Britain in the 1920s briefly. Sociocultural regional studies. Changes in the economic life of the country

The consequences of the First World War for Great Britain are determined primarily by the fact that she emerged victorious from this war, thanks to which she achieved a lot. For example, the danger of Germany ceased to exist. Increased power navy Great Britain, and its influence in the world has grown. In the League of Nations, she occupied one of the leading places. The mandate system introduced by the League of Nations has benefited the UK the most. For example, most of the colonies of the defeated countries, Germany and Turkey, went to Great Britain. Great Britain received the right to govern Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq in the Middle East. In Africa, she received the right to manage part of Tanganyika, Togo and Cameroon. In addition, the dominions of Great Britain did not stand aside. In particular, the League of Nations transferred the right to manage the South African Union of German South-West Africa; Australia - German colonies in New Guinea; and New Zealand - the islands of Western Samoa.

However, it should be emphasized that the war not only brought great success to Great Britain, it inflicted enormous damage on its international position and leading positions in international trade. Now she was not leading in the financial sector either. As a result, the UK has turned from a creditor country into a debtor country. For example, the internal public debt of Great Britain in 1914 rose from 650 thousand pounds to 8 billion pounds. It owes $5 billion to the United States alone.

Industrial production dropped sharply. The volume of the country's foreign trade has halved due to a sharp decline in the competitiveness of manufactured products.

After that, the UK was no longer able to restore the title of "queen of the sea." The naval power of Germany was broken, now the United States was trying hard to increase its naval power. As a result, Great Britain in 1920 was forced to abandon the maintenance of a fleet equal to the navy of the two states. These factors and the national liberation movement in the British colonies led to a crisis in the colonial system.

Changes in the economic life of the country

The ruling circles of Great Britain tried in every possible way to change the situation in the country. By the end of 1918, an economic recovery began in the country, which continued until the middle of 1920. This was achieved due to the growing demand of the population for consumer goods and the need to restore the destroyed economy.

This was evidenced by the growth of foreign trade. For example, during this period, exports rose to 38.1%, but such a rise was not observed for long. In the autumn of 1920, an economic crisis began that engulfed all sectors of the country's economy. In 1921 the volume industrial production decreased by a third and amounted to 68%. Coal production amounted to 30%, the volume of foreign trade fell by half compared to the pre-war level.

The sharp decline in production led to unemployment. For example, if the number of unemployed in 1920 was 375 thousand people, then in 1921 - about 2.2 million. In 1922-1923, the economy continued to stagnate.

In 1924-1929. in the economic situation of developed countries began a period of recovery. However, the UK economy stood still. For example, the volume of industrial production in 1929 hardly reached the level of 1913, thanks to the development of new industries - mechanical engineering, aircraft building, chemical and automotive.

If in 1913 the share of Great Britain in the volume of industrial production of developed countries was 14.8%, then in 1929 it fell to 9.8%.

The main reason for the backwardness of the UK in the economy was the low spending on capital renewal, huge contribution investments in "overseas" countries, non-competitiveness of equipment used in industry. The ruling circles of England did not consider these factors in time. Due to the technical backwardness, Great Britain was gradually losing its positions in the world market, exports were declining, and the volume of foreign trade was 87% of the pre-war level. The share of imports kept growing. This, of course, had Negative influence on the standard of living of the common people, which has declined markedly, as well as the level of wages.

Political life of the country

Political life in the country during this period was determined by the struggle of three political parties: liberal, conservative and labor. The Liberal Party, which was at the head of the government during the First World War, was losing ground day by day. The leader of the Liberal Party, Prime Minister D. Lloyd George (1863-1945), in order to maintain the positions of his party, held parliamentary elections in December 1918. Thanks to the victory in the First World War, the Liberal Party had an impressive weight among the military. The Liberal and Conservative parties went to the polls together.

They participated in the elections under the slogan of economic and political reconstruction of the country, promising voters jobs, fair wages, cheap housing, peace and social transformation.

The Laborites promised voters the construction of a new society, which would create the possibility of socializing the means of production, the creation of a government of workers, a national transport, the purchase of energy resources and banks from their private owners in order to nationalize them.

The election was won by an alliance of liberals and conservatives. They took 477 out of 707 seats in Parliament (of which 136 seats belonged to the Liberals). Labor won 62 seats: 5 times as many as in 1910. 2.5 thousand voters voted for them. Thus, this party in the political arena of struggle began to put pressure on the liberal party.

Lloyd George took over as prime minister and led the government until 1922. During this period, the government faced setbacks both at home and abroad. It failed to deliver on promises made to voters. As a result, the first powerful strikes of workers began. More than 2.5 thousand people took part in this movement in 1919.

The workers demanded a 40-hour work week and continued wages. Particularly large were the miners' strikes, which demanded a 30% increase in wages and the establishment of a 6-hour working day.

Under these conditions, in October 1920, the country's parliament issued emergency powers to the government to suppress the labor movement. The owners of the mines, who did not want to satisfy the demands of the miners, declared a lockout on April 1, 1921. The government declared a state of emergency and sent army units to the mines.

The railway and transport workers, in solidarity with the miners, also went on strike. However, the protests of the workers were suppressed.

Lloyd George's government, as noted above, also failed in foreign policy. The national liberation movement blew up the British colonial empire from within. For example, in 1919, India's struggle for independence intensified, in 1919-1921. there were uprisings in Egypt, in 1919 a war for independence began in Afghanistan against Great Britain. The ruling circles of Great Britain were forced to make concessions in order to preserve the colonial empire. In particular, in 1918, changes were made to the constitution, which gave the right to local Indian personnel to take part in the government of the country. At the Paris Peace Conference, the dominions were granted the right to participate as an independent entity. The independence of Afghanistan was forced to be recognized. Egypt, albeit in words, was also recognized independent state. The UK government is in big trouble with regard to Ireland.

The ruling circles of Great Britain this time again remained true to their traditional slogan "divide and rule". IN national liberation Ireland's movement split. His right wing entered into negotiations with Britain. In 1921, an agreement was signed between Ireland and Great Britain. In accordance with it, Ireland split into two parts. Southern Ireland, with Dublin as its capital, was granted dominion rights. Northern Ireland remained part of the UK. After that, the country became officially known as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".

The struggle of the British government against Soviet Russia ended in failure. In addition, on March 16, 1921, she was forced to conclude a trade agreement, which in fact meant the recognition of Russia.

In addition, the aggression organized by Great Britain together with Greece against Turkey was defeated. Patriotic forces led by Kemal Atatürk were able to maintain Turkey's independence.

Such a defeat in foreign policy greatly disturbed the Conservative Party, it decided to withdraw from the coalition government. On October 19, 1922, British Prime Minister Lloyd George was forced to resign. The chair of the Prime Minister was briefly occupied by the leader of the Conservative Party B. Low, and then he was replaced by S. Baldwin. The main task of the government of S. Baldwin was the withdrawal of the country from economic crisis. Only in this case it would be possible to put an end to the main disease of society - unemployment and to launch enterprises at full capacity.

To this end, the government began to apply the method of protectionism. However, this did not give the desired results. On the contrary, by the end of 1923, the British economy reached a dead end, which, naturally, caused discontent among the people. Under these conditions, elections were held in the country in 1923. Although the Conservative Party won them (258 seats), the Labor Party also achieved an impressive victory (191 seats). This party promised its voters the nationalization of the coal industry.

The Labor Party together with the Liberal Party (together 158 seats) expressed no confidence in the government of S. Baldwin. As a result, the government was forced to resign.

Now, for the first time in British history, the right to form a government has been given to the Labor Party. In January 1924, such a government under the leadership of the leader of the Labor Party, R. MacDonald (1866-1937), was created. It did not last long, because, under pressure from big capital, it could not fulfill the promises made to voters (nationalization of the coal industry, reduction of unemployment, construction of housing for workers, etc.).

On October 8, 1924, MPs from the Conservative Party expressed no confidence in the Labor government, which did not have a majority of votes. R. MacDonald was forced to resign. The Conservatives won the parliamentary elections on October 29 with 415 seats. In November, S. Baldwin again took the chair of the Prime Minister.

Events of 1926.

During the tenure of S. Baldwin (1924-1929) as prime minister, there were no noticeable changes in the UK economy. Although industries such as automotive, electrical and chemical industries have developed rapidly. Traditional industries like shipbuilding and coal were still in stagnation.

The British capitalists preferred to export their capital rather than invest it in the reconstruction of the country's industry on modern way. Great Britain was unable to restore its pre-war position in the world, in the dominions and colonies their national production began to develop, the import of American currency increased.

Once flourishing in the UK industry - coal was in particularly difficult conditions. Before the war, 1 million 200 thousand people worked in this industry, 290 thousand tons of coal are mined in the country annually. After the war, the situation deteriorated sharply, this industry has become one of the most backward. The main reasons were that many small mines had closed and their equipment was outdated. In addition, the cost of the land on which the coal deposits were located was very high, for which it was necessary to pay the owners of the land a huge amount. These factors led to an increase in the cost of coal in the country. As a result, expensive English coal could not compete with cheap German and Polish.

The owners of the mines tried to increase their profits by reducing the wages of workers and increasing the length of the working day, the workers strongly resisted this. But in 1925 they still managed to reduce wages. On July 31, 1925, the miners decided to go on strike, they were supported by transport workers and railway declaring their solidarity with them. The government of S. Baldwin, in order to prevent a nationwide strike, decided to give subsidies to the owners of the mines. However, this government subsidy was only enough for 9 months.

In April 1926, the owners of the mines issued an ultimatum to the workers. It outlined the following requirements - a reduction in the wages of miners, an increase in the length of the working day by 1 hour, an agreement to annul the agreement between the owners of the mines and trade unions (trade unions). In case of refusal, they threatened to announce a lockout. The ultimatum caused sharp discontent in the country, but nevertheless, on May 1, 1926, a reduction in wages was announced.

In response, on May 4, a general strike began in the UK. In total, 6 million people took part in this strike. The trade unions put forward purely economic demands. However, there was a danger that the general strike would turn into political conflict.

Foreign workers also expressed their solidarity with the British. They stopped loading goods destined for the UK, began to raise funds to transfer them as financial assistance English workers.

The Supreme Council of Trades Unions, fearing that the general strike would develop into a political conflict, decided to declare May 12 as the day of the end of the general strike and enter into negotiations with the government. The workers were compelled to submit to the decision of the Supreme Council of Trade Unions. The miners continued to fight until December, but they, in the end, stopped the strike. Thus the general strike of 1926 was defeated.

This happened because the leadership of the trade unions supported the existing socio-political system and sought to preserve it. ruling circles decided to strengthen their positions. For example, they passed a law prohibiting strikes. In accordance with it, a strike could be held at one enterprise or in any one branch of industry.

Second Labor government

In May 1929, another parliamentary election was held in Great Britain. The Labor Party won by a small margin (287 seats, the Conservative Party - 260).

This victory was won by the Laborites through their promises made in 1927 to the trade unions to nationalize the coal industry, transport, banks, reduce unemployment and restore the 7-hour day. In June, R. Macdonald formed his second Labor government.

The global economic crisis that began in the autumn of 1929 made it difficult for the government to fulfill these promises. The economic crisis in Great Britain began in 1930, and in 1932 it reached its climax. This year the volume industrial products compared with 1929 decreased by 20%, the number of unemployed reached 3-3.5 million people. The exchange rate of the pound sterling fell by a third, and so did real wages. The volume of agricultural production also decreased.

The same situation was in foreign trade. The process of exclusion of Great Britain from traditional sales markets has intensified.

But despite this, even in such conditions, the government fulfilled part of the promises. For example, in coal mines, a 7-hour working day was established, a new law on unemployment benefits was passed, the period for receiving unemployment benefits was extended from three months to one year.

A ministry to combat unemployment was formed, and a new special committee for the employment of the unemployed was set up. These measures contributed in some way to improving the situation of the unemployed. However, under the pressure of big capital, the issues of reducing wages and unemployment benefits and indirectly raising taxes were on the agenda. This provision led to a split in the Labor Party.

R. MacDonald, a supporter of the above issues, formed a new coalition government on August 25, 1931 (it included representatives of the National Labor, National Liberal and Conservative parties). In October 1931, special parliamentary elections were held, which were won by the Conservative Party (740 seats). A national government was formed (1931 - 1935). It was again headed by R. Macdonald. The government began to implement a program to overcome the crisis by reducing wage costs and social issues. The government, frightened by the flight of British capital abroad, canceled the exchange of the pound sterling for gold. At the same time, US and French banks lent the UK £80 million.

In the field of foreign trade, the government took the path of protectionism (protection of the national economy). In accordance with this, it was established that when goods are imported into the territories that are part of the empire, customs duties on English goods are set 10% lower than on goods imported from other states. This event strengthened the position of Great Britain in the markets of the empire.

The measures taken by the government have paid off. And from the end of 1932, some recovery of the economy began. By 1934, the volume of industrial output reached the level of 1929.

In the parliamentary elections held at the end of 1935, the Conservative Party won (385 seats). The leader of this party, S. Baldwin, formed a national government for the second time, which continued the policy of a complete recovery of the economy. In particular, the policy of protectionism was continued, which had a positive impact on the development of the automotive, aviation, electrical and chemical industries.

The continuation of the refusal to exchange the pound sterling for gold also gave its positive results, this prevented the export of English capital abroad. Now the capitalists tried to invest their capital within the country. For example, if in 1936 the export of capital from Great Britain amounted to 61 million pounds, then inside the country 217 million pounds were invested. This, in turn, led to an even more accelerated development of industry. The placement of private capital in the domestic market was helped by the government's financial policy. In particular, the government has introduced a procedure for lending by banks to entrepreneurs 2%. (Earlier it was 10-12%).

However, the UK has not been able to fully cope with the economic crisis. Since the autumn of 1937, the volume of production began to fall again, for example, in 1938 it decreased by 12% compared to the level of 1937. The number of unemployed remained high. Thus, by the end of the 1930s, the economic position of Great Britain in the world had declined significantly. Now, not only the United States were its competitors, but also Germany, Italy and Japan.

Foreign policy 1924-1939

R. MacDonald began his political career when Great Britain was a strong state, and ended its activity when only memories remained of its former greatness. Due to the fact that R. MacDonald was a realist politician, he understood well that it was impossible to revive the former greatness and power of Great Britain. But despite this, he wanted to see Great Britain in the future as a state capable of implementing its aspirations and did everything for this. Although he was against the Soviets, he proceeded from the real state of affairs - he recognized this state in 1924, establishing diplomatic relations with it.

Great Britain was one of the initiators of the event in 1925. conferences in Locarno. This conference served as a pretext for the reconciliation of Germany with the rest of the Western countries. In the same time Western countries did not create a system of guarantees to prevent the free advance of Germany to the east of Europe.

On March 24, 1927, Britain intervened militarily against China. Its goal was to establish the government of Chiang Kai-shek in China, which was established on April 18 in Nanjing.

In the 1930s, British foreign policy faced two major problems. Firstly, the aggressive policy of Germany in Europe. Secondly growing in colonial countries: national liberation movement.

Great Britain, trying to weaken the influence of France in Europe, began to use Germany for this purpose. As proof of this, on June 30, 1935, Great Britain signed a naval treaty with Germany. In accordance with it, Germany acquired the right to create its own fleet, constituting 1/3 of the British Navy. It was an open violation Treaty of Versailles.

Even when entering German troops to the Rhineland, Great Britain remained a silent observer of what was happening. This was tantamount to allowing Germany to continue such attacks in the future. While in 1936 Germany extended a helping hand to Spain in establishing the fascist dictatorship of Franco, Great Britain pursued a policy of non-intervention in the affairs of Spain. This policy was confirmed by the fact that Great Britain suspended the export of weapons to the legitimate government of Spain, thereby helping fascism to come to power in Spain.

In 1937, the leader of the Conservative Party N. Chamberlain (1869-1940) came to power in Great Britain. During his 3- summer stay as Prime Minister, he initiated the policy of "appeasement" of Hitler.

Therefore, in fact, Great Britain helped Germany in the conquest of Austria and Czechoslovakia. She repeatedly repeated that with her small "concessions" she saved the world for a whole generation.

However, rumors soon reached the UK that Germany was going to attack Western countries first, and not Soviet Union. Now Great Britain began to intensively prepare for war. She doubled her military spending.

In addition, Great Britain developed a new military doctrine, in which it planned to protect France along with itself. On April 15, 1939, for the first time in history, Great Britain declared a general military service. In the event that Germany attacks Poland, Great Britain will provide her with military assistance. She gave the same guarantees to Greece and Rumania.

To this day, however, Chamberlain has not given up the hope of coming to terms with Germany. Its purpose was to direct the spearhead of aggression against the Soviet Union. After Germany occupied Prague, Chamberlain's hopes were dashed. Now war was inevitable. This provision forced Britain to negotiate with Moscow. But due to the fault of both sides, these negotiations ended in vain. In particular, the goal of Great Britain and France was to impose unilateral obligations on the Soviet Union, draw it into a war with Germany, and remain outside observers themselves.

But Moscow has received information that Britain is conducting secret negotiations with Germany on dividing the world into spheres of influence. As a result, the Soviet government, in response to this, began to look for ways of rapprochement with Germany. And on August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a mutual non-aggression pact. Germany, having consolidated its positions in the east, attacked Poland in September 1939. Britain and France 2-3 September declared warGermany. Thus began the second World War. Britain was now reaping the fruits of Chamberlain's policy of "pacifying" Germany.

Position in the colonies and dominions

The colonies of Great Britain never ceased their national liberation struggle, while the dominions continued their struggle to expand their rights. Therefore, Great Britain was forced to keep a large army there. In April 1930, the Indian National Congress called the Indian people to civil disobedience (the first stage took place in 1919-1922). This led to large-scale mass demonstrations. The British administration severely punished the leaders of this demonstration.

In 1931, Great Britain was forced to accept a document annulling the restrictions on the rights of its dominions. This document went down in British history as the Statute of Westminster. The document declared the complete independence of their domestic and foreign policy.

Now the decisions taken by the dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand) did not have to be approved by the British Parliament. Thus, the law was repealed, prescribing the passage of the decision taken by the dominions in the Parliament of Great Britain, which could annul it. However, Great Britain was in no hurry to give the status of the dominion of India. At the same time, the government sought to keep the dominions in its sphere of influence,

In accordance with the "Statute of Westminster", the dominions united with Great Britain in the "British Commonwealth of Nations". (This commonwealth exists to this day. The leaders of the former dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand are still appointed by the Queen of Great Britain today). In the 1930s, the situation in Ireland became more complicated again. In 1937, Southern Ireland declared itself an independent state, while Northern Ireland remained part of the empire.

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Great Britain in 1918-1939 Updated: November 22, 2016 By: admin

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

The period between the First and Second World Wars was the heyday of the British colonial empire and at the same time the beginning of a long economic crisis in Britain.

background

Great Britain, together with the Allies, won the First World War and, as a victor, took an active part in the post-war order of the world. She received part of the former possessions of Germany and the Ottoman Empire in control.

At the same time, the war had taken a heavy toll on the British economy. Great Britain ended the war with a large external debt, in the first post-war years a significant part state budget used to pay off debts.

Events

1922 - Ireland secedes from the UK. In the post-war period, the anti-colonial movement grows in the territory of the British Empire (primarily in India). However, Great Britain managed to keep all its possessions with the exception of Ireland.

1926 UK general strike. About 5 million workers took part in it (about 3 million - only on the night of May 4), the strikers' demands (maintenance of wages) were not satisfied. In many ways, this strike was the cause of the break in diplomatic relations with the USSR, which Britain accused of supporting the British strike movement.

1928 - Nearly universal suffrage introduced in Great Britain; Married women over 30 also get the right to vote.

1929-1933 - the global economic crisis (or the Great Depression) that affected the UK, causing a rapid increase in unemployment, the depreciation of the pound and, as a result, rising prices. It is worth noting that its impact on the domestic economy was less noticeable than in the United States, for example.

Foreign policy

In the 1930s, the so-called policy of appeasement (for more details: The price of "appeasement"), which the United Kingdom pursued in relation to Nazi Germany, is largely due to the fact that the British authorities saw Germany as a counterbalance to the communist threat.

Conclusion

Insufficiently tough British policy towards Germany allowed the latter to significantly strengthen, which contributed to its success in the early years of World War II. The Second World War will be a cruel test for Britain and hasten the decline of British colonialism.

Abstract

Having emerged victorious from the world war, Great Britain began to play a significant role in political life Europe and the World. The domestic political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, the UK has not been able to take the lead in terms of its economic development, but only restored its pre-war level. At the same time, as in other countries of Western Europe, the standard of living of the so-called increased in Great Britain. middle class.

Rice. 1. Representatives of the middle class ()

The capitalist model of the British economy allowed the industry to quickly free itself from under the military-state tutelage and expand significantly. As in other Western countries, the UK saw an increase in business activity and trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to "draw" large sections of English society into the orbit of entrepreneurship. The "economic boom", the accelerated pace of development and, as it seemed to many, the era of prosperity ended abruptly with the advent of World economic crisis of 1929-1933. The sharp collapse in prices, the closure and bankruptcy of companies and, as a consequence of all this, unemployment, led to mass protests, which were often suppressed by force.

Rice. 2. Consequences of the World economic crisis ()

Only after the end of the crisis, Great Britain began to recover and recover, but it could not overcome the collapse of industry that occurred during the years of the crisis to the end. Gradually, this country from the first player in Europe began to fade into the background and third plans. This departure finally took shape after the Second World War, when Great Britain was included in the orbit of the most powerful country - the United States.

In the 1920-1930s. important role in the life of English society began to play unions. These organizations, which defended the rights of workers, during this period of time became quite a powerful force of influence in the UK. In 1925, when the government cut state funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' salaries, close unprofitable (inefficient, unprofitable) mines, and massively lay off miners. In response, the unions in Great Britain called a general strike in May 1926. The forceful measures of the government directed against the workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only a concession on the part of the trade unions did not lead English society to protracted conflict. Individual workers went on strike until 1927, never getting any concessions from the capitalists.

Despite this, the ruling Conservative Party was defeated in the 1929 parliamentary elections. Society supported Labor (labor) party, speaking from the positions of social democracy, so popular in the lower classes of English society. The outbreak of the economic crisis did not contribute to the success of the Laborites. In the next election, they lost 1st place to the Conservatives, who were the leading party until the 1945 elections.

Rice. 3. Army trucks move to suppress the workers' strike ()

The foreign policy of Great Britain was aimed at the inadmissibility of a repetition of the horrors of the First World War. At the same time, remaining the leading colonial power, in the 1930s it ruthlessly suppressed national liberation movements and uprisings in its colonies - in India, Burma, the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and a number of others.

In European politics, Great Britain, together with its ally - France, during the 1920s. tried to dominate Europe and set itself the goal of fighting Bolshevism, being the most consistent in this. The Anglo-Soviet crisis of 1927, associated with the alleged support of the strike movement through the International, almost led to a war between Great Britain and the USSR. The parties severed diplomatic relations and were in an extremely tense state with each other until 1939.

Another party in the policy of Great Britain was the so-called. appeasement policy, i.e. "flirting" with Nazi Germany. The British government, seeking to develop Germany's plans of conquest from West to East, assisted Hitler in every possible way. It turned a blind eye to open non-compliance with the points of the Treaty of Versailles and to increased military spending. All this led to another redistribution of Europe, and then to a new conflict - the Second World War of 1939-1945.

Bibliography

Shubin A.V. General history. recent history. Grade 9: textbook. for general education institutions. - M.: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. - M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: - Enlightenment, 2011.

Homework

Read §5 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. pp. 45-49 and 51-52 and answer question 1 on p. 57.
What were the causes of the global economic crisis?
Why do you think the UK trade unions decided to curtail the protest movement?

Academician ().
Ukrainian textbooks ().
Student scientific forum ().

Having experienced panic fear for their capital and privileges during the years of the revolutionary upsurge, the British capitalists were imbued with hatred for democratic institutions. The weaker the world position of England became, the more haughty island "superiority" seized Mr. Forsyth - this was beautifully shown by Galsworthy in recent books his "Saga". Anxiety about the colonies intensified racism. The fear of the people, the "crowd", the liberation storms of the era gave rise to the desire to withdraw into one's own environment, to escape from insoluble (for the bourgeois) social problems into the area of intimate experiences, religion, irrationalism. Ultimately, it was this pessimism of a history-doomed class that underlay the cynical and anti-humanist tendencies that characterized modernist art in the 1920s and beyond.

The national originality of English painting was almost completely lost, dissolving in a pan-European, cosmopolitan decadence. At first glance, the paintings and murals of S. Spencer (1891-1959) had something in common with ornaments from medieval miniatures or with the works of the Pre-Raphaelites. But this is only an outward appearance. The chaotic heap of deformed images, in essence, had nothing to do with the fruits of folk fantasy, captured in miniatures. In the same years, the sculptor G. Moore (b. 1898), the creator of deformed figures, more human-like than human, began to gain fame.

The deformation of the human body in painting and sculpture is just as aimed at debunking a person, as is the depiction of deliberately illogical and disgusting actions and emotions in James Joyce's sensational novel Ulysses (1922). In this work there are elements of satire on bourgeois society, but vulgarity, hypocrisy, petty-bourgeois imitation of thoughts and feelings appear before the reader not as socially conditioned phenomena, but as features that seem to be inherent in man from eternity. Belonging to the "stream of consciousness" school, Joyce exaggerates the randomness of thought; in the same way, surrealist artists, creating absurd combinations of objects, imposed on the viewer an idea of the chaos of the world in general. The famous realist writer Richard Aldington (1892-1962) had every reason to say that Joyce's Ulysses was "a monstrous slander of humanity."

Meanwhile, "Ulysses" became the banner of modernist art. Raised him on a shield psychological school”, who considered the only task of art to penetrate into the depths of the subconscious. The credo of this school was formulated by Virginia Woolf, a gifted writer who, however, gave her talent to non-social, non-historical and therefore unpromising psychoanalysis: “Let's draw patterns that leave fleeting impressions and even insignificant events in our minds, no matter how incoherent and unclear they seem” . The anti-humanism of Joyce, Woolf and other writers of this trend was combined with anti-democratism. It was expressed in the extreme complexity of the form, and therefore - in the calculation of a narrow circle of readers, the intellectual elite.

This anti-democratic tendency was perhaps most clearly manifested in the poetry and journalism of Thomas Eliot, one of the leaders of the ideological reaction. In the poem "The Waste Land" "(1922), he confronts real people of our time with the heroes of myths and literature. A kaleidoscope of names that are not known even to a reader who has gone through the classical school of Eton and Oxford, multilingual quotations, historical and literary hints, understandable only to an extremely narrow circle "high-browed", - all this expresses contempt for the reader, for "uneducated democracy". "The Waste Land" is a poem of horror before the death of civilization, the expectation of a catastrophe. With all the vague symbolism of the poem, it is not difficult to see where his pessimistic forecasts came from to the author. Not so the image of “hordes in pointed helmets swarming on the endless plains” is already foggy! October Revolution, the revolutionary upsurge in England and throughout the world - this is what gives rise to a sense of the impending collapse of bourgeois civilization,

In the 1920s, "mass culture" became widespread; decadent art and literature with their modernist currents were an excellent tool for the intellectual and political disarmament of the intelligentsia, but other means were needed for the same impact on millions of working people - entertaining fiction of a detective or erotic nature, shallow but exciting spectacles, jazz music. To stupefy consciousness, to entertain, not to let a person think - such is social function"mass culture" skillfully propagated by "commercial" publishing houses, theaters, newspaper and magazine empires. A huge role in the complex of ideologically poisonous means was played by young cinematography. While his outstanding artistic abilities were proven by the brilliant films of Chaplin and Eisenstein, entertainment films of Hollywood origin dominated the English screens.

In the struggle against reactionary, degrading bourgeois culture and ersatz culture produced for mass consumption, a genuinely people's democratic culture grew and strengthened. The outstanding realist writers of the older generation Hardy, Shaw, Galsworthy, Wells remained true to the realistic tradition and continued to develop it in the new conditions. During this period, Galsworthy wrote the last novels of the Forsyte Saga and the three novels that made up the Modern Comedy cycle. Thus, the main work of his life was completed - an artistic history of the degradation of the English bourgeoisie was created.

No matter how complex and contradictory the ideological and artistic searches of G. Wells were, he nevertheless resolutely opposed political reaction. Together with Hardy and Shaw, he joined the international organization of the progressive intelligentsia Klarte, which fought against anti-Soviet intervention. During a famous visit to Soviet Russia (1920), he did not understand much, and this was reflected in the pages of the book Russia in the Dark. But here the honest writer declared: "The Bolsheviks are morally superior to everything that has hitherto fought them."

Shaw made the greatest ideological evolution during these years: socialist construction in the USSR and the general crisis of world capitalism deepened his doubts about "Fabian socialism." In contrast to the modernist apolitical and asocial Shaw, it was during these years that he switched to political satire, caricature, and the grotesque. The upper strata of the political hierarchy - party leaders, ministers and the real bosses behind their backs - the monopolists, are subjected to merciless exposure. In the political "extravagant" - "The Apple Cart" - the bourgeois democracy itself finds itself before the court of the satirist.

Somewhat unusual for Shaw was the image of Joan of Arc created by him in the play "Saint Joan". Rejecting mystical layers in the interpretation of Jeanne's "miracles", Shaw creates a heroic folk character, charming, pure. Unconditionally recognizing the people's right to a national liberation, just war "Show remains a satirist in portraying traitors to the motherland. Jeanne is written as the heroine of a folk tragedy, gaining a spiritual victory over her enemies. Of course, for Shaw, the controversy is important not so much with other interpretations of the image of Jeanne, but with the decadent idea of the insignificance of a person. Here she is - a big personality, " said Shaw with his play; a person with strength, wisdom, a poetic worldview characteristic of the people. No wonder this play immediately entered the repertoire of theaters that adhered to the realistic method. In 1924, Jeanne was played by the famous actress Sybil Thorndike. In 1929, in the theater " Old Vic" 25-year-old actor John Gielgud played Hamlet for the first time, and, according to contemporaries, he put all the throwing of the "lost generation" into this image. An actor of extraordinary talent, possessing excellent technique, Gielgud subsequently played many Shakespearean roles and - as a director - staged many performances.

Theaters turn not only to Shakespeare, but also to other classics of English and world drama. The craving of progressive directors and actors for realism, for the deep embodiment of the "dialectic of the soul" increased interest in Russian drama, especially in Chekhov. In England, the works of K. S. Stanislavsky are published, his “system” is carefully studied and mastered by the masters of the English stage. Although modernist trends affected some figures in the English theater, in general, during this period, he took a step towards deepening artistic analysis reality.

During the 1920s, elements of socialist culture grew within the framework of democratic culture. But especially great was the rise of progressive culture in the next decade.

The position of England after the First World War.

British imperialism was one of the main culprits of the First World War. In this war, the British bourgeoisie hoped to find a way out of the deepest social and political crisis in which England, like other imperialist states, found itself in the second decade of the 20th century. During the First World War, British imperialism sought to strengthen the class positions of the bourgeoisie in Great Britain itself and strengthen the British colonial empire, expand its possessions by capturing new territories.

The war of 1914-1918 started by the imperialists of all countries led to the most unexpected results for them. The war further intensified the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in each of the countries participating in the war and created the prerequisites for the maturation of a revolutionary situation in a number of countries.

Since the first imperialist world war and the Great October Socialist Revolution, the capitalist world has entered a period of a general crisis of capitalism.

The split of the world into two camps and the loss of one sixth of the globe from the capitalist system, the revolutionary impact of the Great October Socialist Revolution on the peoples oppressed by capitalism significantly weakened the position of British imperialism. The general crisis of capitalism manifested itself in a particularly acute form in England, which was a classic example of a country of decaying capitalism.

True, England continued to be one of the largest colonial powers. She captured most of the German colonies and territories of the former Ottoman Empire. But the English bourgeoisie has irretrievably lost its former monopoly in the world industrial and financial markets. The center of the financial exploitation of the capitalist world has shifted from England to the United States of America, which had become enormously enriched by the war.

England entered the war with a public debt of £650 million, and in 1919 her national debt reached the enormous sum of £7,829 million. After the war, England's external debt to the United States alone rose to $5.5 billion.

The material and human losses suffered by England (together with the colonies and dominions) in the First World War were very significant. Great Britain lost about 3 million people in the war (875 thousand were killed, more than 2 million were wounded). During the war, 70 percent were sunk. merchant marine of England.

Compared with other social classes, the proletariat of England suffered the largest number victims, since the English army consisted mainly of workers. But even after the end of the war, the British bourgeoisie sought to shift the entire burden of military spending onto the working masses. The war debts were paid, first of all, by the working class, forcibly drawn into the war and most of all suffered from this war.

At the same time, the bourgeoisie, having greatly profited during the war, continued to enrich itself in the post-war period. The loans made by the British government during the war became one of the main sources of enrichment for the British and American financial oligarchy. The British government borrowed from American and British bankers on very unfavorable terms for England. The interest paid by the British government on war debt was 2-3 times higher than on the international stock exchange. Subsequently, over the years, the British government annually spent 40 percent. expenditure budget (about £350 million) to pay interest on war loans. The process of concentration of capital, the merging of banking and industrial capital, and the merging of monopolies with the state apparatus has intensified. Stockbrokers, bankers and big industrialists occupied high government positions and exerted a decisive influence on the policy of the British government.

The robbery of the working masses of Great Britain and its colonies could not save the British capitalist economy from a severe economic and chronic financial crisis, which took place on the basis of the general crisis of capitalism. After the First World War, the British economy is characterized by an ever-increasing decline in the main industries (coal, textile, metallurgical), chronic underutilization of enterprises and the presence of millions of unemployed armies, which have turned from reserve into permanent armies of the unemployed. The clearest expression of the crisis in the English economy was the situation in industry. For 20 post-war years(from 1918 to 1938) British industry almost did not exceed the level of 1913. During this period, the industry of England as a whole was trampling around the level of 1913. Only in last years Before the Second World War, there was a certain upswing in British industry, but this upswing was associated with the revival of the military situation, the preparation of the imperialist countries for a new war.

The state finances of capitalist England also found themselves in an extremely difficult state. The pound sterling has lost stability forever on the international stock exchange. If in 1913 the British pound sterling was equal to almost 5 dollars, then in 1920 - a little more than 3 dollars (ratio 1: 3.2). The stable pound sterling has always been considered the epitome of the power of Great Britain. The sharp depreciation of the pound sterling seriously alarmed the British bourgeoisie. The governments of the post-war years took every measure to "improve" the country's economy and finances by intensifying the exploitation of the British working class.

In 1925 the British financial oligarchy succeeded in restoring the gold parity of the pound sterling in 1925 only through cruel exploitation of the working people and plunder of the colonies, and to a relatively small extent at the expense of national industry. But during the world economic crisis of 1929-1933, the pound sterling again began to fall sharply.

These are the main character traits the history of post-war England, testifying to the fact that since the First World War and the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, British imperialism has entered the stage of a general crisis of capitalism.

The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia dealt a mighty blow to British imperialism. It led to an intensification of the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in England itself (the mother country) and to a powerful rise in the national liberation movement in the colonial and semi-colonial possessions of the British Empire.

After the First World War and the Great October Socialist Revolution, the position of England in the system of capitalist powers changed, and the economic and political positions of this once leading country of the capitalist world deteriorated sharply.

That is why the struggle against the offspring of the Great October Socialist Revolution - Soviet Russia determined the entire internal and foreign policy British imperialist governments after the First World War. The "Russian question" became the most important in the international policy of Great Britain, the main goal of which was to destroy or weaken Soviet Russia by any means.

A general strike that took place in England in 1926 led to the imprisonment of prominent members of the CPV on charges of conspiracy and incitement to sedition. But by supporting the strikers, the Communists filled their ranks with new party members mainly from Glasgow, East London and Wales, part of which became known as "Little Moscow".

The party actively participated in the organization of various rallies and demonstrations. Some of them ended in violence. In particular, in 1936, the Communists clashed in London with members of the British Union of Fascists - Oswald Mosley's Blackshirts. The event went down in history as the Battle of Cable Street.

In November 1930, the CPV consisted of 2,555 members. In 1943 it reached its peak with 60,000 men. In the general election of 1945, the Communist Party received 103,000 votes, which made it possible to take two seats in the House of Commons. But it was the peak of the popularity of the British Communists, followed by a long decline.

The party was directly funded by the Soviet Union from 1956 until the late 1970s, but internal strife weakened it. In 1991, after the collapse of the USSR, the CPV decided to disband.

The former headquarters of the CPV is located in central London at 16 King Street, Covent Garden. It is currently occupied by a branch of HSBC Bank.

Here is a collection of black and white photographs of the communist movement in England:

A communist installation covered in leaflets from the Sunday Worker (Sunday edition of the Daily Worker) and from the Labor Party during the May Day parade in Hyde Park, London, 1 May 1928

A woman on a communist march in London, 1928

Hammer and sickle attached to a banner at a workers' demonstration. May 1, 1928

The election campaign of the Communist Party in England, 1928

Communist demonstration in England, 1928

Tower Hill, London - Communists armed with clubs fight police during a demonstration against unemployment. March 6, 1930

Communist supporters are trying to riot in London. Mounted police suppress them. March 23, 1930

British suffragist Charlotte Despard (1844-1939) addresses the crowd in Trafalgar Square during a communist rally. June 11, 1933

Veteran and activist of the trade union and socialist movement Tom Mann (1856-1941) speaks to communist protesters in Trafalgar Square in London. August 1, 1931

May Day communist demonstration in Hyde Park, London. May 1, 1936

Procession of British Communists in London. May 1, 1936

Communist demonstrators in London. September 20, 1936

East London - Police dismantle an overturned truck barricade used by the Communists to clash with the Nazis during the Battle of Cable Street. October 4, 1936

Police arrest a demonstrator during a clash between communists and British fascists led by Oswald Mosley in London's East End. October 4, 1936

A policeman stands next to a burning car that was set on fire during a communist march in London's East End, 1936

The arrest of a communist marcher from Tower Hill to Victoria Park in London. October 11, 1936

The police are chasing communists who prevented a fascist demonstration in London. October 4, 1936

British police dismantle barricades in London to clear the way for a procession planned by supporters of Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists. The barricade was erected by members of the Communist Party. October 4, 1936

A Jewish shopkeeper looks out through a boarded-up window after a night of clashes between fascists and communists in the East End. October 12, 1936

Meeting of the British Communist Party at the stadium in Earl's Court, London. August 5, 1939

Cheering crowd of more than eight thousand people at a meeting of the Communists at the stadium in Earl's Court, London. August 5, 1939

The head of the ensemble conducts during a meeting of the British Communist Party at the stadium in Earl's Court, London. August 5, 1939

Police officers stand guard outside the offices of the communist newspaper The Daily Worker on Kaiton Street in East London. The night before, detectives enforced a no-publication order, as ordered by Home Secretary Herbert Morrison. Printing immediately stopped. January 22, 1941