In addition to the Spaniards, in the first half of the XVI century. the British and French began to penetrate the Caribbean region. In 1605, the English West India Company established itself on about. Barbados, in 1612 - in Bermuda, and in 1646 - in the Bahamas. In 1655, the increasingly aggravated Anglo-Spanish contradictions resulted in a war between the two countries. In the same year, the British armed forces took possession of Jamaica. In 1658, Spain tried to regain this colony by force, but its troops were defeated. In Central America, the British managed to take possession of Belize (also known since 1840 as British Honduras).
In the 1630s, the French captured the islands of St. Christopher, Martinique, Guadeloupe and Dominica. At the end of the XVII century. the most significant colonies of France in the Caribbean and in the north of South America were: Guiana 91 thousand square meters. km, San Domingo 27500 sq. km, Guadeloupe and adjacent small islands 1704 sq. km, Martinique 1080 sq. km.
In 1524 the Spaniards set about conquering South America. One stream of colonization moved to the east: in 1524-1538, the detachments of J. Quesada conquered the Chibcha-Muisca tribes and captured the valley of the Magdalena River and the upper reaches of the Orinoco (Colombia). In 1541, F. de Orellana went to the headwaters of the Amazon and descended along it to the mouth. The second stream of colonization moved south. In 1524-1531, the Spaniards (F. Pizarro and D. d "Almagro) captured the northwestern coast of South America to the Guayaquil Bay (Ecuador), and in 1532-1534 they defeated the Inca state of Tahuantinsuyu, the most powerful political entity of pre-Columbian America, which occupied the territory of the Lower Peru (the conquest ended in 1572).
The third stream of colonization came from the southeast. Back in 1516 H.D. de Solis, in search of a southern passage to the Pacific Ocean, discovered the Silver River (Rio de la Plata; modern Parana). In 1536 the Spaniards (P. de Mendoza) tried to gain a foothold at its mouth (Argentina and Uruguay), where they founded Buenos Aires. In 1537 they entered the river basin. Paraguay, on which Asuncion was built. However, soon the attacks of neighboring Indian tribes (Charrua, Kerandi) forced them to evacuate. Only in 1540 did the conquistador Cabez de Vaca manage to finally gain a foothold at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata.
In 1530, the Portuguese began the colonization of Brazil, which took its name from the red dye tree pao do brazil ("tree of flaming coal"); in addition to the coast, the mouth of the Amazon, the valleys of the Sao Francisco and Tocantins rivers and the upper reaches of the Parana were developed. In 1581, after the Spanish annexation of Portugal, Brazil came under the control of Spain (until 1640).
Guiana (the coast of South America between the Orinoco and Oyapoki rivers) became the object of the expansion of Holland, England and France.
The northeastern coast of North America was first surveyed in 1524. In 1533, the French king Francis I obtained from the pope a decision that the division of the world between Portugal and Spain, made in 1493, was valid only in relation to already discovered lands; this gave France a legal basis for the start of colonial expansion, the main object of which was Canada. During his first trip (April 20 - September 5, 1534), J. Cartier discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and about. Prince Edward and landed on the Canadian coast (the peninsula of Gasp), during the second (May 19, 1535 - the end of May 1536) he discovered the mouth of the St. Lawrence and went down its course to the confluence of the river. Ottawa.
However, in the second half of the 16th c. domestic religious wars force France to abandon its active colonial policy; the initiative passes to the British, who in 1583 found Fort Saint John in Newfoundland. At the beginning of the 17th century. the French resume their penetration into Canada. In 1605-1607, several trips were made to the Great Lakes region, and in 1608 the fortress of Quebec was founded and this marked the beginning of the systematic colonization of Canada. At the same time, the penetration of the British into North America was activated: in 1607 they settled in Virginia (Jamestown), in 1620 - in Massachusetts (Plymouth); the area north of the Chesapeake Bay is named New England; in 1624 Virginia colonists establish the first colony in Maryland. In 1626 the Dutch occupied the mouth of the Hudson River (New Netherland) and built the fortress of New Amsterdam (modern New York) there.
By the middle of the 16th century, Spain's dominance of the American continent was almost absolute, colonial possessions stretching from Cape Horn to New Mexico brought huge revenues to the royal treasury. Attempts by other European states to establish colonies in America were not crowned with noticeable success.
But at the same time, the balance of power in the Old World began to change: the kings spent the streams of silver and gold flowing from the colonies, and had little interest in the economy of the metropolis, which, under the weight of an inefficient, corrupt administrative apparatus, clerical dominance and lack of incentives for modernization, began to lag behind more and more. from the rapidly developing economy of England. Spain gradually lost the status of the main European superpower and mistress of the seas. The many years of war in the Netherlands, the huge funds spent on the fight against the Reformation throughout Europe, the conflict with England hastened the decline of Spain. Death was the last straw Invincible Armada in 1588. After the English admirals, and more so in a violent storm, destroyed the largest fleet of the time, Spain fell into the shadows, never to recover from this blow.
Leadership in the "relay race" of colonization passed to England, France and Holland.
English colonies
The well-known chaplain Gakluyt acted as the ideologist of the English colonization of North America. In 1585 and 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh, on the orders of Queen Elizabeth I of England, made two attempts to establish a permanent settlement in North America. The reconnaissance expedition reached the American coast in 1584, and named the open coast of Virginia (Virginia - "Virgin") in honor of the "Virgin Queen" Elizabeth I, who never married. Both attempts ended in failure - the first colony, founded on Roanook Island off the coast of Virginia, was on the verge of collapse due to Indian attacks and lack of supplies and was evacuated by Sir Francis Drake in April 1587. In July of the same year, a second expedition of colonists landed on the island, numbering 117 people. It was planned that ships with equipment and food would arrive in the colony in the spring of 1588. However, for various reasons, the supply expedition was delayed by almost a year and a half. When she arrived at the place, all the buildings of the colonists were intact, but no traces of people, with the exception of the remains of one person, were found. The exact fate of the colonists has not been established to this day.
Settlement of Virginia. Jamestown.
At the beginning of the 17th century, private capital entered the business. In 1605, two joint-stock companies at once received licenses from King James I to establish colonies in Virginia. It should be borne in mind that at that time the term "Virginia" denoted the entire territory of the North American continent. The first of the companies "London Virginia Company" (Virginia Company of London) received the rights to the southern, the second "Plymouth Company" (Plymouth Company) to the northern part of the continent. Despite the fact that both companies officially proclaimed the spread of Christianity as the main goal, the license they received granted them the right to "search and mine gold, silver and copper by all means."
On December 20, 1606, the colonists set sail aboard three ships, and after a difficult, almost five-month voyage, during which several dozen died of starvation and disease, in May 1607 they reached the Chesapeake Bay. Over the next month, they built a wooden fort named after King Fort James ( English pronunciation named after Jacob). The fort was later renamed Jamestown, the first permanent British settlement in America.
The official historiography of the United States considers Jamestown the cradle of the country, the history of the settlement and its leader, Captain John Smith of Jamestown, is covered in many serious studies and works of art. The latter, as a rule, idealize the history of the city and the pioneers who inhabited it (for example, the popular cartoon Pocahontas). In fact, the first years of the colony were extremely difficult, in the famine winter of 1609-1610. out of 500 colonists, no more than 60 survived, and according to some accounts, the survivors were forced to resort to cannibalism in order to survive the famine.
In subsequent years, when the issue of physical survival was no longer so acute, the two most important problems were tensions with the indigenous population and the economic feasibility of the existence of the colony. To the disappointment of the shareholders of the London Virginia Company, neither gold nor silver was found by the colonists, and the main export commodity was ship timber. Despite the fact that this product was in some demand in the metropolis, which had depleted its forests, the profit, as well as from other attempts at economic activity, was minimal.
The situation changed in 1612, when farmer and landowner John Rolfe managed to cross a local variety of tobacco grown by Indians with varieties imported from Bermuda. The resulting hybrids were well adapted to the Virginia climate and at the same time suited the tastes of English consumers. The colony had acquired a source of secure income and long years Tobacco became the basis of Virginia's economy and exports, and the phrases "Virginia tobacco", "Virginia blend" are used as characteristics of tobacco products to this day. Five years later, tobacco exports amounted to 20,000 pounds, a year later it was doubled, and by 1629 it reached 500,000 pounds. John Rolfe rendered another service to the colony: in 1614 he managed to negotiate peace with the local Indian chief. The peace treaty was sealed by marriage between Rolf and the leader's daughter, Pocahontas.
In 1619, two events occurred that had a significant impact on the entire subsequent history of the United States. This year, Governor George Yeardley decided to hand over some power to the House of Burgesses, establishing the New World's first elected legislative assembly. The first meeting of the council took place on July 30, 1619. In the same year, a small group of Africans of Angolan origin was acquired by the colonists. Although formally they were not slaves, but had long contracts without the right to terminate, it is customary to count the history of slavery in America from this event.
In 1622, almost a quarter of the population of the colony was destroyed by the rebellious Indians. In 1624, the license of the London Company, whose affairs fell into decline, was revoked, and since that time Virginia has become a royal colony. The governor was appointed by the king, but the colonial council retained significant powers.
Timeline of the founding of the English colonies :
French colonies
By 1713 New France reached its largest size. It included five provinces:
Canada (the southern part of the modern province of Quebec), divided in turn into three "governments": Quebec, Three Rivers (fr. Trois-Rivieres), Montreal and the Pays d'en Haut dependency, which included the modern Canadian and American regions of the Great Lakes, of which the ports of Pontchartrain (Fr. Pontchartrain) and Michillimakinac (fr. Michillimakinac) were practically the only poles of French settlement after the destruction of Huronia.
Acadia (modern Nova Scotia and New Brunswick).
Hudson Bay (modern Canada).
New Earth.
Louisiana (the central part of the USA, from the Great Lakes to New Orleans), subdivided into two administrative regions: Lower Louisiana and Illinois (fr. le Pays des Illinois).
Dutch colonies
New Netherland, 1614-1674, a region on the east coast of North America in the 17th century that stretched in latitude from 38 to 45 degrees north, originally discovered by the Dutch East India Company from the yacht Crescent ( nid. Halve Maen) under the command of Henry Hudson in 1609 and studied by Adrian Block (Adriaen Block) and Hendrik Christians (Christiaensz) in 1611-1614. According to their map in 1614, the Estates General included this territory as New Netherland within the Dutch Republic.
Under international law, claims to territory had to be secured not only by their discovery and provision of maps, but also by their settlement. In May 1624, the Dutch completed their claim with the delivery and settlement of 30 Dutch families on Noten Eylant, present-day Governors Island. New Amsterdam served as the main city of the colony. In 1664 Governor Peter Stuyvesant ceded New Netherland to the British.
Colonies of Sweden
At the end of 1637, the company organized its first expedition to New World. Samuel Blommart, one of the managers of the Dutch West India Company, took part in its preparation, and invited Peter Minuit, the former general director of the New Netherland colony, to be the head of the expedition. On the ships "Squid Nyukkel" and "Vogel Grip" on March 29, 1638, under the leadership of Admiral Claes Fleming, the expedition reached the mouth of the Delaware River. Here, on the site of modern Wilmington, Fort Christina was founded, named after Queen Christina, which later became the administrative center of the Swedish colony.
Russian colonies
Summer 1784. The expedition under the command of G. I. Shelikhov (1747-1795) landed on the Aleutian Islands. In 1799, Shelikhov and Rezanov founded the Russian-American Company, which was managed by A. A. Baranov (1746-1818). The company hunted for sea otters and traded in their fur, founded its own settlements and trading posts.
Since 1808, Novo-Arkhangelsk has become the capital of Russian America. In fact, the management of the American territories is carried out by the Russian-American Company, whose main headquarters was in Irkutsk, officially Russian America was first included in the Siberian Governor General, later (in 1822) in the East Siberian Governor General.
The population of all Russian colonies in America reached 40,000 people, Aleuts predominated among them.
The southernmost point in America where Russian colonists settled was Fort Ross, 80 km north of San Francisco in California. Spanish and then Mexican colonists prevented further advance to the south.
In 1824, the Russian-American Convention was signed, which fixed the southern border of the possessions of the Russian Empire in Alaska at a latitude of 54 ° 40'N. The convention also confirmed the holdings of the United States and Great Britain (until 1846) in Oregon.
In 1824, the Anglo-Russian Convention was signed on the delimitation of their possessions in North America (in British Columbia). Under the terms of the Convention, a boundary line was established separating British possessions from Russian possessions on the western coast of North America, adjacent to the Alaska Peninsula, so that the border ran along the entire length of the coastal strip belonging to Russia, from 54 ° N. latitude. to 60° N, at a distance of 10 miles from the edge of the ocean, taking into account all the curves of the coast. Thus, the line of the Russian-British border in this place was not straight (as was the case with the border line of Alaska and British Columbia), but extremely winding.
In January 1841, Fort Ross was sold to Mexican citizen John Sutter. And in 1867, the United States bought Alaska for $7,200,000.
Spanish colonies
The Spanish colonization of the New World dates back to the discovery by the Spanish navigator Columbus of America in 1492, which Columbus himself recognized as the eastern part of Asia, the eastern coast of either China, or Japan, or India, therefore the name West Indies was assigned to these lands. The search for a new route to India is dictated by the development of society, industry and trade, the need to find large reserves of gold, for which demand has risen sharply. Then it was believed that in the "land of spices" it should be a lot. The geopolitical situation in the world has changed and the old eastern routes to India for Europeans, which passed through the lands now occupied by the Ottoman Empire, have become more dangerous and difficult to pass, meanwhile there was a growing need for a different trade with this rich land. Then some already had the idea that the earth was round and that India could be reached from the other side of the Earth - by sailing west from the then known world. Columbus made 4 expeditions to the region: the first - 1492-1493. - the discovery of the Sargasso Sea, the Bahamas, Haiti, Cuba, Tortuga, the foundation of the first village in which he left 39 of his sailors. He declared all the lands to be the possessions of Spain; the second (1493-1496) - the complete conquest of Haiti, the discovery of the Lesser Antilles, Guadeloupe, the Virgin Islands, the islands of Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Founding of Santo Domingo; the third (1498-1499) - the discovery of the island of Trinidad, the Spaniards set foot on the coast of South America.
Articles from Wikipedia- free encyclopedia.
In the early years of the 17th century began the great migration of Europeans to North America. A weak brook of several hundred English colonists in a little over three centuries turned into a full-flowing stream of millions of immigrants. Due to various circumstances, they left to create a new civilization on a sparsely populated continent.
The first immigrants from England, who settled in what is now the United States, crossed the Atlantic much later than the flourishing Spanish colonies in Mexico, the West Indies, and South America. Like everyone who moved then to the New World, they arrived in small, overcrowded ships. The journey took 6 to 12 weeks, food was scarce, and many settlers died of disease. Storms and storms often hit ships, people died at sea.
Most European immigrants left their homeland for greater economic opportunities, often coupled with a desire for religious freedom or a determination to escape political pressure. In 1620-1635. economic turmoil swept the whole of England. Many people lost their jobs, even skilled artisans barely made ends meet. These troubles were exacerbated by crop failures. In addition, the cloth industry that was developing in England required an increase in the supply of wool, and so that the looms would not stop, the sheep began to graze on communal lands taken from the peasants. The impoverished peasants were forced to seek their fortune overseas.
On the new land, the colonists encountered, first of all, dense forests. Indian tribes lived there, many of which were at enmity with white newcomers. However, the latter would hardly have been able to survive without friendly Indians, from whom they learned to grow local varieties of vegetables - pumpkin, squash, beans and corn. Virgin forests, stretching for almost 2 thousand km along the eastern coast of the North American continent, provided them with an abundance of game and fuel. They also provided material for the construction of houses, ships, the manufacture of household utensils, as well as valuable raw materials for export.
The first permanent English settlement in America was the fort and settlement of Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607. The area soon became prosperous thanks to the cultivation of tobacco, which the colonists sold in London. Although the new continent had enormous natural wealth, trade with Europe was vital, since the colonists could not yet produce many goods themselves.
Gradually, the colonies became self-supporting societies with their own outlets to the sea. Each of them has become a separate, independent organism. But, despite this, the problems of trade, navigation, industrial production and finance went beyond the boundaries of individual colonies and required a joint settlement, which subsequently led to the federal structure of the American state.
Settlement of the colonies in the XVII century. required careful planning and management, and was also a very costly and risky undertaking. The settlers had to be transported by sea over a distance of almost 5 thousand km, supplied with household items, clothing, seeds, tools, building materials, livestock, weapons and ammunition. In contrast to the policy of colonization that was pursued by other states, emigration from England was not in charge of the government, but of private individuals whose main motive was to make a profit.
Two colonies - Virginia and Massachusetts - founded privileged companies: the "Massachusetts Bay Company" and the "London Company of Virginia". Their funds, created by contributors, were used to supply and transport the colonists. Wealthy immigrants who arrived in the New Haven colony (later part of Connecticut) paid their own way, supported their families and servants. New Hampshire, Maine, Maryland, North and South Carolina, New Jersey and Pennsylvania originally belonged to the owners of the English nobility (gentry), who populated the land granted to them by the king with tenants and servants.
The first 13 colonies that would become the United States were (from north to south): New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia .
Georgia was founded by a group of people led by James Edward Oglethorpe. They planned to send debtors from English prisons to America to create a border colony that would block the way for the Spaniards in the south of the continent. Meanwhile, the colony of New Netherland, founded in 1621 by the Dutch, in 1664 went to England and was renamed New York.
Many moved to America for political reasons. In the 1630s the despotic rule of Charles I gave impetus to migration to the New World. Then the revolution in England and the victory of the opponents of Charles I, led by Oliver Cromwell in the 1640s. forced many cavaliers - "the king's people" - to try their luck in Virginia. The despotism of the petty German princes, especially in matters of faith, and the numerous wars that took place in their possessions, contributed to the intensification of German immigration to America in the late 17th and 18th centuries.
Men and women, even if not too interested in a new life on American soil, often succumbed to the persuasion of recruiters. William Penn circulated in the press about the opportunities and benefits that awaited those wishing to move to Pennsylvania. Judges and jailers were persuaded to give the prisoners a chance to move to America instead of carrying out the sentence.
Only a few colonists could go overseas with their families at their own expense to start there. new life. Ship captains received a large reward for selling contracts but hiring the poor to work in America. In order to take more passengers on board, they did not disdain anything - from the most unusual promises and promises to kidnapping. In other cases, the costs of transporting and maintaining settlers were borne by colonization agencies such as the London Company of Virginia and the Massachusetts Bay Company. Settlers who signed a contract with the company were obliged to work for it as a laborer or contracted servant (servant) for a certain period - usually from four to seven years. At the end of the term, the servants could receive a small piece of land. Many of those who arrived in the New World on such terms soon found that, while remaining servants or tenants, they did not begin to live better than in their homeland.
Historians have estimated that about half of the colonists who lived south of New England came to America on the basis of a contract. Although the majority honestly fulfilled their obligations, some fled from the owners. Many fugitive servants, however, managed to get land and to acquire a farm - in the colony where they settled, or in neighboring ones. Bonded service was not considered shameful, and the families that began their lives in America from this half-slavish position did not sully their reputation. Even among the leaders of the colonies there were people who were servants in the past.
There was, however, a very important exception to this rule - the African slave trade. The first blacks were brought to Virginia in 1619, seven years after Jamestown was founded. In the beginning, many "black" settlers were considered indentured servants who could "earn" their freedom. However, by the 1960s In the 17th century, as the demand for workers on the plantations increased, slavery began to take hold. Blacks began to be brought from Africa in shackles - already as life-long slaves.
Most of the colonists in the XVII century. were English, but there were a small number of Dutch, Swedes and Germans in the mid-Atlantic colonies. In South Carolina and other colonies, there were French Huguenots, as well as Spaniards, Italians, and Portuguese. After 1680 England ceased to be the main source of immigration. Thousands of people fled from war-torn Europe. Many left their homeland to get rid of the poverty generated by the pressure of the authorities and large landlords who owned estates. By 1690, the American population reached 1/4 million people. Since then, it has doubled every 25 years, until it exceeded 2.5 million people in 1775.
American settlements were grouped into geographical "sections", depending on natural conditions.
New England on northeast(Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maine) was an agriculturally secondary area: thin soil, poor vegetation, mountainous, uneven terrain, short summer and long winter. Therefore, its inhabitants solved other problems - they used the power of water and built mills and sawmills. The presence of timber contributed to the development of shipbuilding, convenient bays favored trade, and the sea served as a source of enrichment. In Massachusetts, the cod fishery alone immediately began to bring high profits. The Massachusetts Bay settlement played an important role in the religious development of all of New England. The 25 colonists who founded it had a royal charter and were determined to succeed. During the first 10 years of the existence of the colony, 65 Puritan priests arrived there, and due to the religious convictions of the leaders of the colonists and with their support, the power of the church was strengthened there. Formally, the clergy did not have secular power, but in fact they led the colony.
In the south, with its warm climate and fertile soil a predominantly agrarian society. IN mid-Atlantic colonies Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware and New York - nature was more diverse: forests, valleys suitable for Agriculture, bays where such large port cities as Philadelphia and New York grew up.
Society in the mid-Atlantic colonies was much more diverse and religiously tolerant than in New England. Pennsylvania and Delaware owe their success to the Quakers, who set out to attract settlers of many faiths and nationalities. Quakers dominated Philadelphia, and there were other sects in other parts of the colony. Immigrants from Germany proved to be the most skilled farmers, they also knew weaving, shoemaking, carpentry and other crafts. Through Pennsylvania, the bulk of Scottish and Irish immigrants arrived in the New World. Equally mixed was the population of the colonies of New York, which perfectly demonstrates the multilingualism of America. By 1646 along the river. The Hudson was settled by the Dutch, French, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, British, Scots, Irish, Germans, Poles, immigrants from Bohemia, Portugal, Italy. But these are only the forerunners of millions of future immigrants.
Eastern states- Virginia, Maryland, North and South Carolina, Georgia - differed greatly from New England and the mid-Atlantic colonies in their predominantly rural character. The first surviving English settlement in the New World was Jamestown, Virginia.
A distinctive feature of the first stages of colonial history was the absence of strict control from the British authorities. While the colonies were being formed, they were actually left to their own devices. The British government was not directly involved in their founding (with the exception of Georgia), and the political leadership of the colonies, it began gradually and not immediately.
Since 1651, the British government has from time to time passed regulations regulating certain aspects of the economic life of the colonies, which in most cases benefited only England, but the colonists simply ignored the laws that harmed them. Sometimes the British administration tried to force their implementation, but these attempts quickly failed.
The relative political independence of the colonies was largely due to their remoteness from England. They became more and more "American" rather than "English". This trend was reinforced by the mixing of different national groups and cultures - a process that has been going on all the time in America.
How did the colonization of America take place?
European colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th and 11th centuries, when western Scandinavian sailors explored and briefly settled small areas on the coast of modern Canada. These Scandinavians were Vikings who discovered and settled in Greenland, and then they sailed to the arctic region of North America near Greenland and down to neighboring Canada to explore and then settle. According to the Icelandic sagas, violent conflicts with the indigenous population eventually forced the Scandinavians to abandon these settlements.
Discovery of North American lands
Extensive European colonization began in 1492 when a Spanish expedition led by Christopher Columbus sailed west to find a new trade route to Far East, but inadvertently moored to the lands that became known to Europeans as " New world". Moving through the northern part of Hispaniola on December 5, 1492, which was inhabited by the Taino people since the 7th century, Europeans founded their first settlement in the Americas. This was followed by European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development. During his first two voyages (1492-93), Columbus reached the Bahamas and other Caribbean islands, including Haiti, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, setting out from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, and a year later, on his third voyage, Columbus reached the coast of South America. As sponsor of the voyages of Christopher Columbus, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize most of North America and the Caribbean up to the southernmost tip of South America.
Which countries colonized America
Other countries, such as France, established colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America, on a number of islands in the Caribbean, and also on small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried to colonize the coast of modern Canada, and its representatives settled for a long period in the northwest (east bank) of the La Plata River. In the era of great geographical discoveries, the beginning of territorial expansion by some European countries was laid. Europe was busy internal wars, and was slowly recovering from the loss of population as a result of the bubonic plague; therefore the rapid growth of her wealth and power was unpredictable at the beginning of the 15th century.
Eventually, the entire Western Hemisphere came under the apparent control of European governments, resulting in profound changes in its landscape, population, and flora and fauna. In the 19th century, more than 50 million people left Europe alone for resettlement in North and South America. The time after 1492 is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a large and widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, populations (including slaves), infectious diseases, and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres, which followed Columbus's voyages to the Americas. .
Scandinavian voyages to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. The Scandinavian colony in Greenland was established at the end of the 10th century and continued until the middle of the 15th century, with a court and parliamentary assemblies sitting in Brattalida and a bishop who was based in Sargan. The remains of a Scandinavian settlement at L'Anse-o-Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada were discovered in 1960 and have been dated around 1000 (carbon analysis showed 990-1050 AD); L'Anse-o-Meadows is the only settlement which has been widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian transoceanic contact. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. It should also be noted that the settlement may be related to the failed Vinland colony founded by Leif Erickson around the same time, or more broadly to the West Scandinavian colonization of the Americas.
Colonial history of America
Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and Portuguese immediately after their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In 1494, by the Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided the entire non-European world into two parts for exploration and colonization, from the northern to the southern border, cutting the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of modern Brazil. Based on this treaty and on the basis of earlier claims by the Spanish explorer Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific in 1513, the Spaniards conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.
The Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortes conquered the Aztec kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the Spanish crown had gained control of much of western South America, Central America, and southern North America, in addition to the early Caribbean territories it had conquered. During the same period, Portugal took over land in North America (Canada) and colonized much of the eastern region of South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil.
Other European countries soon began to challenge the terms of the Tordesillas Treaty. England and France tried to establish colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the next century along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were in the Caribbean, which had already been repeatedly conquered by the Spanish, or depopulated by disease, while other colonies were in eastern North America, north of Florida, that had not been colonized by Spain.
Early European possessions in North America included Spanish Florida, Spanish New Mexico, English colonies Virginia (with its North Atlantic offshoot, Bermuda) and New England, the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch colony of New Netherland. In the 18th century, Denmark-Norway resurrected their former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire established itself in Alaska. Denmark-Norway later made several claims to land ownership in the Caribbean starting in the 1600s.
As more countries gained interest in colonizing the Americas, the competition for territory became more and more fierce. The colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as native tribes and pirates.
Who paid for the expeditions of the discoverers of America?
The first phase of a well-funded European activity in the Americas began with the crossing Atlantic Ocean Christopher Columbus (1492-1504), financed by Spain, whose original goal was to try to find a new route to India and China, then known as the "Indies". He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who was funded by England and reached Newfoundland. Pedro Alvarez Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it on behalf of Portugal.
Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal on voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached new continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of their first name, America, for the two continents. Other explorers: Giovanni Verrazzano, whose voyage was funded by France in 1524; the Portuguese João Vaz Cortireal in Newfoundland; João Fernández Lavrador, Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real and João Alvarez Fagundes in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520); Jacques Cartier (1491-1557), Henry Hudson (1560-1611), and Samuel de Champlain (1567-1635) who explored Canada.
In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to view the Pacific Ocean from the western coast of the New World. In fact, sticking to the previous history of conquest, Balboa claimed that the Spanish crown laid claim to the Pacific Ocean and all adjacent lands. This was before 1517, before another expedition from Cuba visited Central America, landing on the Yucatan coast in search of slaves.
These explorations were followed, in particular by Spain, by a stage of conquest: the Spaniards, having just completed the liberation of Spain from Muslim domination, were the first to colonize the Americas, applying the same model of European administration of their territories in the New World.
colonial period
Ten years after the discovery of Columbus, the administration of Hispaniola was transferred to Nicolás de Ovando of the Order of Alcantara, founded during the Reconquista (liberation of Spain from Muslim domination). As in the Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola received new landowners-masters, while religious orders led the local administration. Gradually, an encomienda system was established there, which obliged European settlers to pay tribute (having access to local labor and taxation).
A relatively common misconception is that a small number of conquistadors conquered vast territories, bringing only epidemics and their powerful caballeros there. In fact, recent archaeological excavations have suggested the existence of a large Spanish-Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Hernán Cortés finally conquered Mexico with the help of Tlaxcala in 1519-1521, while the Inca conquest was carried out by about 40,000 traitors of the same people, led by Francisco Pizarro, between 1532 and 1535.
How did the relations between the European colonists and the Indians develop?
A century and a half after the voyages of Columbus, the indigenous population of North and South America dropped sharply by about 80% (from 50 million in 1492 to 8 million people in 1650), mainly due to outbreaks of diseases of the Old World.
In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, sent a viceroy to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, to prevent the independence movement that had arisen during the reign of Cortés, who finally returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later, Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512) banning slavery and repartimiento, but also claiming ownership of American lands and considering all the people inhabiting these lands to be his subjects.
When in May 1493 Pope Alexander VI issued the bull "Inter caetera", according to which the new lands were transferred to the Kingdom of Spain, in exchange he demanded the evangelization of the people. So, during the second journey of Columbus, Benedictine monks accompanied him along with twelve other priests. Because slavery was forbidden among Christians, and could only be applied to prisoners of war who were not Christians, or to men already sold as slaves, the debate over Christianization was particularly heated during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull "Sublimis Deus" finally recognized the fact that Native Americans possessed souls, thereby forbidding their enslavement, but did not end the discussion. Some argued that the natives, who rebelled against the authorities and were captured, could still be enslaved.
Later, a debate was held in Valladolid between the Dominican priest Bartolome de las Casas and another Dominican philosopher, Juan Gines de Sepúlveda, where the former argued that Native Americans were creatures with souls, like all other human beings, while the latter argued the opposite and justified their enslavement.
Christianization of Colonial America
The process of Christianization was brutal at first: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to the pagan cult, chilling relations with much of the local population. In the 1530s they began to adapt Christian practices to local customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of worship, which led to the mixing of Old World Christianity with local religions. The Spanish Roman Catholic Church, in need of native labor and cooperation, preached in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guarani and other Indian languages, which contributed to the expansion of the use of these indigenous languages and provided some of them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans was one founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.
In order to encourage their troops, the conquistadors often gave away Indian cities for the use of their troops and officers. Black African slaves replaced local labor in some places, including in the West Indies, where the native population was close to extinction on many islands.
During this time, the Portuguese gradually moved from the original plan of establishing trading posts to extensive colonization of what is now Brazil. They brought millions of slaves to work their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments intended to manage these settlements and receive at least 20% of all treasures found (in Quinto Real, collected by the Casa de Contratación government agency), in addition to collecting any taxes they might have levied. By the end of the 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget. In the 16th century, about 240,000 Europeans landed at American ports.
Colonization of America in search of wealth
Inspired by the wealth derived by the Spaniards from their colonies based on the conquered lands of the Aztecs, Incas, and other large Indian settlements in the 16th century, the early English began to settle permanently in America and hoped for the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement. at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They were financed by the same joint-stock companies, such as the Virginia Freight Company, funded by wealthy Englishmen, who exaggerated the economic potential of this new land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold.
It took strong leaders, such as John Smith, to convince the Jamestown colonists that in their search for gold, they need to forget their basic needs for food and shelter, and the biblical principle "he who does not work, neither shall he eat." The mortality rate was dismal and caused despair among the colonists.Many supply missions were organized to support the colony.Later, thanks to the work of John Rolfe and others, tobacco became a commercial export crop, which ensured the sustainable economic development of Virginia and the neighboring colony of Maryland.
From the beginning of the Virginia settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source work force there was a large part of immigrants, in search of a new life, who arrived in foreign colonies to work under a contract. During the 17th century, wage laborers made up three-quarters of all European immigrants in the Chesapeake region. Most of the hired workers were teenagers, originally from England, with poor economic prospects in their homeland. Their fathers signed documents that gave these teenagers the opportunity to come to America for free and get unpaid work until they reach adulthood. They were provided with food, clothing, housing and training in agricultural work or household services. American landowners needed workers and were willing to pay for their passage to America if these workers served them for several years. By exchanging a passage to America for unpaid work for five to seven years, after this period they could begin an independent life in America. Many migrants from England died within the first few years.
Economic advantage also prompted the creation of the Darien Project, the ill-fated venture of the Kingdom of Scotland to establish a colony on the Isthmus of Panama in the late 1690s. The Darien project had as its object the control of trade through that part of the world, and thereby was to assist Scotland in strengthening her strength in world trade. However, the project was doomed due to poor planning, low food supplies, poor leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and a devastating disease. The failure of the Darien Project was one of the reasons that led the Kingdom of Scotland to enter into the Act of Union in 1707 with the Kingdom of England, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and giving Scotland commercial access to the English, now British, colonies.
In the French colonial regions, sugar plantations in the Caribbean were the backbone of the economy. In Canada, the fur trade with the locals was very important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The vast majority became farmers, settling along the St. Lawrence River. Under favorable conditions for health (absence of disease) and a large number land and food, their number grew in geometric progression up to 65,000 by 1760. The colony was ceded to Great Britain in 1760, but there were few social, religious, legal, cultural and economic changes in a society that remained true to newly formed traditions.
Religious immigration to the New World
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as the settlers of the colonies of Spain and Portugal (and later, France) belonged to this faith. The English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, were more religiously diverse. The settlers of these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians, and Jews of various ethnicities.
Many groups of colonists went to America in order to gain the right to practice their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which were often persecuted by state authorities. In England, many people came to the question of the organization of the Church of England towards the end of the 16th century. One of the main manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify" the existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites, which they believed had no mention in the Bible.
A firm believer in the principle of government based on divine right, Charles I, King of England and Scotland, persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led about 20,000 Puritans to migrate to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they established several colonies. Later in the same century, the new colony of Pennsylvania was given to William Penn as a settlement of the king's debt to his father. The government of this colony was established by William Penn about 1682, primarily to provide a refuge for persecuted English Quakers; but other residents were also welcome. Baptists, Quakers, German and Swiss Protestants, Anabaptists flocked to Pennsylvania. Very attractive were the good opportunity to get cheap land, freedom of religion and the right to improve their own lives.
The peoples of the Americas before and after the start of European colonization
Slavery was a common practice in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans, as different groups American Indians were captured and held as slaves from other tribes. Many of these captives were subjected to human sacrifice in Native American civilizations such as the Aztecs. In response to some cases of enslavement of the local population in the Caribbean during the early years of colonization, the Spanish crown passed a series of laws prohibiting slavery as early as 1512. A new, stricter set of laws was passed in 1542 called the New Laws of the Indies for the Good Treatment and Protection of the Indians, or simply the New Laws. They were created to prevent the exploitation of indigenous peoples by encomenderos or landowners by severely limiting their power and dominance. This helped to greatly reduce Indian slavery, although not completely. Later, with the arrival of other European colonial powers in the New World, the enslavement of the native population increased, as these empires did not have anti-slavery legislation for several decades. Indigenous populations declined (mainly due to European diseases, but also from forced exploitation and crime). Later, the indigenous workers were replaced by Africans brought in through the large commercial slave trade.
How were blacks brought to America?
By the 18th century, the overwhelming number of black slaves was such that Native American slavery was much rarer. The Africans who were taken on board the slave ships sailing to North and South America were mostly supplied from their African home countries by the coastal tribes, who captured them and sold them. Europeans bought slaves from local African tribes who took them prisoner in exchange for rum, weapons, gunpowder and other goods.
Slave trade in America
An estimated 12 million Africans were involved in the total slave trade in the islands of the Caribbean, Brazil, Mexico, and the United States. The vast majority of these slaves were sent to the sugar colonies in the Caribbean and Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the number of slaves had to be constantly replenished. At best, about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the US, or 5% of the 12 million slaves exported from Africa. Life expectancy was much higher in the US (because of better food, fewer diseases, easier work, and better medical care), so the number of slaves rose rapidly from birth to death, reaching 4 million by 1860 according to the census. From 1770 to 1860, the natural growth rate of North American slaves was much higher than the population of any country in Europe, and was almost twice as fast as that of England.
Slaves imported into thirteen colonies/USA in a given time period:
- 1619-1700 - 21.000
- 1701-1760 - 189.000
- 1761-1770 - 63.000
- 1771-1790 - 56.000
- 1791-1800 - 79.000
- 1801-1810 - 124.000
- 1810-1865 - 51.000
- Total - 597.000
Indigenous losses during colonization
The European way of life included a long history of direct contact with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and various domesticated birds from which many diseases originally originated. Thus, unlike the indigenous peoples, the Europeans accumulated antibodies. Large-scale contact with Europeans after 1492 brought new microbes to the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Epidemics of smallpox (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), typhoid (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) swept America after contact with Europeans, killing between 10 million and 100 million people, up to 95% of the indigenous population of North and South America. Cultural and political instability accompanied these losses, which together greatly contributed to the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to gain control of the great wealth in land and resources commonly enjoyed by the indigenous communities.
Such diseases have added human mortality to an undeniably enormous severity and scale - and it is pointless to try to determine its full extent with any degree of accuracy. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary greatly.
Others have argued that the large population differences after pre-Columbian history are the reason for treating the largest population count with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population highs, while indigenous populations may have been at levels slightly below these highs, or at a time of decline just prior to European contact. Indigenous peoples reached their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; and in some cases growth has returned.
List of European colonies in the Americas
Spanish colonies
- Cuba (until 1898)
- New Granada (1717-1819)
- Captaincy General of Venezuela
- New Spain (1535-1821)
- Nueva Extremadura
- Nueva Galicia
- Nuevo Reino de Leon
- Nuevo Santander
- Nueva Vizcaya
- California
- Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico
- Viceroyalty of Peru (1542-1824)
- Captaincy General of Chile
- Puerto Rico (1493-1898)
- Rio de la Plata (1776-1814)
- Hispaniola (1493-1865); the island, now included in the islands of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, was under Spanish rule in whole or in part from 1492- to 1865.
English and (after 1707) British colonies
- British America (1607- 1783)
- Thirteen Colonies (1607-1783)
- Rupert's Land (1670-1870)
- British Columbia (1793-1871)
- British North America (1783-1907)
- British West Indies
- Belize
Courland
- New Courland (Tobago) (1654-1689)
Danish colonies
- Danish West Indies (1754-1917)
- Greenland (1814-present)
Dutch colonies
- New Netherland (1609-1667)
- Essequibo (1616-1815)
- Dutch Virgin Islands (1625-1680)
- Burbice (1627-1815)
- New Walcheren (1628-1677)
- Dutch Brazil (1630-1654)
- Pomerun (1650-1689)
- Cayenne (1658-1664)
- Demerara (1745-1815)
- Suriname (1667-1954) (After independence, still part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1975)
- Curaçao and Dependencies (1634-1954) (Aruba and Curaçao are still part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Bonaire; 1634-present)
- Sint Eustatius and dependencies (1636-1954) (Sint Maarten is still part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Sint Eustatius and Saba; 1636-present)
French colonies
- New France (1604-1763)
- Acadia (1604-1713)
- Canada (1608-1763)
- Louisiana (1699-1763, 1800-1803)
- Newfoundland (1662-1713)
- Ile Royale (1713-1763)
- French Guiana (1763–present)
- French West Indies
- Saint Domingo (1659-1804, now Haiti)
- Tobago
- Virgin Islands
- Antarctic France (1555-1567)
- Equatorial France (1612-1615)
Order of Malta
- Saint Barthelemy (1651-1665)
- Saint Christopher (1651-1665)
- St. Croix (1651-1665)
- Saint Martin (1651-1665)
Norwegian colonies
- Greenland (986-1814)
- Danish-Norwegian West Indies (1754-1814)
- Sverdrup Islands (1898-1930)
- Land of Eric the Red (1931-1933)
Portuguese colonies
- Colonial Brazil (1500-1815) became a Kingdom, the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.
- Terra do Labrador (1499/1500-) claimed territory (occupied periodically, from time to time).
- Corte Real Land, also known as Terra Nova dos Bacalhaus (Land of the Cod) - Terra Nova (Newfoundland) (1501) claimed territory (occupied periodically, from time to time).
- Portuguese Cove Saint Philip (1501-1696)
- Nova Scotia (1519 -1520) claimed territory (occupied periodically, from time to time).
- Barbados (1536-1620)
- Colonia del Sacramento (1680-1705 / 1714-1762 / 1763-1777 (1811-1817))
- Sisplatina (1811-1822, now Uruguay)
- French Guiana (1809-1817)
Russian colonies
- Russian America (Alaska) (1799-1867)
Scottish colonies
- Nova Scotia (1622-1632)
- Darien Project on the Isthmus of Panama (1698-1700)
- City of Stuarts, Carolina (1684-1686)
Swedish colonies
- New Sweden (1638-1655)
- St. Barthelemy (1785-1878)
- Guadeloupe (1813-1815)
American museums and exhibitions of slavery
In 2007, the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History and the Virginia Historical Society (VHS) co-hosted a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflicts between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the native peoples of the American North. The exhibition was presented in three languages and different points vision. Artifacts on display included rare surviving local and European artifacts, maps, documents, and ritual objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in Richmond, Virginia on March 17, 2007 and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009.
A linked online exhibition is dedicated to the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States, and to the 400th anniversary of the three permanent settlements at Jamestown (1607), Quebec (1608), and Santa Fe (1609). The site is available in three languages.
History of the peoples of the American continent before their meeting with Europeans in the 16th century. developed independently and almost without interaction with the history of the peoples of other continents. Written records of ancient America are very scarce, and those available have not yet been read. Therefore, the history of the American peoples has to be restored mainly from archaeological and ethnographic data, as well as from oral tradition recorded during the period of European colonization.
By the time the Europeans invaded America, the level of development of its peoples was not the same in different parts of the continent. The tribes of most of North and South America were at different stages of the primitive communal system, and the peoples of Mexico, Central America and the western part of South America at that time were already developing class relations; they created high civilizations. It was these peoples that were the first to be conquered; Spanish conquerors in the 16th century destroyed their states and culture and enslaved them.
America's initial settlement
America was settled from Northeast Asia by tribes related to the Mongoloids of Siberia. In their anthropological type, the American Indians and, to an even greater extent, the Eskimos who moved to America later, are similar to the population of North and East Asia and are included in the large Mongoloid race. Exploration of the vast expanses of the new continent with alien natural conditions, alien flora and fauna presented difficulties for the settlers, the overcoming of which required great efforts and a long time.
The resettlement could have begun at the end of the Ice Age, when there was obviously a land bridge between Asia and America at the site of the present Bering Strait. In the post-glacial era, the resettlement could also continue by sea. Judging by the geological and paleontological data, the settlement of America took place 25-20 thousand years before our time. The Eskimos settled along the Arctic coast in the 1st millennium AD. e. or even later. The tribes of hunters and fishermen who migrated in separate groups, whose material culture stood at the level of the Mesolithic, moved in search of prey, as can be concluded from archaeological sites, from north to south along the Pacific coast. The similarity of some elements of the culture of the indigenous population of South America with the culture of the peoples of Oceania gave rise to the theory of the settlement of the entire American continent from Oceania. There is no doubt that the connections of Oceania with South America in antiquity took place and played a certain role in the settlement of this part of America. However, some similar elements of culture could develop independently, and the possibility of later borrowings is not ruled out. For example, the sweet potato culture spread from South America to Oceania, banana and sugar cane were brought to America from Asia.
Ethnographic and linguistic data indicate that the movements of the ancient Indian tribes took place over vast areas, and often the tribes of one language families were settled between the tribes of other language families. The main reason for these resettlements was, obviously, the need to increase the land area in an extensive economy (hunting, gathering). However, the chronology and the specific historical situation in which these migrations took place remain still unexplored.
1. North America
By the beginning of the XVI century. The population of North America consisted of a large number of tribes and nationalities. According to the types of economy and historical and ethnographic community, they were divided into the following groups: coastal hunters and fishermen of the Arctic zone - Eskimos and Aleuts; fishermen and hunters of the northwest coast; hunters of the northern strip of present-day Canada; farmers of eastern and southeastern North America; buffalo hunters are prairie tribes; wild seed gatherers, fishermen and hunters are the tribes of California; peoples with developed irrigated agriculture in the southwest and south of North America.
Tribes of the arctic coast
The main type of industrial activity of the Eskimos was hunting for seals, walruses, whales, polar bears and arctic foxes, as well as fishing. The weapons were darts and harpoons with movable bone tips. A spear thrower was used. Fish were caught with bone hooks. The walrus and the seal supplied the Eskimo with almost everything they needed: meat and fat were used for food, fat was also used for heating and lighting the dwelling, the skin served to cover the boat, and a canopy was made from it for the inside of the snow hut. The fur of bears and arctic foxes, the skins of deer and musk ox were used to make clothes and shoes.
The Eskimos ate most of their food raw, which protected them from scurvy. The name Eskimo comes from the Native American word "eskimantik", which means "eating raw meat."
Indians of the northwest coast
Typical of this group were the Tlingit. Their main source of livelihood was fishing; salmon fish was their main food. The lack of plant foods was compensated by the collection of wild berries and fruits, as well as algae. For each type of fish or marine animals, there were special harpoons, darts, spears, nets. The Tlingit used bone and stone polished tools. Of the metals, they knew only copper, which they found in native form; it was cold forged. Hammered copper tiles served as a medium of exchange. Pottery was unknown. Food was cooked in wooden vessels by throwing red-hot stones into the water.
This tribe did not have any agriculture or animal husbandry. The only domesticated animal was the dog, which was used for hunting. The way in which the Tlingits obtained wool is interesting: they drove wild sheep and goats into fenced places, sheared them and released them again. Capes were woven from wool, later shirts were made from woolen fabric.
The Tlingit lived part of the year on the ocean. Here they hunted sea animals, mainly sea otters. The houses were built from logs cut with stone adze, without windows, with a smoke hole in the roof and a small door. In the summer, the Tlingit went up the rivers to fish for salmon and gather fruits in the forests.
The Tlingit, like other Indians of the northwest coast, developed an exchange. Dry fish, powdered, fish oil and furs were exchanged for cedar products, spear and arrowheads, as well as various bone and stone jewelry. Slaves-prisoners of war were also exchanged.
The main social unit of the northwestern tribes was the genus. The clans, named after totem animals, united in phratries. Separate tribes stood at different stages of the transition from the maternal clan to the paternal; among the Tlingits, at birth, the child received the name of the maternal clan, but in adolescence he was given a second name - according to the paternal clan. At the conclusion of the marriage, the groom worked for the bride's parents for a year or two, then the young went to the husband's clan. The particularly close relationship between maternal uncle and nephews, partial maternal inheritance, the relatively free position of women - all these features indicate that the tribes of the northwest coast retained significant vestiges of matriarchy. There was a home community (barabora) that ran a common household. The development of exchange contributed to the accumulation of surpluses from the elders and leaders. Frequent wars and the capture of slaves further increased their wealth and power.
The existence of slavery characteristic social structure of these tribes. The folklore of the Tlingit, as well as of some other northwestern tribes, paints a picture of a rudimentary form of slavery: the slaves were owned by the entire tribal community, or rather its subdivision, the barabors. Such slaves - several people per barabora - did household chores and participated in fishing. It was a patriarchal slavery with collective ownership of prisoner-of-war slaves; Slave labor did not form the basis of production, but played an auxiliary role in the economy.
Indians of Eastern North America
The tribes of the eastern part of North America - the Iroquois, Muscogee tribes, etc. - lived settled, were engaged in hoe farming, hunting and gathering. They made tools from wood, bone and stone, and used native copper, which was processed by cold forging. They didn't know iron. The weapons were a bow with arrows, clubs with a stone pommel and a tomahawk. The Algonquian word "tomahawk" then referred to a curved wooden club with a spherical thickening at the combat end, sometimes with a bone tip.
The wigwam served as the dwelling of the coastal Algonquian tribes - a hut made of trunks of young trees, the crowns of which were connected together. The domed frame formed in this way was covered with pieces of tree bark.
Among the tribes of eastern North America at the beginning of the 16th century. dominated by the primitive communal system.
The most typical for the entire group of eastern tribes were the Iroquois. The lifestyle and social structure of the Iroquois were described in the second half of the 19th century. the famous American scientist Lewis Morgan, who reconstructed the main features of their system before colonization.
The Iroquois lived around Lakes Erie and Ontario and on the Niagara River. The central part of the territory of the present state of New York was occupied by five Iroquois tribes: Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk. Each tribe had its own dialect. The main source of existence of the Iroquois was hoe agriculture of the slash-and-burn type. The Iroquois grew corn (maize), beans, peas, sunflowers, watermelons, marrows, and tobacco. They collected wild berries, nuts, chestnuts, acorns, edible roots and tubers, mushrooms. Maple sap was their favorite delicacy, it was boiled down and consumed in the form of molasses or hardened sugar.
In the area of the Great Lakes, the Indians collected wild-growing rice, which formed dense thickets along the muddy shores. To harvest the crops, they went out in boats, moving with the help of long poles. The women sitting in the canoe grabbed bunches of rice stalks, bent them with their ears down and, hitting them with chopsticks, upholstered the grains that fell to the bottom of the boat.
An important role was played by hunting deer, elk, beaver, otter, marten and other forest animals. Especially a lot of prey was obtained from driven hunting. Fishing in spring and summer.
The tools of the Iroquois were hoes and axes made of polished stone. Knives and arrowheads and spears were made from native copper. Pottery was developed, although without the potter's wheel. For the manufacture of clothing, the Iroquois processed skins, especially deer, making suede.
The dwelling of the Iroquois was the so-called long houses. The basis of these houses was made up of wooden posts driven into the ground, to which plates of tree bark were tied with the help of bast ropes. Inside the house there was a central passage about 2 m wide; here, at a distance of about 6 m from one another, foci were located. Above the hearths in the roof there were holes for the exit of smoke. Along the walls were wide platforms, fenced off on both sides by piers. Each couple had a separate sleeping area about 4 m long, open only to the hearth. For every four rooms located opposite each other in pairs, one hearth was arranged, on which food was cooked in a common cauldron. Usually in one such house there were 5-7 hearths. There are also shared storage areas adjacent to the house.
The "Long House" clearly shows the nature of the smallest social unit of the Iroquois - Ovachirs. Ovachira consisted of a group of blood relatives, descendants of one progenitor. It was a matriarchal tribal community in which production and consumption were collective.
Land - the main means of production - belonged to the clan as a whole, Ovachirs used the plots allotted to them.
A man who entered into marriage went to live in the house of his wife's ovachira and participated in the economic work of this community. At the same time, he continued to maintain belonging to his tribal community, performing social, religious and other duties with his relatives. The children belonged to the ovachira and the mother's family. Men hunted and fished together, cut down the forest and cleared the soil, built houses and protected the villages from enemies. Ovachira women jointly cultivated the land, sowed and planted plants, harvested crops and stored supplies in common pantries. Managed agricultural and domestic work oldest woman She also distributed food supplies. Hospitality was widespread among the Iroquois. In the Iroquois village there could not be hungry as long as there were supplies in at least one house.
All power within the ovachira belonged to women. The head of the ovachira was the ruler, who was chosen by the mothers. In addition to the ruler, women-mothers chose a military leader and a "foreman for peacetime." The latter was called sachem by European authors, although "sachem" is an Algonquian word and the Iroquois did not use it. The rulers, sachems and war chiefs made up the council of the tribe.
Already after the beginning of the colonization of America, but before the contact of the Iroquois with Europeans, around 1570, five tribes of the Iroquois formed an alliance: the League of the Iroquois. Legend attributes its organization to the mythical Hiawatha. At the head of the League was a council, which was made up of sachems of the tribes. Not only sachems came to the council, but also ordinary members of the tribe. If you had to decide important question, then the tribes of the League gathered completely. The elders sat around the fire, the rest were placed around. Everyone could participate in the discussion, but the final decision was made by the Council of the League; it had to be unanimous. Voting was by tribe; each tribe thus had a veto. The discussion proceeded in strict order, with great solemnity. The Iroquois League reached its peak in the 70s of the 17th century.
Forest hunting tribes of Canada
Tribes of several language families lived in the forests of modern Canada: Athabaskan (Kuchin, Chaipewai), Algonquian (part of the Ojibwe-Chippewa, Montagne-Naskapi, part of the Cree) and some others. The main occupation of these tribes was the hunting of caribou, elk, bear, wild sheep, etc. Fishing and the collection of wild seeds were of secondary importance. The main weapons of the forest tribes were bows and arrows, clubs, clubs, spears and knives with stone tips. The Forest Indians had dogs that were harnessed to a useless wooden sled - a toboggan; they carried luggage during migrations. In the summer they used shuttles made of birch bark.
The Indians of the forests of the North lived and hunted in groups representing tribal groups. During the winter, separate groups of hunters moved through the forest, almost never meeting one another. In summer, groups gathered in traditional places of summer camps, located along the banks of the rivers. There was an exchange of hunting products, tools and weapons, festivities were held. Thus, intertribal ties were maintained, and barter trade developed.
Prairie Indians
Numerous Indian tribes lived on the prairies. Their most typical representatives were the Dakota, Comanche, Arapah and Cheyenne. These tribes put up a particularly stubborn resistance to the European colonialists.
Despite belonging to different language families, the Prairie Indians were united common features economic activity and culture. The main source of their livelihood was bison hunting. Bison provided meat and fat for food, fur and leather for clothes and shoes, and also for covering huts. Prairie Indians hunted on foot Only in the second half of the XVIII century. The Indians tamed the horse. Once brought by the first colonists from Europe, these animals, partially feral, formed herds of the so-called mustangs. The Indians caught and drove around them.) with dogs using a bow and arrow. The hunt was collective. Individual hunting was prohibited. Those who violated the ban were severely punished.
Prairie Indians did not know metal, they used stone axes and hammers, flint knives, scrapers and arrowheads. Combat weapons were bows, spears and clubs with stone pommel. They used round and oval shields made of bison skin.
Most of the prairie tribes lived in a conical buffalo-skin tent. In the camp, which was a temporary settlement, tents were set up in a circle - it was more convenient to repel sudden attacks of enemies. The tent of the tribal council was erected in the center.
Prairie Indians lived in tribes divided into genera. At the time of the arrival of the Europeans, some tribes still had a matriarchal organization. Others have already made the transition to the paternal lineage.
California Indians
The California Indians were one of the most backward indigenous groups in North America. characteristic feature this group had extreme ethnic and linguistic fragmentation; the tribes of California belonged to several dozen small language groups.
The Indians of California did not know either settlement or agriculture. They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering. Californians invented a way to remove tannin from acorn flour and baked cakes from it; they also learned how to remove the poison from the tubers of the so-called soaproot. They hunted deer and small game with a bow and arrow. Driven hunting was used. The dwelling of the Californians was of two types. In summer they lived mainly under canopies made of branches covered with leaves, or in conical huts made of poles covered with bark or branches. In winter, semi-underground domed dwellings were built. Californians wove waterproof baskets from young tree shoots or roots, in which they boiled meat and fish: the water poured into the basket was brought to a boil by immersing hot stones in it.
The Californians were dominated by a primitive communal system. The tribes were divided into exogamous phratries and clans. The tribal community, as an economic collective, owned a common hunting area and fishing grounds. The Californians retained significant elements of the maternal clan: the large role of women in production, maternal kinship, etc.
Indians of Southwest North America
The most typical of this group were the Pueblo tribes. Archaeological data allow us to trace the history of the Pueblo Indians to the first centuries of our era. In the 8th century The Pueblo Indians were already engaged in agriculture and created a system of artificial irrigation. They planted corn, beans, pumpkins and cotton. They developed pottery, but without the potter's wheel. Ceramics was distinguished by the beauty of form and the richness of the ornament. They used a loom and made fabrics from cotton fiber.
The Spanish word "pueblo" means village, community. The Spanish conquerors named this group of Indian tribes after the villages that struck them, which were one common dwelling. The dwelling of the pueblo consisted of a single mud-brick building, the outer wall of which enclosed the whole village, making it inaccessible to attack from outside. The living quarters descended in ledges into the fenced yard, forming terraces, so that the roof of the lower row served as a yard platform for the upper one. Another type of pueblo dwellings are caves dug into the rocks, also descending in ledges. Up to a thousand people lived in each of these villages.
In the middle of the 16th century, during the period of the invasion of the Spanish conquerors, the pueblo villages were communities, each of which had its own territory with irrigated lands and hunting grounds. The cultivated land was distributed among the clans. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the maternal race still predominated. At the head of the clan was the "oldest mother", who, along with the male military leader, regulated intra-tribal relations. The household was conducted by a consanguineous group, consisting of a woman - the head of the group, her unmarried and widowed brothers, her daughters, as well as the husband of this woman and the husbands of her daughters. The household used the land allotted to it ancestral land as well as a granary.
Spiritual culture of the Indians of North America
The dominance of tribal relations was also reflected in the religion of the Indians - in their totemistic beliefs. The word "totem" in the Algonquian language literally meant "his kind." Animals or plants were considered totem, according to the names of which the genera were called. Totems were considered, as it were, relatives of members of this genus, having a common origin with them from mythical ancestors.
The beliefs of the Indians were permeated with animistic ideas. The more advanced tribes had a rich mythology; from the host of the spirits of nature, the supreme spirits were singled out, to whom the control of the world and the destinies of people was attributed. In cult practice, shamanism dominated.
The Indians were well aware starry sky, the location of the planets and guided by them in their travels. Having studied the surrounding flora, the Indians not only ate wild plants and fruits, but also used them as medicines.
The modern American Pharmacopoeia borrowed a lot from folk Indian medicine.
The artistic creativity of the North American Indians, in particular their folklore, was very rich. In fairy tales and songs, the nature and life of the Indians were poetically depicted. Although the heroes of these tales were often animals and forces of nature, their life was drawn by analogy with human society.
In addition to poetic works, the Indians also had historical legends that were told by elders at meetings. Among the Iroquois, for example, when a new sachem was established, one of the elders told the assembly about the events of the past. During the story, he was sorting out a bunch of white and purple beads, carved from shells, fastened in the form of wide strips or sewn in the form of a pattern onto strips of fabric. These bands, known to Europeans by the Algonquian name wampum, were commonly worn as decorations. They were worn in the form of belts or bandages over the shoulder. But wampum also played the role of a mnemonic: when telling, the speaker ran his hand along the pattern formed by the beads, and, as it were, recalled distant events. Wampum was also transmitted through messengers and ambassadors to neighboring tribes as a sign of authority, served as a kind of symbol of trust and obligation not to break promises.
The Indians developed a system of conventional signs with which they transmitted messages. With signs carved on the bark of trees or made up of branches and stones, the Indians reported the necessary information. Messages were transmitted over a long distance with the help of bonfires, smoking during the day, burning with a bright flame at night.
The pinnacle of the spiritual culture of the Indians of North America was their rudimentary writing - pictography, picture writing. The Dakota wrote chronicles or calendars drawn on leather; drawings were sent to chronological order events that took place this year.
2. South and Central America, Mexico
Vast areas of South America were inhabited by tribes with primitive technology, belonging to various language families. Such were the fishermen and gatherers of Tierra del Fuego, the hunters of the steppes of Patagonia, the so-called pampas, the hunters and gatherers of eastern Brazil, the hunters and farmers of the Amazonian and Orinoco forests.
firemen
The Fuegians were among the most backward tribes in the world. Three groups of Indians lived on the Tierra del Fuego archipelago: the Selknam (she), the Alakalufs, and the Yamana (Yagans).
The Selknam lived in the northern and eastern parts of Tierra del Fuego. They hunted the guanaco llama and collected the fruits and roots of wild plants. Their weapons were bows and arrows. On the islands of the western part of the archipelago, the Alakalufs lived, engaged in fishing and collecting shellfish. In search of food, they spent most of their lives in wooden boats, moving along the coast. Bird hunting with bows and arrows played a lesser role in their lives.
The Yamanas lived by collecting shellfish, fishing, hunting seals and other marine animals, as well as birds. Their tools were made of bone, stone and shells. A bone harpoon with a long belt served as a weapon in sea fishing.
Yamanas lived in separate clans, called ukurs. This word denoted both the dwelling and the community of relatives that lived in it. In the absence of members of this community, their hut could be occupied by members of another community. The meeting of many communities was rare, mostly when the sea washed up on the shore of a dead whale; then, provided with food for a long time, the Yamanas held festivities. There was no stratification in the Yaman community, the oldest members of the group did not exercise power over their relatives. A special position was occupied only by healers, who were credited with the ability to influence the weather and cure diseases.
pampa indians
By the time of the European invasion, the Pampa Indians were walking wandering hunters. In the middle of the 18th century, the inhabitants of the pampas, the Patagonians, began to use horses for hunting.) The main object of hunting and a source of food were guanacos, which were hunted from a bola - a bunch of belts with weights attached to them. There were no permanent settlements among the pampas hunters; in temporary camps, they erected canopy tents from 40-50 guanaco skins, which served as housing for the entire community. Clothing was made from leather; The main part of the costume was a fur coat, which was tied at the waist with a belt.
The Patagonians lived and roamed in small groups of blood relatives, uniting 30-40 marriage couples with their offspring. The power of the leader of the community was reduced to the right to give orders during transitions and hunting; chiefs hunted along with others. The hunt itself was collective in nature.
IN religious beliefs Pampa Indians occupied a significant place animistic beliefs. The Patagonians peopled the world with spirits; the cult of dead relatives was especially developed.
Araucans lived in south central Chile. Under the influence of the Quechua tribes, the Araucans were engaged in agriculture and bred llamas. They developed the manufacture of fabrics from the wool of the llama-guanaco, pottery and silver processing. The southern tribes were engaged in hunting and fishing. The Araucanians became famous for their stubborn resistance to European conquerors for over 200 years. In 1773, the independence of Araucania was recognized by the Spaniards. Only in late XIX V. the colonialists took possession of the main territory of the Araucans.)
Indians of Eastern Brazil
The tribes of the group that lived on the territory of Eastern and Southern Brazil - Botokuda, Canella, Kayapo, Xavant, Kaingang and other smaller ones, were mainly engaged in hunting and gathering, making transitions in search of game and edible plants. The most typical of this group were the Botokuds, or Boruns, who inhabited the coast before the invasion of the European colonialists, and were later pushed back into the interior of the country. Their main tool was a bow, with which they hunted not only small animals, but also fish. Women were engaged in gathering. The dwelling of the Botokuds was a barrier from the wind, covered with palm leaves, common to the entire nomad camp. Instead of dishes, they used wicker baskets. A peculiar decoration of the botokuds were small wooden discs inserted into the slits of the lips - “botok” in Portuguese. Hence the name botokudov.
The social structure of the Botokuds and the tribes close to them is still poorly studied. It is known, however, that in their group marriage the bond between the sexes was regulated by the laws of exogamy. The Botokuds maintained a maternal kinship account.
In the XVI century. The "forest Indians" of Brazil resisted the Portuguese invaders, but it was crushed.
Indians of the Amazon and Orinoco rainforests
During the initial period of European colonization, northeastern and central South America was inhabited by numerous tribes belonging to different linguistic groups, mainly Arawaks, Tupi-Guaranis, and Caribs. They were mostly engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture and lived settled lives.
In the conditions of the tropical forest, wood served as the main material for the manufacture of tools and weapons. But these tribes also had polished stone axes, which served as one of the main items of intertribal exchange, since there were no suitable stone rocks on the territory of some tribes. Bone, shells, shells of forest fruits were also used to make tools. Arrowheads were made from animal teeth and pointed bone, bamboo, stone and wood; the arrows fledged. A witty invention of the Indians of the tropical forests of South America was the arrow-throwing pipe, the so-called sarbican, which was also known to the tribes of the Malay Peninsula.
For fishing, boats were built from tree bark and single-tree dugouts. Weaved nets, nets, tops and other gear. They beat the fish with a spear, shot at it with bows. Having achieved great skill in weaving, these tribes used a wicker bed - a hammock. This invention, under its Indian name, spread all over the world. The Indians of the tropical forests of South America also owe mankind the discovery of the medicinal properties of cinchona bark and the emetic root of ipecac.
The rainforest tribes practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. The men prepared the plots, made fires at the roots of the trees and cut the trunk with stone axes. After the trees dried up, they felled, the branches were burned. Ash served as fertilizer. Landing time was determined by the position of the stars. Women loosened the ground with knotty sticks or sticks with shoulder blades of small animals and shells planted on them. They grew cassava, corn, sweet potato, beans, tobacco, and cotton. The Forest Indians learned to cleanse the poison from cassava by squeezing the juice containing hydrocyanic acid, drying and roasting the flour.
The Indians of the Amazon and Orinoco basins lived in tribal communities and led a common household. In many tribes, each community occupied one large dwelling, which made up the entire village. Such a dwelling was a round or rectangular structure, covered with palm leaves or branches. The walls were made of pillars intertwined with branches, they were lined with mats and plastered over. In this collective dwelling, each family had its own hearth. The community collectively owned hunting and fishing grounds. The products obtained by hunting and fishing were divided among all. In most tribes, before the invasion of Europeans, the maternal clan prevailed, but there has already been a transition to the paternal clan. Each village was a self-governing community with an elder leader. These tribes by the beginning of the XVI century. there was not yet not only a union of tribes, but also a common intra-tribal organization.
The artistic creativity of the described Indian tribes was expressed in dances performed to the sounds of primitive musical instruments (horns, pipes), in games that imitated the habits of animals and birds. Love for jewelry was manifested in the body coloring with a complex pattern using vegetable juices and in the manufacture of elegant attire from multi-colored feathers, teeth, nuts, seeds, etc.
Ancient peoples of Mexico and Central America
The peoples of the southern part of the northern continent and Central America created a developed agricultural culture and, on its basis, a high civilization.
Archaeological data, finds of stone tools and the skeleton of a fossil man, indicate that a man appeared on the territory of Mexico 15-20 thousand years ago.
Central America is one of the earliest areas of cultivation of corn, beans, pumpkins, tomatoes, green peppers, cocoa, cotton, agave, and tobacco.
The population was distributed unevenly. The areas of settled agriculture - in central Mexico and the highlands of southern Mexico - were densely populated. In areas with a predominance of shifting agriculture (for example, in the Yucatan), the population was more dispersed. Large expanses of northern Mexico and southern California were sparsely inhabited by wandering hunting and gathering tribes.
The history of the tribes and peoples of Mexico and Yucatan is known from archaeological finds, as well as from the Spanish chronicles of the time of the conquest.
The archaeological period of the so-called Early cultures (until the 3rd century BC) was the time of the Neolithic, the period of gathering, hunting and fishing, the time of the domination of the primitive communal system. During the period of the Middle Cultures (III century BC - IV century AD), agriculture arose in the form of slash-and-burn, shifting. During this period, differences in the level of development of tribes and peoples of different parts of Mexico and Yucatan begin to make themselves felt . In central and southern Mexico and the Yucatán, class societies had already emerged during this period. But the development didn't stop there. On the brink of our era, the peoples of these regions of America have risen to a higher level.
Mayan
The Maya are the only American people to have left written records.
At the beginning of our era in the southern part of the Yucatan, northeast of Lake Peten Itza, the first city-states began to form. The oldest known monument - a stone stele in the city of Washaktun - is dated 328 AD. e. Somewhat later, cities arose in the valley of the Wamasinta River - Yashchilan, Palenque and in the extreme south of the Yucatan - Copan and Quirigua. The inscriptions here are dated to the 5th and early 6th centuries. From the end of the ninth century dated inscriptions are broken off. Since that time, the most ancient Mayan cities ceased to exist. The further history of the Maya developed in the north of the Yucatan.
The Maya's main type of production was slash-and-burn agriculture. The forest was cleared with stone axes, and thick trees were only cut down or stripped of their ring-shaped bark; the trees withered away. Dried and fallen forest was burned out before the onset of the rainy season, which was determined by astronomical observations. Before the start of the rains, the fields were sown. The land was not cultivated in any way, the farmer only made a hole with a sharp stick and buried grains of corn and beans in it. Crops were protected from birds and animals. The corn cobs were tilted down to dry in the field, after which they were harvested.
On the same plot, it was possible to sow no more than three times in a row, as the harvest was increasingly reduced. The abandoned area overgrown, and after 6-10 years it was burned again, preparing for crops. The abundance of free land and the high productivity of corn provided the farmers with considerable prosperity even with such a primitive technique.
Maya food of animal origin was obtained from hunting and fishing. They didn't have pets. Bird hunting was carried out with the help of throwing pipes that fired clay balls. Flint-tipped darts were also military weapons. The Mayan bow and arrow came from the Mexicans. From Mexico, they received copper hatchets.
There were no ores in the Mayan country and metallurgy could not arise. From Mexico, Panama, Colombia and Peru, art objects and jewelry were delivered to them - precious stones, shells and metal products. The Maya made fabrics from cotton or agave fiber on a loom. Ceramic vessels were decorated with convex molding and painting.
Intensive barter trade was conducted within the Mayan country and with neighboring peoples. Agricultural products, cotton yarn and fabrics, weapons, stone products - knives, arrowheads, mortars - were exchanged. Salt and fish came from the coast, corn, honey, and fruits came from the central part of the peninsula. Slaves were also exchanged. The general equivalent was cocoa beans; there was even a rudimentary system of credit.
Although fabrics and vessels were made mainly by farmers, there were already specialist craftsmen, especially jewelers, stone carvers, and embroiderers. There were also merchants who delivered goods over long distances by water and land, with the help of porters. Columbus met a dugout boat from the Yucatan off the coast of Honduras, loaded with fabrics, cocoa and metal products.
The inhabitants of the Mayan village formed a neighboring community; usually its members were people with different generic names. The land belonged to the community. Each family received a plot of land cleared from the forest, and after three years this plot was replaced by another. Each family collected and stored the harvest separately, she could also exchange it. Apiaries and plantations of perennial plants remained the permanent property of individual families. Other works - hunting, fishing, salt extraction - were carried out jointly, but the products were shared.
In Mayan society, there was already a division into free and slaves. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. Some of them were sacrificed to the gods, others were left as slaves. There was also the enslavement of criminals, as well as the debt slavery of fellow tribesmen. The debtor remained a slave until his relatives redeemed him. The slaves performed the most difficult work, built houses, carried luggage and served the nobles. Sources do not allow a clear definition in which branch of production and to what extent the labor of slaves was predominantly used. The ruling class were the slave owners - nobles, senior military and priests. The nobles were called almskhen (literally - "son of father and mother"). They owned plots of land as private property.
The rural community performed duties in relation to the nobles and priests: the community members cultivated their fields, built houses and roads, delivered various supplies and products to them, in addition, maintained a military detachment and paid taxes to the supreme power. A stratification was already outlined in the community: there were richer and poorer members of the community.
The Maya had a patriarchal family that owned property. To get a wife, a man had to work for her family for a while, then she passed to her husband.
The supreme ruler of the city-state was called halach-vinik (“ great person»); his power was unlimited and hereditary. The high priest was the adviser of the ha-lach-viyik. The villages were ruled by his governors - batabs. The position of the batab was for life; he was obliged to unquestioningly obey the halach-vinik and coordinate his actions with the priests and two or three advisers who were with him. Batabs monitored the fulfillment of duties and had judicial power. During the war, the Batab was the commander of the detachment of his village.
In the Maya religion by the beginning of the XVI century. ancient beliefs receded into the background. By this time, the priests had already created a complex theological system with cosmogonic myths, made up their own pantheon and established a magnificent cult. The personification of heaven - the god Itzamna was put at the head of a host of celestials along with the goddess of fertility. Itzamna was considered the patron of the Maya civilization, he was credited with the invention of writing. According to the teachings of the Maya priests, the gods ruled the world one by one, replacing each other in power. This myth fantastically reflected the real institution of the change of power by clan. Maya religious beliefs also included primitive figurative ideas about nature (for example, it rains because the gods pour water from four giant jugs placed in the four corners of the sky). The priests also created the doctrine of the afterlife, corresponding to the social division of Mayan society; the priests allotted themselves a special, third heaven. Divination, prophecy, oracles played the main role in the cult.
The Maya developed a number system; they had a twenty-digit count, which arose on the basis of counting on fingers (20 fingers).
The Maya made significant progress in astronomy. The solar year was calculated by them with an accuracy of one minute. Mayan astronomers calculated time solar eclipses, they knew the periods of revolution of the moon and planets. In addition to astronomy, the priests were familiar with the rudiments of meteorology, botany, and some other sciences. The Mayan calendar was in the hands of the priests, but it was based on the practical division of the year into seasons of agricultural work. The basic units of time were the 13-day week, the 20-day month, and the 365-day year. The largest unit of chronology was the 52-year cycle - the "calendar circle". Mayan chronology was conducted from the initial date corresponding to 3113 BC. e.
The Maya attached great importance to history, the development of which was associated with the invention of writing - the highest achievement of the Maya culture. Writing, like the calendar, was invented by the Maya in the first centuries of our era. In Mayan manuscripts, the text and drawings illustrating it run parallel. Although writing has already separated from painting, some written signs differ little from drawings. Maya wrote on paper made from ficus bast, with paints using brushes.
Mayan writing is hieroglyphic, and, as in all similar writing systems, it uses signs of three kinds - phonetic - alphabetic and syllabic, ideographic - denoting whole words and key - explaining the meaning of words, but not readable. ( Mayan writing remained undeciphered until recently. The basics of its decoding have been discovered recently.) Writing was entirely in the hands of the priests, who used it to record myths, theological texts and prayers, as well as historical chronicles and epic texts. ( The Mayan manuscripts were destroyed by the Spanish conquerors in the 16th century, and only three manuscripts survived. Some fragmentary texts have survived, albeit in a distorted form, in books written in Latin during the colonial period - the so-called books of Chilam Balam ("Books of the Jaguar Prophet").)
In addition to books, written monuments of the history of the Maya are inscriptions carved on the stone walls that the Maya erected every 20 years, as well as on the walls of palaces and temples.
Until now, the main sources of Mayan history have been the works of Spanish chroniclers of the 16th-17th centuries. The Mayan chronicles, written by the Spaniards, report that in the 5th century. there was a "small invasion" on the east coast of Yucatan, "people from the east" came here. It is possible that they were people from the cities near Lake Peten Itza. At the turn of the 5th-6th centuries, the city of Chichen Itza was founded in the center of the northern part of the peninsula. In the 7th century, the inhabitants of Chichen Itza left this city and moved to the southwestern part of the Yucatan. In the middle of the X century. their new homeland was attacked by immigrants from Mexico, apparently the Toltec people. After that, the “Itza people,” as the chronicle calls them, returned to Chichen Itza. were a mixed Maya-Mexican group formed as a result of the Toltec invasion. For about 200 years, the descendants of the Toltec conquerors dominated Chichen Itza. During this period, Chichen Itza was the largest cultural center, majestic architectural monuments were erected here. The second most important city at that time was Uxmal, which also had magnificent buildings. In the X century. not far from Chichen Itza, another city-state arose - Mayapan, which did not experience Toltec influence. By XII this city reached great power. The ruler of humble origin, Hunak Keel, who seized power in the Maya-pan, invaded Chichen Itza in 1194 and captured the city. The Itza people rallied their strength and captured Mayapan in 1244. They settled in this city, mingling with their recent opponents, and, as the chronicle says, "they have been called Maya ever since." Power in Mayapan was seized by the Kokom dynasty; its representatives robbed and enslaved people with the help of Mexican mercenaries. In 1441, the inhabitants of the cities dependent on Mayapan raised an uprising, led by the ruler of Uxmal. Mayapan was captured. According to the chronicle, "those inside the walls were expelled by those outside the walls." A period of strife has begun. The rulers of cities in different parts of the country "made food tasteless to each other." So, Chel (one of the rulers), having occupied the coast, did not want to give either fish or salt to Kokom, and Kokom did not allow game and fruit to be delivered to Chel.
Part of one of the Mayan temple buildings at Chichen Itza, the so-called "House of the Nuns". The era of the "New Kingdom"
Mayapan after 1441 was significantly weakened, and after the epidemic of 1485 it was completely empty. Part of the Maya - the Itza people settled in the impenetrable forests near Lake Peten Itza and built the city of Tah Itza (Thaya Sal), which remained inaccessible to the Spaniards until 1697. The rest of the Yucatan was captured in 1541-1546. European conquerors who crushed the heroic resistance of the Maya.
The Maya created a high culture that dominated Central America. Architecture, sculpture and fresco painting have reached significant development. One of the most remarkable monuments of art is the Bonampak temple, opened in 1946. Under the influence of Mayan hieroglyphics, writing arose among the Toltecs and Zapotecs. The Mayan calendar spread to Mexico.
Toltec Teotihuacan
In the Valley of Mexico, according to legend, the first numerous people were the Toltecs. Back in the 5th century the Toltecs created their own civilization, famous for its monumental architectural structures. The Toltecs, whose kingdom existed until the 10th century, belonged to the Nahua group in terms of language. Their largest center was Teotihuacan, the ruins of which have survived to the present day to the northeast of Lake Teshkoko. The Toltecs were already cultivating all the plants that the Spaniards found in Mexico. They made thin fabrics from cotton fiber, their vessels were distinguished by a variety of shapes and artistic painting. The weapons were wooden spears and clubs with inserts made of obsidian (volcanic glass). Knives were made from obsidian. In large villages, bazaars were organized every 20 days, where barter was carried out.
Statue of Chak-Mool in front of the "Temple of Warriors" Chichen Itza
Teotihuacan, whose ruins cover an area 5 km long and about 3 km wide, was all built up with majestic buildings, apparently palaces and temples. They were built from hewn stone slabs, fastened with cement. The walls were covered with plaster. The entire territory of the settlement is paved with gypsum slabs. Temples rise on truncated pyramids; the so-called Pyramid of the Sun has a base of 210 m and rises to a height of 60 m. The pyramids were built of unbaked bricks and lined with stone slabs, and sometimes plastered. Near the Pyramid of the Sun, buildings with a floor made of mica plates and with well-preserved frescoes were discovered. The latter depict people playing ball with sticks in their hands, ritual scenes and mythical scenes. In addition to painting, the temples were richly decorated with sculptures of hewn and polished porphyry and jade, depicting symbolic zoomorphic creatures, such as a feathered snake - a symbol of the god of wisdom. Teotihuacan was undoubtedly a cult center.
Residential settlements are still little explored. A few kilometers from Teotihuacan are the remains of one-story houses made of unbaked bricks. Each of them consists of 50-60 rooms located around the courtyards and sacred passages between them. Obviously, these were the dwellings of family communities.
The social system of the Toltecs is unclear Judging by the differences in clothing and jewelry made of gold and silver, jade and porphyry, the nobility was very different from ordinary members of society; especially privileged was the position of the priesthood. The construction of huge, richly decorated cult centers required the labor of masses of community members and slaves, probably from prisoners of war.
The Toltecs had a written language, apparently hieroglyphic; signs of this writing are found in the painting on vases. No other written monuments have been preserved. The Toltec calendar was similar to the Mayan calendar.
Tradition lists nine Toltec kings who ruled between the 5th and 10th centuries, and reports that during the reign of the ninth king Topiltsin in the 10th century, due to local uprisings, foreign invasions and disasters caused by famine and plague, the kingdom fell apart, many moved south - to Tabasco and Guatemala, and the rest disappeared among the newcomers.
The time of the Teotihuacan Toltecs is marked by the common culture of the population of the Anahuac Plateau. At the same time, the Toltecs were connected with the peoples located to the south of them - the Zapotecs, the Maya, and even, through them, with the peoples of South America; this is evidenced by the finds of Pacific shells in the valley of Mexico and the spread of a special style of vessel painting, probably originating from South America.
Zapotec
Under the influence of the culture of Teotihuacan was the people of southern Mexico - the Zapotec. Near the city of Oaxaca, where the capital of the Zapotecs was, monuments of architecture and sculpture have been preserved, indicating the existence of a developed culture among the Zapotecs and a pronounced social differentiation. The complex and rich funerary cult, which can be judged from the tombs, indicates that the nobility and the priesthood were in a privileged position. Sculptures on ceramic funeral urns interesting in depicting the clothes of noble persons, especially magnificent headdresses and grotesque masks.
Other peoples of Mexico
The influence of the Teotihuacan Toltec culture also extended to another major cult center located southeast of Lake Teshkoko-Cholula. The group of temples created here in antiquity was subsequently rebuilt into one grand pyramid-platform with altars erected on it. The Cholul pyramid is located on a hill lined with stone slabs. It is the largest architectural structure in the ancient world. The painted ceramics of Cholula are rich, varied and meticulously finished.
With the decline of the Toltec culture, the influence of the Mixtecs from the Puebla region, located southeast of Lake Texcoco, penetrates into the Mexico Valley. Therefore, the period from the beginning of the 12th century. is called Mixteca Puebla. During this period, smaller cultural centers emerged. Such, for example, was the city of Teshkoko on east coast Mexican lakes, which retained its significance even during the time of the Spanish conquest. Here were archives of pictographic manuscripts, on the basis of which, using oral traditions, the Mexican historian, Aztec by origin, Ixtlilpochitl (1569-1649) wrote his history of ancient Mexico. He reports that around 1300, two new tribes settled in the territory of Teshkoko, who came from the Mixtec region. They brought with them writing, a more developed art of weaving and pottery. In pictographic manuscripts, the newcomers are depicted dressed in fabrics, as opposed to local residents who wore animal skins. The ruler of Teshkoko, Kinatzin, subjugated about 70 neighboring tribes that paid tribute to him. Teshkoko's serious rival was Culuacan. In the struggle of the Culuacans against the Teshkoks, the tribe of the Tenochki, friendly to the Culuacans, played an important role.
Aztecs
According to legend, the tenochki, who were descended from one of the tribes of the Nahua group, originally lived on the island (now believed to be in Western Mexico). This mythical homeland of the tenochki was called Astlan; hence the name Aztecs, more correctly Azteca. B first quarter of the XII century. the shadows began their journey. At this time, they retained the primitive communal system. In 1248, they settled in the valley of Mexico in Chapultepec and were for some time subordinate to the Culua tribe. In 1325, the tenochki founded the settlement of Tenochtitlan on the islands of Lake Teshkoko. For about 100 years, the tenochki depended on the Tepanek tribe, paying tribute to it. At the beginning of the XV century. their military power increased. Around 1428, under the leadership of the leader Itzcoatl, they won a series of victories over their neighbors - the Teshkoko and Tlakopan tribes, entered into an alliance with them and formed a confederation of three tribes. Tenochki seized the leading position in this confederation. The confederation struggled with hostile tribes that surrounded it from all sides. Its dominance extended somewhat beyond the Valley of Mexico.
Merging with the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico, who spoke the same language as the Tenochki (Nahuatl), the Tenochki rapidly developed class relations. Tenochki, who adopted the culture of the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico, went down in history under the name of the Aztecs. Thus, the Aztecs were not so much the creators as the heirs of the culture named after them. From the second quarter of the 15th century. the flourishing of the Aztec society and the development of its culture begins.
Aztec economy
The main industry of the Aztecs was irrigated agriculture. They created the so-called floating gardens - small artificial islands; at the marshy shores of the lake, liquid earth with mud was scooped out, it was collected in heaps on rafts of reeds and trees were planted here, fixing the islands formed in this way with their roots. In this way, useless wetlands were turned into vegetable gardens criss-crossed by canals. In addition to corn, which served as the main food, beans, pumpkins, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, agave, figs, cocoa, tobacco, cotton, and cacti were planted, cochineal, insects that emit purple dye, were planted on the latter. besides her, her favorite drink was chocolate, which was brewed with pepper. ( The word "chocolate" itself is of Aztec origin.) Agave fiber was used for twine and ropes, burlap was also woven from it. The Aztecs got rubber from Vera Cruz and guayule juice from northern Mexico; they made balls for ritual games.
From the peoples of Central America, through the Aztecs, Europe received crops of corn, cocoa, and tomatoes; From the Aztecs, Europeans learned about the properties of rubber.
The Aztecs raised turkeys, geese, and ducks. The only pet was a dog. Dog meat is also halo in food. Hunting did not play any significant role.
Tools of labor were made of wood and stone. Blades and tips made of obsidian were especially well processed; flint knives were also used. The main weapons were bow and arrows, then darts with throwing boards.
The Aztecs did not know iron. Copper, mined in nuggets, was forged, and also cast by melting a wax mold. Gold was cast in the same way. In the art of casting, forging and chasing gold, the Aztecs achieved great skill. Bronze appeared late in Mexico and was used for religious and luxury items.
Aztec weaving and embroidery stand in a row best achievements in this area. Aztec embroidery with feathers was especially famous. The Aztecs achieved great skill in ceramics with complex geometric ornaments, stone carving and mosaics made of precious stones, jade, turquoise, etc.
The Aztecs developed barter. The Spanish soldier Bernal Diaz del Castillo described the main market in Tenochtitlan. He was struck by the huge mass of people and the huge amount of products and supplies. All goods were placed in special rows. At the edge of the market, near the fence of the temple pyramid, there were sellers of golden sand, which was stored in goose feather rods. A rod of a certain length served as a unit of exchange. Pieces of copper and tin also played a similar role; for small transactions used cocoa beans.
The social structure of the Aztecs
The Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was divided into 4 districts (meikaotl) with the elders at the head. Each of these areas was divided into 5 quarters - kalpulli. Calpulli were originally patriarchal clans, and the meicaotli that united them were phratries. By the time of the Spanish conquest, a home community lived in one dwelling - sencalli, a large patriarchal family of several generations. The land, which belonged to the whole tribe, was divided into plots, each of which was cultivated by the home community. In addition, at each village there were lands allocated for the maintenance of priests, military leaders, and special "military lands", the harvest from which went to supply the soldiers.
The land was cultivated jointly, but upon marriage, the man received an allotment for personal use. Allotments, like all the land of the community, were inalienable.
Aztec society was divided into free and slave classes. Slaves were not only prisoners of war, but also debtors who fell into slavery (until they worked off the debt), as well as the poor who sold themselves or their children, and those who were expelled from the communities. Diaz reports that the slave row in the main market was no smaller than the Lisbon slave market. Slaves wore collars attached to flexible poles. The sources do not report in which branches of labor the slaves were employed; most likely, they were used in the construction of large structures, palaces and temples, as well as artisans, porters, servants, and musicians. On the conquered lands, military leaders received tributaries as trophies, whose position resembled the position of serfs - tlamayti (literally - "land hands"). There was already a group of free artisans who sold the products of their labor. True, they continued to live in ancestral quarters and did not stand out from common households.
Thus, along with the remnants of communal relations and the absence of private ownership of land, slavery and private ownership of agricultural products and handicrafts, as well as slaves, existed.
At the head of each calpulli was a council, which included elected elders. The elders and leaders of the phratries constituted a tribal council, or council of leaders, which included the main military leader of the Aztecs, who had two titles: “leader of the brave” and “orator”.
The question of defining the social structure of the Aztecs has its own history. The Spanish chroniclers, describing Mexico, called it a kingdom, and they called the head of the Aztec union, Montezuma, captured by the Spaniards, the emperor. The view of ancient Mexico as a feudal monarchy dominated until the middle of the 19th century. Based on the study of the chronicles and the description of Bernal Diaz, Morgan came to the conclusion that Montezuma was the leader of the tribe, and not the monarch, and that the Aztecs retained a tribal system.
However, Morgan, polemically reinforcing the importance of the elements of the tribal organization preserved among the Aztecs, undoubtedly overestimated their specific weight. Data latest research, mainly archaeological, indicate that the Aztec society in the XVI century. it was a class thing that private property and relations of domination and subordination existed in it; the state emerged. With all this, there is no doubt that in Aztec society many remnants of the primitive communal system were preserved.
Religion of the Aztecs and their culture
The religion of the Aztecs reflected the process of transition from a tribal system to a class society. In their pantheon, along with the personifications of the forces of nature (the god of rain, the god of clouds, the goddess of corn, the gods of flowers), there are also personifications of social forces. Huitzilopochtli - the patron god of tenochki - was revered both as the god of the sun and as the god of war. The image of Quetzalcoatl, the ancient deity of the Toltecs, is the most complex. He was depicted as a feathered snake. This is an image of a benefactor who taught people agriculture and crafts. According to the myth, he went to the east, from where he must return.
The ritual of the Aztecs included human sacrifice.
The Aztecs, partly under the influence of the Toltecs, developed a written language that was transitional from pictography to hieroglyphics. Historical legends and myths were imprinted with realistic drawings and partly with symbols. The description of the tenochki's wanderings from the mythical homeland in the manuscript known as the "Boturini Codex" is indicative. The clans into which the tribe was divided are indicated by drawings of houses (in the main elements) with clan coats of arms. Dating is indicated by the image of a flint and flint - “the year of one flint”. But in some cases, the sign depicting the object already had a phonetic meaning. From the Maya, through the Toltecs, the chronology and calendar came to the Aztecs.
The most significant works of Aztec architecture that have survived to this day are the stepped pyramids and temples decorated with bas-reliefs. Sculpture and especially painting of the Aztecs serve as a magnificent historical monument, as they reproduce the living life of the bearers of the Aztec culture.
Ancient peoples of the Andes region
The Andes region is one of the significant centers of ancient irrigated agriculture. The oldest monuments of a developed agricultural culture here date back to the 1st millennium BC. e., its beginning should be attributed to approximately 2000 years earlier.
The coast at the foot of the Andes was devoid of moisture: there are no rivers and almost no rain falls. Therefore, agriculture first arose on the mountain slopes and on the Peruvian-Bolivian plateau, irrigated by streams flowing down from the mountains during the melting of snow. In the basin of Lake Titicaca, where there are many species of wild tuberous plants, primitive farmers cultivated potatoes, which from here spread throughout the Andes region, and then penetrated into Central America. Quinoa was especially widespread among cereals.
The Andes region is the only one in America where animal husbandry developed. Llama and alpaca were tamed, giving wool, skins, meat, fat. The Andeans did not drink milk. Thus, among the tribes of the Andean region in the first centuries of our era, the development of productive forces reached a relatively high level.
Chibcha or Muisca
A group of tribes of the Chibcha language family, who lived on the territory of present-day Colombia in the Bogotá River Valley, also known as the Muisca, created one of the developed cultures of ancient America.
The Bogota Valley and the mountain slopes surrounding it are rich in natural moisture; together with a mild, even climate, this contributed to the formation of densely populated areas here and the development of agriculture. The Muisca country was inhabited in ancient times by primitive tribes of the Arabian language family. The Chibcha tribes entered the territory of present-day Colombia from Central America, through the Isthmus of Panama.
By the time of the European invasion, the Muisca were growing many cultivated plants: potatoes, quinoa, corn on the mountain slopes; in the warm valley - cassava, sweet potato, beans, pumpkin, tomatoes and some fruits, as well as cotton, tobacco and cocu bushes. Coca leaves are used as a drug for the people of the Andean region. The earth was cultivated with primitive hoes - gnarled sticks. There were no pets other than dogs. Fishing was widely developed. Hunting was of great importance as the only source of meat food. Since hunting for large game (deer, wild boars) was the privilege of the nobility, ordinary members of the tribe could, with the permission of noble persons, hunt only rabbits and birds; they also ate rats and reptiles.
Tools of labor - axes, knives, millstones - were made from hard rocks of stone. Spears with burnt wood tips, wooden clubs, and slings served as weapons. Of the metals, only gold and its alloys with copper and silver were known. Many methods of processing gold were used: massive casting, flattening, stamping, overlay with sheets. The metalworking technique of the Muisca is a major contribution to the original metallurgy of the peoples of the Americas.
Weaving was a great achievement of their culture. Threads were spun from cotton fiber and a cloth was woven, even and dense. The canvas was painted using the heeling method. Cloaks - panels made of this fabric served as clothing for the Muisca. Houses were built of wood and reeds coated with clay.
Exchange played an important role in the Muisca economy. There was no gold in the Bogota valley, and the Muisca received it from the province of Neiva from the Puana tribe in exchange for their products, and also as tribute from conquered neighbors. The main items of exchange were emeralds, salt and linen. Interestingly, the Muisca themselves bartered raw cotton from Panche's neighbors. Salt, emeralds and chibcha linen were taken along the Magdalena River to the great bazaars that took place on the coast, between the present-day cities of Neiva, Coelho and Beles. Spanish chroniclers report that gold was exchanged in the form of small disks. Fabric panels also served as a unit of exchange.
The Muisca lived in patriarchal families, each in a separate house. Marriage was made with a ransom for the wife, the wife moved to the husband's house. Polygamy was common; ordinary members of the tribe had 2-3 wives, nobles - 6-8, and rulers - several dozen. By this time, the tribal community began to disintegrate and a neighboring community began to take its place. We do not have information about what were the forms of land use and land tenure.
Written and archaeological sources show the beginning process of class formation. Spanish chroniclers report the following social groups: heralds - the first persons at court, usakes - noble persons and getcha - military officers of the highest rank guarding the borders. These three groups exploited the labor of the so-called "payers of taxes" or "dependents."
The nobility differed in clothing and jewelry. Painted robes, necklaces and tiaras could only be worn by the ruler. The palaces of rulers and nobles, although wooden, were decorated with carvings and paintings. Nobles were carried on stretchers lined with gold plates. The introduction of the new ruler into his duties was especially magnificent. The ruler went to the shore of the sacred lake Guata Vita. The priests smeared his body with resin and sprinkled it with golden sand. Having left on a raft with the priests, he threw offerings into the lake and, having washed himself with water, returned. This ceremony was the basis for the legend of "Eldorado" ( Eldorado is Spanish for "gold".), which has become widespread in Europe, and "Eldorado" has become synonymous with fabulous wealth.
If the life of the Muisca nobility is described by the Spaniards in some detail, then we have very few descriptions of the working conditions and the situation of the masses of the ordinary population. It is known that "those who paid the tax" contributed it with agricultural products, as well as handicrafts. In case of arrears, a messenger of the ruler with a bear or puma settled in the house of the debtor until the debt was repaid. special group made by artisans. The chronicler reports that the inhabitants of Guatavita were the best goldsmiths; therefore, "many Guatavites lived scattered throughout all regions of the country, making gold items."
Reports of sources about slaves are especially scarce. Since slave labor is not described in the sources, it can be concluded that it did not play a significant role in production.
Religion
Mythology and the Muisca pantheon were underdeveloped. Cosmogonic myths are scattered and confused. In the pantheon, the main place was occupied by the goddess of the earth and fertility - Bachue. One of the main ones was the god of exchange. In the cult practice of the Muisca, the first place was occupied by the veneration of the forces of nature - the sun, the moon, the sacred lake Guatavita, etc. Boys were sacrificed to the sun in order to end the drought.
An important place was occupied by the cult of ancestors. The bodies of the nobles were mummified, they were put on golden masks. The mummies of the supreme rulers, according to beliefs, brought happiness, they were taken out to the battlefield. The main deities were considered the patrons of the nobility and warriors, the common people were associated with the temples of other deities, where modest gifts could be sacrificed. The priesthood was part of the ruling elite of society. The priests charged the community members and received food, gold and emeralds from the nobility.
Muisca on the eve of the Spanish conquest
There are no written records left of the Muisca culture. The chroniclers have recorded few oral traditions that cover the events of just two generations before the Spanish conquest. According to these legends, around 1470, Saganmachika, the sipa (ruler) of the kingdom of Bakata, with an army of 30 thousand people, made a campaign against the principality of Fusagasuga in the Pasco River valley. The frightened Fusagasugians fled, throwing down their weapons, their ruler recognized himself as a vassal of the Sipa, in honor of which a sacrifice was made to the sun.
Soon the ruler of the principality of Guatavita rebelled against Bakata, and the sipe of the latter, Saganmachika, had to ask for help from the ruler of the kingdom of Tunha, Michua. Having provided the requested assistance, Michua invited the sipa Saganmachika to come to Tunja and justify himself for the crimes attributed to him by the rebel prince of Guatavita. Sipa refused, and Michua did not dare to attack Bakata. Further, the legend tells how Saganmachika rebuffed the neighboring Panche tribe. The war with him lasted 16 years. After defeating panche, Saganmachika attacked Michua. In a bloody battle, in which 50 thousand soldiers participated on each side, both rulers died. The victory remained with the Bakatans.
After that, the sipoy of Bakata became Nemekene (literally means "bone of the jaguar"). He also, according to legend, had to repel the attack of the Panche and suppress the uprising of the Fusagasugs. Military clashes with the latter were especially stubborn; in the end their prince capitulated. Nemekene brought his garrisons into the defeated provinces and began to prepare for reprisals against the ruler of Tunkhi. Having gathered an army of 50-60 thousand and having made human sacrifices, he went on a campaign; in a terrible battle, Nemekene was wounded, the Bakatans fled, pursued by the soldiers of Tunkhi. On the fifth day after returning from the campaign, Nemekene died, leaving the kingdom to his nephew Tiskesus.
During the reign of the latter, when he intended to take revenge on the ruler of Tunja, Spanish conquistadors invaded Bakata.
Thus, the small unstable associations of the Muisca never rallied into a single state, the process of state formation was interrupted by the Spanish conquest.
Quechua and other peoples of the Inca state
The ancient history of the peoples of the central region of the Andes became known thanks to archaeological research of the last 60-70 years. The results of these studies, along with data from written sources, make it possible to outline the main periods of the ancient history of the peoples of this region. The first period, approximately the 1st millennium BC. e. - the period of the primitive communal system. The second period began on the verge of the 1st millennium and continued until the 15th century; This is the period of the emergence and development of class society. The third is the period of the history of the state of the Incas; it lasted from the beginning of the 15th century. until the middle of the 16th century.
During the first period, ceramics and building techniques, as well as gold processing, began to develop. The erection of large buildings made of hewn stone, which had a cult purpose or served as the dwellings of tribal leaders, involves the use of the labor of ordinary tribesmen by the nobility. This, as well as the presence of finely minted gold items, speaks of the decomposition of the tribal community that began towards the end of the first period. The linguistic affiliation of the carriers of these cultures is unknown.
In the second period, two groups of tribes came to the fore. On the northern coast in the VIII-IX centuries. Mochika culture was widespread, the carriers of which belonged to an independent language family. From that time, the remains of canals stretching for hundreds of kilometers and ditches that brought water to the fields have been preserved. Buildings were erected from raw brick; stone-paved roads were laid. The Mochica tribes not only used gold, silver and lead in native form, but also smelted them from ore. Alloys of these metals were known.
Mochica pottery is of particular interest. It was made without a potter's wheel, which the peoples of the Andean region never used even later. Moche vessels, molded in the form of figures of people (most often heads), animals, fruits, utensils, and even whole scenes, are a sculpture that acquaints us with the life and life of their creators. Such, for example, is the figure of a naked slave or a prisoner with a rope around his neck. There are also many monuments of the social system in the painting on ceramics: slaves carrying their owners on a stretcher, reprisals against prisoners of war (or criminals) who are thrown off rocks, battle scenes, etc.
In the VIII-IX centuries. began the development of the most significant culture of the pre-Inca period - Tiwanaku. The site that gave it its name is located in Bolivia, 21 km south of Lake Titicaca. Ground buildings are located on an area of about 1 square. km. Among them is a complex of buildings called Kalasasaya, which includes the Gate of the Sun, one of the most remarkable monuments of ancient America. The arch of stone blocks is decorated with a bas-relief of a figure with a face surrounded by rays, which, obviously, is the personification of the sun. Deposits of basalt and sandstone are found no closer than 5 km from the Kalasasaya buildings. Thus, slabs of 100 tons and more, from which the Gates of the Sun were built, were brought here by the collective efforts of many hundreds of people. Most likely, the Gate of the Sun was part of the complex of the temple of the Sun - the deity depicted in the bas-relief.
The Tiahuanaco culture developed over 4-5 centuries, starting from the 8th century, in different parts of the Peruano-Bolivian region, but its classical monuments are located in the homeland of the Aymara people, whose tribes were, obviously, the creators of this high culture. In the Tiwanaku sites of the second period, dating approximately to the 10th century, besides gold, silver and copper, bronze also appears. Ceramics and weaving with artistic ornamentation developed. In the XIV-XV centuries. on the northern coast, the culture of the Mochica tribes flourishes again, which in the later period is called Chimu.
Archaeological monuments testify that the peoples of the Andean region already from the 10th century. BC e. knew irrigated agriculture and tamed animals, they began to develop class relations. In the first quarter of the XV century. the state of the Incas arose. Its legendary history was recorded by the Spanish chroniclers of the era of the conquest. The emergence of the state of the Incas was presented as the result of an invasion of the Cuzco valley by highly developed peoples who conquered the original inhabitants of this valley.
The main reason for the formation of the state of the Incas is not conquest, but the process internal development societies of ancient Peru, the growth of productive forces and the formation of classes. In addition, the latest archaeological data incline scientists to abandon the search for the ancestral home of the Incas outside the territory of their state. Even if we can talk about the arrival of the Incas in the Cuzco Valley, then there was a movement of only a few tens of kilometers, and this happened long before the formation of their state.
On the plateau, in the valleys and on the coast of the Andean region, many small tribes of several language groups lived, primarily Quechua, Aymara (kolya), Mochica and Pukin. The Aymara tribes lived in the basin of Lake Titicaca, on the plateau. Quechua tribes lived around the Cuzco valley. To the north, on the coast, lived the Mochica or Chimu tribes. The dispersal of the pukin group is now difficult to ascertain.
Formation of the Inca state
From the 13th century in the Cusco Valley, the so-called Early Inca culture begins to develop. The term Incas, or rather, the Inca, acquired a variety of meanings: the ruling layer in the state of Peru, the title of the ruler and the name of the people as a whole. Initially, the name Inca was one of the tribes that lived in the Cusco Valley before the formation of the state and, obviously, belonged to the Quechua language group. The Incas of their heyday spoke the Quechua language. The close relationship of the Incas with the Quechua tribes is also evidenced by the fact that the latter received a privileged position compared to others and were called "Incas by privilege"; they did not pay tribute, and from among them they did not recruit slaves - yanakuns to work for the Incas.
The historical traditions of the Incas name 12 names of the rulers who preceded the last supreme Inca - Atahualpa, and report on their wars with neighboring tribes. If we accept the approximate dating of these genealogical traditions, then the beginning of the strengthening of the Inca tribe and, possibly, the formation of a union of tribes, can be dated to the first decades of the 13th century. However, the reliable history of the Incas begins with the activities of the ninth ruler - Pachacuti (1438-1463). From this time begins the rise of the Incas. A state was formed, which began to grow rapidly. In the next hundred years, the Incas conquered and subjugated the tribes of the entire region of the Andes, from southern Colombia to central Chile. According to rough estimates, the population of the Inca state reached 6 million people.
The material culture and social structure of the Inca state are known not only from archaeological, but also from historical sources, mainly the Spanish chronicles of the 16th-18th centuries.
Economy of the Incas
Of particular interest in Inca technology are mining and metallurgy. The mining of copper, as well as tin, was of the greatest practical importance: the alloy of both gave bronze. Silver ore was mined in huge quantities, silver was very widespread. They also used lead. The Quechua language has a word for iron, but apparently it meant meteoric iron, or hematite. There is no evidence of iron mining and iron ore smelting; There is no native iron in the Andean region. Axes, sickles, knives, crowbars, pommel for military clubs, tongs, pins, needles, bells were cast from bronze. The blades of bronze knives, axes and sickles were fired and forged to give them greater hardness. Jewelry and cult objects were made of gold and silver.
Along with metallurgy, the Incas reached a high level in the development of ceramics and weaving. Wool and cotton fabrics, preserved from the time of the Incas, are distinguished by their richness and subtlety of finishing. Fleece fabrics for clothes (such as velvet) and carpets were made.
Agriculture in the state of the Incas has reached a significant development. About 40 species of useful plants were cultivated, the main ones being potatoes and corn.
The valleys that cross the Andes are narrow deep gorges with steep slopes, along which streams of water flow down during the rainy season, washing away the soil layer; In dry weather, no moisture remains on them. To keep moisture in the fields located on the slopes, it was necessary to create a system of special structures, which the Incas systematically and regularly maintained. The fields were arranged in stepped terraces. The lower edge of the terrace was reinforced with masonry, which retained the soil. From the mountain rivers, diversion channels approached the fields: a dam was built at the edge of the terrace. The channels were laid out with stone slabs. The complex system created by the Incas, which diverted water over long distances, provided irrigation and at the same time protected the soil of the slopes from erosion. Special officials were appointed by the state to supervise the serviceability of the structures. The land was cultivated by hand, draft animals were not used. The main tools were a spade (tipped with hard wood and, less often, bronze) and a hoe.
Weaver. Drawing from the Chronicle of Poma de Ayala
Two main roads ran through the whole country. A canal was built along the roads, on the banks of which fruit trees grew. Where the road went through the sandy desert, it was paved. Bridges were built at the intersections of roads with rivers and gorges. Through narrow rivers and crevices, tree trunks were thrown, which were crossed by wooden beams. Suspension bridges passed through wide rivers and abysses, the construction of which is one of the greatest achievements of Inca technology. The bridge was supported by stone pillars, around which five thick ropes woven from flexible branches or lianas were fixed. The three lower ropes that formed the bridge itself were intertwined with branches and lined with wooden beams. The ropes that served as railings were intertwined with the lower ones, enclosing the bridge from the sides.
As you know, the peoples of ancient America did not know wheeled transport. In the Andean region, goods were transported in packs on llamas. In places where the width of the river was too great, they crossed by pontoon bridge or by means of a ferry, which was an improved raft of beams or beams of very light wood, which was oared. Such rafts lifted up to 50 people and large loads.
In ancient Peru, the separation of handicraft from agriculture and cattle breeding began. Some members of the agricultural community were engaged in the manufacture of tools, fabrics, pottery, etc., and exchange in kind took place between the communities. The Incas chose the best craftsmen and moved them to Cusco. Here they lived in a special quarter and worked for the supreme Inca and the servants of the nobility, receiving food from the court. What they did in excess of a given monthly lesson, they could barter. These masters, cut off from the community, actually turned out to be enslaved.
Girls were selected in a similar way, who had to learn spinning, weaving and other needlework for 4 years. The products of their labor were also used by the noble Incas. The labor of these craftsmen was the rudimentary form of the craft in ancient Peru.
Exchange and trade were underdeveloped. Taxes were levied in kind. There was no system of measures, with the exception of the most primitive measure of bulk solids - a handful. There were scales with a yoke, to the ends of which bags or nets with a weighed load were hung. The greatest development was the exchange between the inhabitants of the coast and the highlands. After the harvest, the inhabitants of these two zones met in certain places. Wool, meat, furs, skins, silver, gold and products from them were brought from the highlands; from the coast - grain, vegetables and fruits, cotton, as well as bird droppings - guano. In different regions, salt, pepper, furs, wool, ore and metal products played the role of a universal equivalent. There were no bazaars inside the villages, the exchange was random.
In the society of the Incas, unlike the society of the Aztecs and Chibcha, there was no separated layer of free artisans; therefore, exchange and trade with other countries were poorly developed, there were no commercial intermediaries. This is evidently explained by the fact that in Peru the early despotic state appropriated the labor of slaves and partly of community members, leaving them little surplus for exchange.
Social structure of the Incas
In the state of the Incas, many remnants of the primitive communal system were preserved.
The Inca tribe consisted of 10 divisions - Hatung Ailyu, which in turn were divided into 10 Ailyu each. Initially, Ailyu was a patriarchal clan, a tribal community. Islyu had her own village and owned the adjacent fields; members of the Ailyu were considered relatives among themselves and were called generic names, which were transmitted through the paternal line.
Aileu were exogamous, it was impossible to marry within the clan. Ailyu members believed that they were under the protection of ancestral shrines - huaca. Ailyu were also designated as pachaca, that is, a hundred. Khatun-aylyu ("big clan") was a phratry and was identified with a thousand.
In the state of the Incas, Aileu turned into a rural community. This becomes apparent when considering land use norms. All land in the state was considered to belong to the supreme Inca. In fact, she was at the disposal of the ailyu. The territory itself, which belonged to the community, was called Marka (an accidental coincidence with the name of the community among the Germans). The land that belonged to the entire community was called marka pacha, that is, the land of the community.
The cultivated land was called chakra (field). It was divided into three parts: the “fields of the Sun” (actually priests), the fields of the Incas and, finally, the fields of the community. The land was cultivated jointly by the whole village, although each family had its own share, the harvest from which went to that family. The members of the community worked together under the guidance of one of the foremen and, having processed one section of the field (the fields of the Sun), they moved to the fields of the Incas, then to the fields of the villagers and, finally, to the fields, the harvest from which went to the general fund of the village. This reserve was spent on supporting fellow villagers in need and various general village needs. In addition to the fields, each village also had lands that rested under fallows, and "wild lands" that served as pastures.
Field plots were periodically redistributed among fellow villagers. A separate section of the field remained fallow after three or four harvests were taken from it. Field put on, blunt, was given to a man; for each male child, the father received one more such allotment, for the daughter - another half of the stupid. Tupu was considered a temporary possession, as it was subject to redistribution. But, besides tupu, on the territory of each community there were also land plots called muya. Spanish officials call these plots in their reports "hereditary land", "own land", "garden". The muya plot consisted of a yard, a house, a barn or shed and a vegetable garden and was passed from father to son. There is no doubt that the Muya plots have actually become private property. It was on these plots that the community members could get surplus vegetables or fruits on their farm, could dry meat, tan leather, spin and weave wool, make pottery vessels, bronze tools - everything that they bartered as their private property. The combination of communal ownership of the fields with private ownership of the household plot characterizes the ailya as a rural community in which blood relations have given way to territorial ties.
The land was cultivated only by the communities of the tribes conquered by the Incas. In these communities, the tribal nobility - kuraka - also stood out. Its representatives supervised the work of the community members and made sure that the community members paid taxes; their plots were cultivated by community members. In addition to their share in the communal herd, the Kurakas had privately owned livestock, up to several hundred heads. In their households, dozens of slave concubines spun and wove wool or cotton. The livestock or agricultural products of kuraka were exchanged for jewelry made of precious metals, etc. But the kuraka, as belonging to the conquered tribes, were still in a subordinate position, the Incas stood above them as the ruling layer, the highest caste. The Incas did not work, they were the military service nobility. The rulers endowed them with land plots and workers from the conquered tribes, yanakuns, who were resettled in the Inca farms. The lands that the nobility received from the supreme Inca were their private property.
The nobility was very different from ordinary subjects in their appearance, special haircut, clothing and jewelry. The Spaniards called the noble Incas ore-hons (from the Spanish word for “nut” - ear) for their huge gold earrings, rings that stretched their earlobes.
Priests also occupied a privileged position, in whose favor a part of the harvest was collected. They were not subordinate to local rulers, but constituted a separate corporation, controlled by the high priesthood in Cuzco.
The Incas had a certain number of Yanakuns, whom the Spanish chroniclers called slaves. Judging by the fact that they were wholly owned by the Incas and did all the menial work, they were indeed slaves. Of particular importance is the report of the chroniclers that the position of the Yanakuns was hereditary. It is known that in 1570, that is, 35 years after the fall of the power of the Incas, there were another 47 thousand Yanakuns in Peru.
Most of the productive labor was performed by community members; they worked the fields, built canals, roads, fortresses and temples. But the appearance of a large group of hereditarily enslaved workers, exploited by the rulers and the military elite, suggests that Peru's society was early slave-owning, with the preservation of significant remnants of the tribal system.
The Inca state was called Tahuantinsuyu, which literally means "four regions connected together." Each region was ruled by a governor, in the districts power was in the hands of local officials. At the head of the state was the ruler, who bore the title "Sapa Inca" - "single-ruling Inca." He commanded the army and headed the civil administration. The Incas created a centralized system of government. Supreme Inca senior officials from Cuzco watched the governors, they were always ready to repulse the rebellious tribe. There was a permanent postal connection with the fortresses and residences of local rulers. Messages were relayed by messengers-runners. Postal stations were located on the roads not far from each other, where messengers were always on duty.
The rulers of ancient Peru created laws that protected the rule of the Incas, aimed at securing the subjugation of the conquered tribes and preventing uprisings. Peaks crushed the tribes, settling them in parts in foreign areas. The Incas introduced a compulsory language for all - Quechua.
Religion and culture of the Incas
Religion occupied a large place in the life of the ancient people in the Andean region. The most ancient origin were the remnants of totemism. The communities bore the names of animals: Numamarca (cougar community), Condormarca (condor community), Huamanmarca (hawk communities), etc.; the cult attitude to some animals has been preserved. Close to totemism was the religious personification of plants, primarily potatoes, as a culture that played a huge role in the life of the Peruvians. Images of the spirits of this plant in sculptural ceramics have come down to us - vessels in the form of tubers. The "eye" with sprouts was perceived as the mouth of a plant awakening to life. An important place was occupied by the cult of ancestors. When the aylyu turned from a tribal community into a neighboring community, the ancestors began to be revered as patron spirits and guardians of the land of this community and the area in general.
The custom of mummification of the dead was also associated with the cult of ancestors. Mummies in elegant clothes with decorations and household utensils were preserved in tombs, often carved into the rocks. special development the cult of the mummies of the rulers reached: they were surrounded by ritual veneration in temples, the priests marched with them during great holidays. They were credited with supernatural power, they were taken on campaigns and taken to the battlefield. All the tribes of the Andean region had a cult of the forces of nature. Obviously, along with the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, a cult of mother earth arose, called Pacha-mama (in the Quechua language, pache - earth).
The Incas established a state cult with a hierarchy of priests. Obviously, the priests generalized and further developed the existing myths and created a cycle of cosmogonic mythology. According to him, the creator god - Viracocha created the world and people on the lake (obviously, on Lake Titicaca). After the creation of the world, he disappeared across the sea, leaving his son Pachacamac. The Incas supported and spread among the conquered peoples the idea of the origin of their legendary ancestor Manco Capac from the sun. The supreme Inca was considered a living personification of the sun god (Inti), a divine being, possessing therefore unlimited power. The largest cult center was the Temple of the Sun in Cusco, also called the "Golden Compound", since the walls of the central hall of the sanctuary were lined with gold tiles. Three idols were placed here - Viracocha, the Sun and the Moon.
The temples held enormous wealth, a large number ministers and craftsmen, architects, jewelers and sculptors. These riches were used by the priests of the highest hierarchy. The main content of the Inca cult was the sacrificial ritual. During numerous holidays dedicated to various moments of the agrarian cycle, various sacrifices were made, mainly by animals. In extreme cases - at a festival at the time of the accession to the throne of a new supreme Inca, during an earthquake, drought, epidemic disease, during a war - people, prisoners of war or children taken as tribute from conquered tribes were sacrificed.
The development of positive knowledge among the Incas reached a significant level, as evidenced by their metallurgy and road engineering. To measure space, there were measures based on the size of parts of the human body. The smallest measure of length was the length of the finger, then a measure equal to the distance from the bent thumb to the index finger. The most commonly used measure for measuring land was a measure of 162 cl. The abacus was used for counting. The board was divided into stripes, compartments in which counting units moved, round pebbles. The time of day was determined by the position of the sun. In everyday life, the measurement of time was used for the period necessary for the potatoes to cook (approximately 1 hour).
The Incas deified the heavenly bodies, so they had astronomy associated with religion. They had a calendar; they had an idea of the solar and lunar year. The position of the sun was observed to determine the timing of the agricultural cycle. For this purpose, four towers were built in the east and west of Cusco. Observations were also made in Cusco itself, in the center of the city, on a large square where a high platform was built.
The Incas used some scientific methods of treating diseases, although the practice of magical medicine was also widespread. In addition to the use of many medicinal plants, surgical methods were also known, such as, for example, craniotomy.
The Incas had schools for boys from among the nobility - both the Incas and the conquered tribes. The term of study was four years. The first year was devoted to the study of the Quechua language, the second - the religious complex and the calendar, the third and fourth years were spent on the study of the so-called quipu, signs that served as a "nodular letter".
Kipu consisted of a woolen or cotton rope, to which cords were tied in rows at a right angle, sometimes up to 100, hanging in the form of a fringe. Knots were tied on these cords at different distances from the main rope. The shape of the nodes and their number denoted numbers. The single knots furthest from the main rope represented units, the next row represented tens, then hundreds and thousands; the largest values were located closest to the main rope. The color of the cords denoted certain objects: for example, potatoes were symbolized by brown, silver - by white, gold - by yellow.
The manager of the state warehouses is counted out with the "kipu" in front of the high Inca Yupanqui. Drawing from the chronicle of Poma de Ayala. 16th century
Quipu were used mainly to convey messages about taxes collected by officials, but also served to record general statistics, calendar dates, and even historical facts. There were specialists who knew how to use the quipu well; they were supposed to, at the first request of the supreme Inca and his entourage, report certain information, guided by the correspondingly tied knots. The kipu were a conventional system for the transmission of information, but it has nothing to do with writing.
Until the last decade, the idea was widespread in science that the peoples of the Andean region did not create a written language. Indeed, unlike the Maya and the Aztecs, the Incas did not leave written monuments. However, the study of archaeological, ethnographic and historical sources forces us to raise the question of the writing of the Incas in a new way. Beans with special signs appear in the painting of the vessels of the Mochica culture. Some scientists believe that the signs on the beans had a symbolic, conventional meaning, like ideograms. It is possible that these beans with badges were used for divination.
Some chroniclers of the era of the conquest report the existence of a secret writing among the Incas. One of them writes that in a special room in the temple of the Sun there were painted boards, which depicted the events of the history of the Inca rulers. Another chronicler says that when in 1570 the Viceroy of Peru ordered to collect and write down everything known about the history of Peru, it was found that ancient history Incas was depicted on large boards, inserted into gold frames and kept indoors near the Temple of the Sun. Access to them was forbidden to everyone except the reigning Incas and specially appointed historiographers. Modern researchers, the culture of the Incas, consider it proven that the Incas had a written language. It is possible that it was a picture letter, a pictography, but it did not survive due to the fact that the “pictures” framed in gold were immediately destroyed by the Spaniards, who captured them for the sake of frames.
Poetic creativity in ancient Peru developed in several directions. Hymns (for example, the anthem of Viracocha), mythical legends, and poems of historical content have been preserved in fragments. The most significant poetic work of ancient Peru was the poem, later revised into a drama, "Ollantai". It sings of the heroic deeds of the leader of one of the tribes, the ruler of Antisuyo, who rebelled against the supreme Inca. In the poem, obviously, the events and representations of the period of the formation of the Inca state - the struggle of individual tribes against the submission of their centralized power to the Inca despotism - found an artistic reflection.
End of the Inca state. Portuguese conquests
It is usually believed that with the capture of Cuzco by Pizarro's troops in 1532 and the death of the Inca Atahualpa, the Inca state immediately ceased to exist. But his end did not come instantly. In 1535 an uprising broke out; although it was suppressed in 1537, its participants continued to fight for more than 35 years.
The uprising was raised by the Inca prince Manco, who at first went over to the side of the Spaniards and was close to Pizarro. But Manco used his proximity to the Spaniards only to study the enemy. Starting to gather forces from the end of 1535, Manco in April 1536 approached Cuzco with a large army and laid siege to it. He further used Spanish firearms, forcing eight captured Spaniards to serve him as gunsmiths, gunners and gunners. Captured horses were also used. Manco centralized the command of the besieging army, established communications, guard service. Manco himself was dressed and armed in Spanish, rode and fought with Spanish weapons. The rebels combined the techniques of original Indian and European military affairs and at times achieved great success. But the need to feed a large army, and most importantly bribery and betrayal, forced Manco to lift the siege after 10 months. The rebels fortified themselves in the mountainous region of Vilkapampe and continued to fight here. After the death of Manco, the young Tupac Amaru became the leader of the rebels.
