as part of one part of speech, types of form and word formation are taken into account. syntactic compatibility, characteristic functions of a word in a sentence and in coherent speech.
The set of these features, their hierarchy in different languages can change: in English language, for example, the allocation of parts of speech occurs on the basis of two features: semantic (categorical meaning) and syntactic (compatibility and function in a sentence); in Russian - on the basis of three features: semantic, morphological (a common set of morphological categories) and syntactic.
In different languages of the world, the composition of parts of speech (their structure and volume) is different.
v. Despite the existence of differences in the composition, structure and volume of parts of speech of different languages of the world, the most constant in them is the opposition of the name and the verb.
Name, which includes nominal parts of speech (noun and adjective), in its semantic, grammatical and syntactic features, is opposed to the verb. The division of parts of speech into a name and a verb, which has its origins in ancient Indian, ancient and Arabic linguistics, correlates with the division of an utterance into a subject and a predicate.
Noun - this is a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words with a common meaning of objectivity. Even denoting a property, quality or process, the noun names them in abstraction from the carrier of the sign or the producer of the action (for example: kindness, coolness, drawing, der Gelehrte "scientist", das Leben "life", the poor "", the love "").
The primary syntactic functions of a noun are the functions of the subject and object: Human decorates the place, not place person. - English The train leaves at six ỏclock. "The train leaves at six o'clock" And Ive received a telegram. "I received a telegram" - German Die Studenten sitzen im Horsaal. "Students sit in the audience" And Er begegnet einem Bekannten. "He meets a friend."
Although a noun can perform functions inherent in other parts of speech: a predicate ( experience is the best teacher, English He isa teacher . "He is a teacher", German Karagandaist eine schoneStadt . "Karaganda is a beautiful city"); definitions ( house three floors, German die Museenvon Paris "Museums of Paris" English This isthe manager᾽s room. "This is the manager's room"); circumstances ( go path , English . There is a hospitalin the village . There is a hospital in the village German Er konntevor Erregung nothing sprechen. "He couldn't speak for excitement"); but its use in these functions is associated with certain limitations.
From the point of view of semantics, nouns in all languages of the world are divided into lexical and grammatical categories, among which the most universal are the categories of proper and common, concrete and abstract.
The most typical grammatical categories of nouns are the categories of number and case. Case category in some languages it is expressed with the help of endings or prepositions and endings, in others - analytically, that is, with the help of word order or prepositions. The number of cases may fluctuate. Number category can be expressed in different ways: by affixes (in Russian: sister - sister s , in German: die Blume-die Blum-en "flower - flowers", in English: city-city-es "city - cities"), reduplication (that is, doubling the base - Armenian language), internal inflection (alternations within the root - English: tooth -t ee th "tooth - teeth", German: der Garten-die Gä rten "garden - gardens"), stress (Russian: forests – woods), suppletivism (the formation of forms from different roots or basics - Russian: person people), agglutination (Kazakh language).
Of the other categories, the category of certainty / indefiniteness, which can be expressed by the article, has become widespread (languages German: der, das, die- certain, eine, eine, eine indefinite; English: the- definite, a,an- indefinite), affix. There is no such category in Russian.
Categories of gender, animateness / inanimateness in many languages of the world do not have semantic grounds for their selection, therefore, in some languages, in the process of their historical development, they were gradually lost.
In the Russian and German languages, the noun opposes the verb by the set of its word-forming affixes, among which suffixes predominate (for verbs, prefixes occupy the leading position).
Adjective as a part of speech in its composition combines words denoting a sign (property) of an object.
The primary syntactic functions of the adjective are the functions of attribution and predicativity, that is, the functions of definition ( lovely hat - German eineschwere Aufgabe "difficult task" - English cold day "cold day") and the predicate, its nominal part ( you still young And inexperienced. – German Der Apparat istgasdicht . "The device is gas-tight" - English The pencil isred . "Pencil red").
An adjective can denote the qualities and properties of an object as a directly perceived feature ( quality adjectives: salty, red, deaf, angry, etc.; German stark "strong", gesund "healthy"; English big "big", red "red"), and a sign denoting the property of an object through its relation to another object - action, circumstance, number, etc. ( relative adjectives: iron, evening, underground; German morgen "morning", frühlings "spring"; English autumn "autumn").
This division is universal. A sign can be present in an object to a greater or lesser extent, hence the ability of certain categories of adjectives to form degrees of comparison (Rus. wise - wiser (more wise) - wisest (wisest); German laut - lauter - am lautesten "noisy - noisier - noisiest"; English polite – politer - politest "polite - more polite - the most polite"). A sign can be a permanent or temporary property of an object, hence the presence of two forms - complete ( cheerful; German eineschwere Aufgabe "difficult task") and short: ( cheerful, German Die Aufgabe ist schwer"the task is difficult").
In many languages of the world, the adjective is not distinguished as an independent part of speech (Chinese, Korean).
In languages where adjectives gravitate towards the name, they are inflected; where they tend to verbs - they conjugate.
In terms of word-formation, adjectives often oppose another part of speech, having a special set of word-forming means (for example: in Russian -n, -sk, -ov, -liv, -chiv absent in other parts of speech).
Verb- a significant part of speech that combines words with the designation of an action or state ( be in love, German schreiben "to write", English to speak "to speak"). This meaning in the languages of the world is expressed in different ways. The main syntactic function of the verb is the function of predicativity (predicate). In accordance with this function, the verb has special grammatical categories (time, aspect, voice, mood).
The verb denotes an action through the relation 1) to the person or subject of the action, which explains the presence of the verb category of person; 2) to the object of action, hence the category transitivity. The action denoted by the verb takes place in time, which is expressed time category, which is associated with view category(expressing the internal limit reached or not reached by the action); inclinations(expressing a different attitude of action to reality); collateral category(denoting a different direction of action on the subject and object).
Adverb- a lexico-grammatical class of immutable words denoting a sign of a sign, action or object (for example: Very close, read a lot of, eggs soft-boiled; German ganz unbrauchbare "completely unfit", gehengeradeaus "go straight", das Hauslinks "house on the left"; English avery good student good student, He workshard . "He works hard").
In the proposal they act as circumstances ( Fast darkness fell. - German Die Delegation wurdeherzlich empfangen. "The delegation was warmly welcomed" - English The sun shinesbrightly . "The sun is shining brightly"), less often as definitions (O n likes coffee Turkish. – German Der Baumrechts is hoch. "The tree on the right is tall").
The main morphological features: the absence of forms of inflection, lexical and derivational correlation with significant words, the presence of special derivational affixes.
According to the lexical composition, adverbs are divided into two lexical and grammatical categories - qualitative and adverbial. quality convey various kinds of quality, property, intensity values ( fun, fast, a lot, close; German wenig "little", zweimal "twice"; English too "too", enough "enough", well "good"). circumstantial express circumstantial signs external to their carrier: place, time, cause, purpose ( away, there, yesterday, rashly, intentionally; German hier "here", morgen "tomorrow", darum "therefore"; English inside "inside", now "now").
numeral- a lexico-grammatical class of words denoting number, quantity, measure. A specific grammatical feature of numerals is their compatibility with nouns denoting counted objects: in some cases they control nouns (for example: three tables), in others they are consistent with them (for example: many students).
Another feature of the numerals is their relation to the number: when conveying the concept of a number, the numeral usually does not have this category. In the academic grammar of the modern Russian language, numerals include quantitative, conveying the concept of number in its purest form ( five, two hundred; German Zehn, drei; English one, ninety); collective, denoting the combination of homogeneous objects ( two, three); ordinal are treated as relative adjectives ( first, seventh; German der dritte, der zweite; English eighth, fifteenth); fractional, denoting one or another part of the whole ( one third, five sixths; German ein Viertel, ein Zwanzigstel; English a (one) quarter, two point three five).
Pronouns do not have their own subject-logical content, this is a part of speech that combines in its composition words that indicate an object, attribute or quantity, but do not name them. These are some kind of substitute words. Pronouns refer to
1) objects (in the grammatical sense of the word) are pronominal
nouns(For example: me, you, we, who, what, nobody, somebody;)
2) signs are pronominal adjectives(for example: mine,
3) generalized quantity - pronominal numbers(For example:
how many, how many, several);
4) generalized circumstantial meaning is pronominal
adverbs(for example: where, where, there);
5) generalized procedural meaning - pronominal verbs
(For example: to do in English).
hallmark pronouns are a demonstrative and substitutive function, therefore, in the grammars of different languages, pronouns are often distributed over other parts of speech (for example: in the academic grammar of the Russian language, only pronominal nouns are included in pronouns).
Service parts of speech- semantically empty, but functionally loaded, participate in the formation of various analytical forms. Yielding to significant words in number, they surpass them in frequency of use. The service parts of speech include prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, articles.
educational:
1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Education, 1979.
With. 258-271.
2. Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Graduate School, 1987. p. 155 - 167.
3. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Aspect Press, 2001. p. 316 - 324.
additional:
1. Questions of the theory of parts of speech. Based on different languages. L., 1968.
2. Serebrennikov B.A. Parts of speech // Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1990.
3. Members of a sentence in languages of various types. L., 1972.
In grammatical categories, the originality of the languages of the world is manifested. Thus, the category of gender, which is familiar to East Slavic languages, turns out to be unknown to entire families of languages - Turkic, Finno-Ugric, etc. In Chinese there is no grammatical category of number, in Japanese there are no grammatical categories of number, person and gender. In Russian, the category of noun gender is expressed only in the singular; in the plural, gender differences are neutralized, while in Lithuanian, nouns retain gender differences in the plural.
1) grammatical category (GC) acts generalization a number of (required at least two) correlative between themselves and opposed to each other grammatical meanings, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms (generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc.)
2) GCs can change and disappear(cases in English (4=>2), number category in Russian (singular, plural, dual)
3) GCs are divided into morphological and syntactic, namely:
a) morphological- uniting grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes, i.e. in the center of morphological categories is the word with its grammatical changes and with its grammatical characteristics; morphological GCs are expressed in the following forms:
- inflectional forms:
combine word forms within the same lexeme (for example: the gender category of adjectives is inflectional; the adjective agrees with the noun, taking its grammatical gender: white paper, white spot)
- classification forms:
classification categories unite lexemes on the basis of a common grammatical meaning (the category of noun gender is classificatory; the noun table is masculine, the wall is feminine, the window is neuter, and this generic “attachment” is strictly obligatory)
b) syntactic categories- these are categories based on morphological categories, but far beyond them: the categories of time and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories that express the relationship of the message to reality and are subsumed under the general the concept of "predicativity".
Grammar meaning:
grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in the language.
To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones.
1) the degree of coverage of lexical material:
grammatical meaning groups groups of words into specific grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity combines a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language into the grammatical class of a noun, the grammatical meaning of an action unites another part of the vocabulary into the class of a verb, etc.
2) acts in relation to the lexical additional, accompanying:
With the help of various formal indicators, we can change the appearance of a word without changing its lexical meaning (water-water-water-water-water; carry-carry-carry-carry-carry-carry, etc.). However, the grammatical meanings are different. the regularity of its expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators, with the help of which they are realized in different words (for example, the ending -ы, -и in genitive case singular nouns female).
3) by the nature of generalization and abstraction:
If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical meaning arises as generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although behind grammatical abstraction there are also general properties and signs of things and phenomena (division in Russian and Belarusian languages verb tense for the past, present and future corresponds to the fact that everything in the world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future).
4) features of the attitude to thinking and the structure of the language:
If the words with them lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of language and as part of specific phrases express thoughts, knowledge, ideas of a person, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organization of thought, its design, that is, they are characterized by their intralinguistic nature.
Grammatical form- this is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses their grammatical meanings (gender, number, case, etc.). The grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm.
Paradigm (from Greek paradeigma - example, sample) is a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words.
The morphological paradigm is characterized by the presence of a stable, invariant part of the word (the stem root) and its changing part (inflection, less often a suffix).
Morphological paradigms are divided into big and small, as well as on complete and incomplete. Complete paradigm includes a set all small paradigms, that is, all possible forms of the word, in an incomplete paradigm, some forms of the word are not formed. For example, the full paradigm of an adjective in Russian includes from 24 to 29 forms, which are distributed over a number of small paradigms: the gender paradigm, the number paradigm, the paradigm of full and short forms, the paradigm of degrees of comparison. Big Paradigms include all meanings of the word, while small - only part of the values.
30. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings. Means of formation of synthetic and analytical forms. Mixed word forms
Grammatical meanings can be expressed both within a word - this affixation, alternation of sounds in the root, stress, suppletivism, repetitions and intonation, and outside it is intonation, ways
function words and word order. The first series of methods is called synthetic, second -
analytical.
1) synthetic ways:
a) affixation:
The affixing method is attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words, serving to express grammatical meanings. So, many grammatical meanings of the Russian verb (person, gender, number, time) are expressed by endings and the suffix -l-: l, work-l-a, work-l-o, work-l-and.
The grammatical meaning in a word can also be expressed by a zero affix, for example, zero ending in words house, city, forest, garden, student, etc. Zero exponent in grammar has the same formal force as positive exponents. In the system of grammatical forms, he is opposed to the presence of formal indicators, thereby acquiring its grammatical meaning in grammatical oppositions. In the examples given, zero inflection expresses the meanings of the nominative case, singular and masculine in nouns, that is, zero expresses three grammatical meanings at once. The zero grammatical indicator is also present in syntactic constructions. For example, in expressions like Table - furniture, Roses - flowers.
b) alternation of sounds in the root:
Grammatical meanings can also be expressed by the alternation of sounds in the root, which are sometimes called internal inflection. Such alternations of sounds are not due to their phonetic position. At the same time, not every alternation of sounds in the root, not due to their phonetic position, is grammatically significant. In the Russian language there are a lot of so-called historical, or traditional, alternations that are not determined by modern language phonetic position. They are called historical because they took place in a particular historical period in the development of the language and are not explained by its current state. These alternations do not in themselves express grammatical meanings, for example, stump - stump, day - day, sleep - sleep, run - run, bake - bake, dry - dry, etc., but only accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms , acting as mandatory by tradition.
c) accent:
One way of expressing grammatical meanings is stress. In Russian, this method can be observed when expressing the grammatical meaning of the perfect and imperfect aspects in verbs: cut - cut, pour - pour, take out - take out, cut - cut, pour out - pour out, etc. This method is important in Russian with some nouns: walls - walls, pipes - pipes, houses - houses, cities - cities, sails - sails, farms - farms, etc. In English, a verb and a noun can differ only in the place of stress in the word, for example: progréss - progress, progress - progress, import - import, ímport - import, etc. In different languages, the grammatical way of stress plays a different role, which depends on the type and type of stress in the language. In languages with a fixed monoplace stress, oppositions like the above-mentioned Russian pairs of words are impossible.
d) suppletivism:
In some cases, to express grammatical meanings, one has to use word forms derived from other roots. A similar expression of grammatical meanings using other roots is called suppletivism, and the forms themselves are called suppletive. In Russian, the suppletive way of expressing grammatical meanings is considered unproductive. In a suppletive way, for example, one expresses grammatical meaning of indirect cases of personal pronouns(I - me, you - you, he - them, we - us), plural meaning of some nouns (child - children, person - people), grammatical meaning perfect look a number of verbs (take - take, speak - say, search - find), the value of the comparative degree of individual adjectives (good - better, bad - worse).
e) repetitions, or reduplications:
Consist in full or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, which is related to the expression of grammatical meaning. Repetitions can be carried out without changing the sound composition of the word or with a partial change in it. In a number of languages, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in Chinese, Malay, Korean, Armenian and other languages: Chinese zhen - man, zhen-zhen - people, xing - star, xing-sing - stars; Malay orang - person, orang-orang - people; Korean saram - person, saram-saram - each of the people; Armenian gund - regiment, gund-gund - many regiments. In Russian, repetitions are used as means of enhancing the intensity of an action or feature, as well as duration, repetition of action: yes-yes, no-no, barely, a little bit, kind-kind, big-big, thought-thought, high-high, walk-walk, ask-beg.
f) addition:
The way in which words are formed the pivot (last) component is equal to the whole word, A previous to him a component (or components) is clean base. The composition of the word-formant in pure addition includes: a) an interfix indicating the connection of the components compound word and signaling the loss of the morphological significance of the previous component; b) fixed order of components; c) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component: primary source, forest-steppe, wear-resistant, and half-turn. Interfix can be zero: tsar cannon, plunder army (colloquial)
2) analytical methods:
a) intonation:
Intonation can serve as a means of expressing grammatical meanings. In some languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese, intonation is used to distinguishing both the lexical meanings of the word and the grammatical. In Russian, intonation is also, in some cases, one of the means of expressing grammatical meanings in a word. For example, a verb in the form of an infinitive can act in the imperative mood, being pronounced with the intonation of a command, an order, a call to action: stand up! sit down! lie down! stand! shut up! run! close! etc. In Russian, intonation as a means of expressing grammatical meanings is widely used in a sentence. The type of intonation differs between declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences, with the help of pauses inside the sentence they show the grouping of the sentence members, distinguish introductory words and expressions, can distinguish between simple and complex sentences.
b) service words:
Service words are lexically dependent words that do not have a nominative function in the language (they do not name objects, properties or relations) and express various semantic-syntactic
relationships between words, sentences and parts of sentences.
c) word order:
In languages that do not have inflection forms (or rarely use them) and the word usually retains the same form, word order is very an important way of expressing grammatical meanings. For example, in English, a sentence has a very rigid word order, in which the subject is in the first place, the predicate is in the second, the object is in the third, the circumstance is in the fourth, that is, the place where the word in the statement is, turns out to be a factor expressing its grammatical meaning.
The sentences the man killed a tiger - the man killed the tiger and the tiger killed the man - the tiger killed the man get the opposite meaning by changing the places of the subject and object. Word order also plays an important grammatical role in languages such as Chinese, French, and Bulgarian.
The Russian language differs from other languages in its relatively free word order. But in some cases, word order becomes the only means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. So, in the sentences “Mother loves daughter” and “Daughter loves mother”, “Being determines consciousness” and “Consciousness determines being”, “The tram touched the car and the Car touched the tram”, the meaning of the nominative case is created by putting the noun in the first place; in the first place, the noun plays the role of the subject, in the last - the object.
Mixed or hybrid, the type of expression of grammatical meanings combines the features of synthetic and analytical types. So, in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition (by car, in the house, in the forest, about the earth, about the accident, etc.).
Many languages combine both types of expression of grammatical meanings - synthetic and analytical, but one of the types always turns out to be predominant. The predominantly synthetic languages include Latin, Sanskrit, Russian, Lithuanian, German and other languages. In languages of predominantly analytical structure - English, French, Spanish, Danish, Modern Greek, Bulgarian and others - the analytical type of expression of grammatical meanings prevails, the main way of which is function words.
grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are as follows:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, therefore it characterizes only a certain word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of such words as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the basis of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal ones).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun 'wolf' in the sentence I would have gnawed out bureaucracy (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine, singular, instrumental (comparison value: `like a wolf, like a wolf`). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); such are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of the word is supplemented and specified by private (private categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animateness ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
Grammatical meaning always accompanies lexical meaning, and lexical meaning does not always accompanies grammatical meaning.
For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, I.p) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
With the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (man - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with the alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by the preposition and ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person by the pronoun and ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb there is an ending - ut expresses both person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - write indicate a person and therefore are combined into a verbal grammatical category of a person; the forms I wrote - I write - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammar categories in general have three features.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in the grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and does not vary in general (in the synchronous section). Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of the number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, pens). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three faces, two kinds, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which is actually related not to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. So, in nouns, 6, 9, 10 and large quantity cases. However, this reflects only different methods of highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated by the existing types of declension.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: I write means the first person, you write - the second, writes - the third; table, book, pen indicate the singular, and tables, books, pens indicate plural, large is masculine, large is feminine, and large is neuter, the form large does not indicate gender.
3) Forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This is a prerequisite for highlighting a grammatical category. Without this generality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on a common content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories distinguished in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and service parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called part-of-speech (for example, for all nouns, the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animateness / inanimateness, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation proximity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent members of the sentence, carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within the independent parts of speech, full-significant and non-full-significant words are contrasted. Fully significant words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and non-full-significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only indicate objects, phenomena, signs, without naming them.
Another distinction is important within the framework of independent parts of speech: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as parts of speech that are declined (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Service parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name the phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent members of the sentence, usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor functional parts of speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the feelings of the speaker [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles, the grounds for distinguishing parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. First, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical composition of the sentence, others are not. Some of the sentences included in the grammatical composition are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between the members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their mutability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on the foregoing, all the words of the Russian language are divided into sentences included in the grammatical composition and not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them stand out the words significant and official.
Significant words are independent members of the sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, category of state.
Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, according to the morphological feature of mutability-invariability, on the one hand, names and a verb are distinguished, on the other hand, an adverb and a category of state.
The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, the category of state - as a predicate of an impersonal sentence: "I am sad because you are happy" (L.), and also in that, unlike adverbs, the word categories of state are able to control ("I'm sad", "it's fun for you"; "How fun, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, To slide along the mirror of stagnant, even rivers!" - P.).
Service words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (included in the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not part of the offer. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles. At the same time, prepositions serve to express the relationship of a noun to other words, unions establish a connection between members of a sentence and parts complex sentence. Particles are involved in the formation of certain verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative ones). Words that are not part of the grammatical composition of the sentence include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (possibly, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (oh, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeia - words that convey some sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like auxiliary words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].
A grammatical category is a universal semantic feature that is inherent in a whole class of words or a class of word combinations and has its own formal expression in the language. In grammatical categories, the originality of the languages of the world is manifested. Features: 1) The Civil Code acts as a generalization of a whole series (necessarily at least two) of grammatical meanings correlative and opposed to each other, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms (generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc.) 2) CCs can change and disappear (cases in English (4=>2), the category of number in Russian (singular, plural, dual) 3) CCs are divided into morphological and syntactic ones, namely:
a) morphological - uniting grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes, i.e. in the center of morphological categories is the word with its grammatical changes and with its grammatical characteristics; morphological GCs are expressed in the following forms: Morphological categories are subdivided into inflectional and classification categories: inflectional forms: combine word forms within the same lexeme (for example: the gender category of adjectives is inflectional; the adjective is consistent with the noun, taking its grammatical gender: white paper, white spot) classification forms: classification categories unite lexemes on the basis of a common grammatical meaning (the category of noun gender is classification; the noun table is masculine, wall is feminine, window is neuter, and this generic “attachment” is strictly obligatory) b) syntactic categories - these are categories based on morphological categories, but far beyond them: the categories of time and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories that express the relationship of the message to reality and are subsumed under the general the concept of "predicativity".
Grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in the language. To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones: 1) the degree of coverage of lexical material: Grammatical meaning combines groups of words into certain grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity combines a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language into the grammatical class of a noun, etc. 2) acts in relation to the lexical additional, accompanying: With the help of various formal indicators, we can change the appearance of the word without changing its lexical meaning (water-water-water-water-water; carry-carry-carry-carry-carry-carry etc.). At the same time, grammatical meanings differ in the regularity of their expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators with the help of which they are realized in different words (for example, the ending -ы, -and in the genitive case of the singular in feminine nouns).3) by the nature of generalization and abstraction: If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical one arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although grammatical abstraction also includes general properties and signs of things and phenomena (division in the Russian and Belarusian languages, the verb tense for the past, present and future corresponds to the fact that everything in the world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future). 4) features of the attitude to thinking and the structure of the language: If words with their lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of the language and express thoughts, knowledge, ideas of a person as part of specific phrases, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organize thought, its design, that is characterized by their intralinguistic nature.
The grammatical form is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses their grammatical meanings (gender, number, case, etc.). The grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm. A paradigm (from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) is a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words.
The lexical and grammatical meanings of a word represent two plans for the content of language units. Numerous researchers have established that the lexical meaning of a word always acts in unity with the grammatical ones. The relationship between the lexical meaning of a word and its grammatical meanings is more obvious when classifying words into lexico-grammatical groups. lexical and grammatical features characteristic of a given word, i.e. the lexical meaning of the word, its morphological and syntactic features are taken into account; 2) typical words of each part of speech are those words whose lexical meaning coincides with the generalized lexical and grammatical feature of this part of speech; 3) a change in the lexical meaning of a word can lead to the transition of a part of speech to another and to a change in grammatical features. On the other hand, there are significant differences between them: 1) the lexical meaning is individual, the grammatical meaning is more abstract, characteristic of a whole class of words; 2) included in the lexical meaning main information, in grammatical - additional, auxiliary; 3) lexical meaning is expressed by the basis, grammatical by various language means (endings, prefixes, suffixes * alternation of sounds, stress, prepositions, suppletive forms); 4) a word in speech (not in a language) has only one lexical meaning, while there are much more grammatical meanings in this word.
Grammatical form- this is an external linguistic expression of the grammatical meaning (often several meanings) in each specific case of the use of the word. For example, sister, sisters, sister, sister, sister,(O)sister, sisters, sisters, sisters, sisters, sisters,(O)sisters - These are different grammatical forms of the same word. Each separate grammatical form is also called a word form. The word form thus serves as a specific "representative" of the word in speech.
In some cases, separate groups of words form forms that are identical in their grammatical meaning, but different in external expression: tea And tea;river And river;wall And wall;years And years;bone 2 mi And bone;boiche And more combative;You 2 mok And You 2 got wet etc. Such forms are called variant. They can differ stylistically, they can be assigned to different lexical meanings of the word (as V edge And in the region), to distinguish between the free use of the word and the phraseologically connected (as dripping And caplet) etc.
The grammatical form of a word can be represented by a single word form ( sing, newer, shortest) or a combination of two word forms ( I would sing, I will sing, newer) (see below for details).
The set of all forms of the same word is called paradigm, more precisely, complete paradigm(if the word has all the "relying" forms).
grammatical meaning is an abstract concept, abstract linguistic content, contained in grammatical form and abstracted from the lexical content of the word. In order to more clearly understand what grammatical form and grammatical meaning are, it is worth referring to the example that the famous linguist academician Lev Vladimirovich Shchérba once gave to his listeners. He invited the audience to comment on the following phrase: "The dumb kuzdra shteko budlanýla bokra and tails the bokrenka." After some natural bewilderment with the help of leading questions, L.V. Shcherb listeners "learned" in kuzdra singular feminine noun, understood that she was characterized as glokaya, what she did so-and-so ( shteko) action ( budlanula) over the living ("wadlanula bocre A ") and performs an action ( curdling) in relation to the bokra cub ("curdling bokrenka"). Thanks to what was it possible to understand such a strange "phrase" where there is not a single real Russian root? Due to the fact that the roots of the "words" invented by Shcherba were surrounded not by fictional, but by real elements (suffixes and endings) that formed together with " roots "familiar forms, with which familiar grammatical meanings are associated: numbers ( glock and I, budlanul A etc.), kind ( glock and I kuzdr A, budlanul A ), case ( kuzdr A, bokr A, bokrenk A ), time ( Budlan l A) etc. These forms and the meanings contained in them were the same as in real words. younger sister(or terrible storm), hare(or buffalo, wolf etc.), hare(or buffalo, wolf cub etc.), butted(or pushed, pushed etc.). playing around(or thrashing, thrashing, thrashing etc.), brutally(or hurt, hard). This means that grammatical meaning is not only an abstract meaning, abstracted from the lexical content of a word, but a meaning (meanings) inherent in a whole class of words.
Grammatical meaning presupposes the presence of another (or other) grammatical meaning (or meanings), homogeneous and correlative with it. So, the meaning of the singular necessarily implies the meaning of the plural, the meaning of the present tense implies the presence of the meaning of other times - the past and the future, etc. A set of homogeneous, correlative grammatical meanings constitutes a grammatical category.
Grammar category- this is an even more abstract concept (in comparison with the grammatical meaning), which is a generalization of correlative and opposed grammatical meanings that find their expression in certain grammatical forms. For example, the grammatical category of tense is characterized by the abstract meaning relation to time reference and opposition of private values - present, past and future tense; the category of case is characterized by the most abstract meaning relationship("something refers to something") and the opposition of private relations - object, subject, attributive, etc.
It is clear, it is obvious that grammatical categories do not exist by themselves, but because the language has several (at least two) corresponding correlative grammatical meanings, through the forms of which they (categories) are manifested and, as a result of generalization, the meanings of which are revealed.
