Spelling guide and literary editing. Rosenthal D.E.
16th ed. - M.: 2012 - 368s. 5th ed., rev. M.: 1989. - 320s.
The first two sections of the handbook contain basic rules for spelling and punctuation, with an emphasis on difficult cases. The third section provides information and recommendations of a normative nature related to literary editing. The reference book is intended for publishing workers, primarily editors, as well as for anyone who seeks to improve their literacy and culture of speech.
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Foreword ............................................. 3
Spelling 5
I. Spelling of vowels in the root 5
§ 1. Checked unstressed vowels ............................................... 5
§ 2. Unverifiable unstressed vowels...................................... 5
§ 3. Alternating vowels .............................................. ................. 6
§ 4. Vowels after hissing .............................................. ................... 7
§ 5. Vowels after c ............................................................................ ............ 8
§ 6. Letters 9 - e .................................................................................. ............ 8
§ 7. Letter th ......................................................................................... ............ 9
II. Spelling of consonants in the root 9
§ 8. Voiced and voiceless consonants .............................................. ............ ............ 9
§ 9. Double consonants at the root and at the junction of the prefix and the root 10
§ 10. Silent consonants...................................................... 11
III. Use of capital letters 12
§ 11. Capital letters at the beginning of the text .......................................... . 12
§ 12. Capital letters after punctuation marks .............................. 12
§ 13. Proper names of persons .............................................. ................. .......... 13
§ 14. Nicknames of animals, names of plant species, wine varieties .................. 15
§ 15. Names actors in fables, fairy tales, plays...............
16
§ 16. Adjectives and adverbs formed from individual names 16
§ 17. Geographical and administrative-territorial names ............... 17
§ 18. Astronomical names............................................... ........... 19
§ 19. Names of historical epochs and events, geological periods ....................... 20
§ 20. Names of revolutionary holidays, popular movements,significant dates. 20
§ 21. Names associated with religion ........................................................ ..... 21
§ 22. Names of organizations, institutions, enterprises, foreign firms ..... 21
§ 23. Names of documents, ancient monuments, works of art.......... ....... 24
§ 24. Names of positions and titles .......................................... .......... 24
§ 25. Names of orders, medals, insignia .............................. .......... 25
§ 26. Names of literary works and press organs 26
§ 27. Compound words and abbreviations .............................. ......... 26
§ 28. Conditional proper names .............................................. ........ ......... 27
IV. Dividing b And b 28
§ 29 Use b........................................................................... 28
§ 30. Use of b .............................................. ............................... ......... 28
v. Spelling prefixes 28
§ 31. Prefixes on z-...................................... ........................................ 28
§ 32. Prefix with-....................................... ........................................... 29
§ 33. Prefixes pre- And at- ............................................................... ........ 29
§ 34. Vowels s And And after prefixes .................................................. . 29
VI. Vowels after hissing and c in suffixes and endings 30
§ 35. Vowels owe after hissing ..................................................... 30
§ 36. Vowels after c ......................................................................... 31
VII. Spelling of nouns 31
§ 37. Endings of nouns .............................................. 31
1. Endings of the dative and prepositional cases of nouns with a stem on And (31). 2. The end of the prepositional case of neuter nouns in ye- (31). 3. Genitive endings plural nouns on ye- and bya- (31). 4. The ending of the genitive case of the plural of nouns on - "ya" (31). 5. Endings th And -ohm in the instrumental case of proper names (32). 6. Noun endings with suffixes -search, -ushk, -yushk, -ishk (32). 7. Noun endings with the suffix -l- (32)
§ 38. Suffixes of nouns ....................................................... 32
1. Suffixes -ik And -ek (32). 2. Suffixes -ets- And -its-(33). 3. Suffixes -IC- And -echk- (33). 4. Combinations -ink- And -enk- (33). 5. Suffixes -onk- And -enk- (33). 6. Suffixes -chik And -schik (33). 7. Suffixes -tion And -ne (34). 8. Words with rare suffixes (34)
VIII. Spelling of adjectives 34
§ 39. Endings of adjectives .............................................. . ........ 34
§ 40. Suffixes of adjectives .............................................. 34
1. Suffixes -iv, -liv-, -chiv- (34). 2. Suffixes -oh-, -ovat-, -ovit-, -ev-, -evat-, -evit- (34). 3. Adjectives on -whose- (35). 4. Suffixes -at-, -chat- (35). 5. Ultimate c stems before suffix -chat- (35). 6. Adjectives on -d-sky, -t-sky, ch-sky, -its-cue (35). 7. Adjectives with suffixcatfish -sk-(35). 8. Adjectives from stems to -"6 and -r (36). 9. Adjectives and nouns with combinations ch And sh at the junction of the root and suffix (36). 10. Suffixes -"-, -enn-, -onn-, -in-, -an-, (-yan-)(36) 11. Adjectives in -inskiy And -ensky (37)
IX. Spelling compound words 37
§ 41. Connecting vowels O And e .................................................. 37
§ 42. Difficult words without a connecting vowel .............................. ........ 38
§ 43. Spelling of compound nouns .................................... 39
1. Words with elements -auto-, aero-, bicycle-, fierce-, agro-, bio-, zoo-, film-, radio-, tele-, photo-, macro-, micro-, neo-, meteo-, stereo-, hydro-, electro- and others (39). 2. Words like wryneck (39). 3. Compound words (39). 4. Words like vacuum apparatus, dynamo, chair-bed(40). 5. Words like gram atom(40). 6. Words like anarcho-syndicalism(40). 7. Names of intermediates
countries of the world (40). 8. Words with elements vice-, life-, chief-, non-commissioned, headquarters, ex- (40). 9. Words like love-not-love (40). 10. Words like boy-woman(40). 11. Words like alpha particle(40). 12. Words like Alma-Ata(40). 13. Words like part- And trade union organizations(41)
§ 44. Spelling of compound adjectives .................................. 41
1. Compound adjectives expressing subordinating relationships (41). 2. Continuous spelling of complex adjectives used as terms (42). 3. Compound adjectives, one of the parts of which is not used independently (43). 4. Adjectives formed from complex nouns with hyphens (43). 5. Adjectives formed from a combination of a given name and a surname, a given name and a patronymic, or two surnames (43). 6. Southern adjectives expressing compositional relations (44). 7. Compound adjectives, parts of which indicate heterogeneous features (44). 8. Compound adjectives denoting quality with an additional connotation (45). 9. Compound adjectives denoting shades of colors (45). 10. Hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives used as terms (45). 11. Compound adjectives in geographical or administrative names (46). 12. Compound type adjectives literary and artistic(47). 13. Phrases consisting of an adverb and an adjective or participle (47)
x. Spelling of numerals 48
§ 45. Numbers quantitative, ordinal, fractional... 48
§ 46. Numerals floor- ...................................................................... ......... 49
XI. Pronoun spelling 50
§ 47. Negative pronouns................................................... 50
XII. Spelling of verbs 51
§ 48. Personal endings of verbs .............................................. .......... 51
§ 49. The use of the letter b in verbal forms .......................... 52
§ 50. Suffixes of verbs................................................................ 52
XIII. Spelling participles 53
§ 51. Vowels in participle suffixes .............................................. .... 53
§ 52. Spelling "" and "in participles and verbal appendages
................................................................. ............................................... 53
XIV. Spelling of adverbs 56
§ 53. Vowels at the end of adverbs .............................................. ............... ........ 56
§ 54. Adverbs for hissing. . .................................................. ........ 56
§ 55. Negative adverbs ............................................... .............. ......... 56
§ 56. Continuous spelling of adverbs.................................................... 57
1. Adverbs of type utterly, forever(57). 2. Adverbs of type twice, two by two(57). 3. Adverbs of type for a long time, a lot(57). 4. Adverbs of type back to back(57). 5. Adverbs of type on the alert, alert(57). 6. Adverbs of type on time, on time, on time, in installments(58). 7. Adverbs of type up, forever, forever (59)
§ 57. Hyphenated spelling of adverbs .............................................. ......... 59
1. Adverbs of type apparently friendly, wolfish(59).
2.
Adverbs of type Firstly(59). 3. Adverbs of type after all
(60). 4. Adverbs of type barely, little by little, not today-
tomorrow, from the bay-floundering(60). 5. technical term on the-
mountain(60)
§ 58. Separate spelling adverbial combinations ............................... 60
1. Type combinations side by side(60). 2. Type combinations honor honor (60). 3. Type combinations without knowing, in the old days, before refusal, on the fly, to match, with a running start, the other day (60). 4. Type combinations abroad, in memory, under the arm, in the hearts(61). 5. Combinations of a preposition with its noun starting with a vowel (61)
XV. Spelling of prepositions 61
§ 59. Compound prepositions ............................................... ......................... 61
§ 60. Continuous and separate spelling of prepositions and prepositional combinations 61
XVI. Spelling unions 62
§ 61. Continuous spelling of unions ................................................. ........... 62
1. Union to (62). 2. Unions Same And Also(62). 3. Unions and And besides(62). 4. Union but, adverbs why, then, why, why, why, therefore, therefore, why, how much(63). 5. Union So(64)
§ 62. Separate spelling of unions .................................................. ...... 64
XVII. Particle Spelling 64
§ 63. Separate spelling of particles .............................................. ........ ......... 64
§ 64. Hyphen spelling of particles .............................................. ......... 64
Spelling neither 65
§ 65. Spelling Not with nouns ....................... 65
1. Words like ignoramus(65). 2. Words like enemy(65). 3. Words like layman(65). 4. Particle Not when contrasted (66). 5. Particle Not with a noun in interrogative sentence (66)
§ 66. Spelling Not with adjectives.......................... 66
1. Words like careless(66). 2. Words like small(66). 3. Particle Not when contrasted (66). 4. Particle Not with relative adjectives (66). 5. Writing a particle Not in opposition expressed by the union A or But(67). 6. Writing Not with adjectives carrying explanatory words (67). 7. Writing Not with short adjectives (68). 8. Writing Not with words ready, must, happy and so on. (68). 9. Denial Not with the comparative degree of adjectives (69). 10. Type adjectives incomparable(69). I. Particle Not with an adjective in an interrogative sentence (70)
§ 67. Spelling Not with nouns .............................................. 70
§ 68. Spelling Not with pronouns ............................................... ......... 70
§ 69. Spelling Not with verbs .................................................. .... ......... 70
§ 70. Spelling Not with participles ............................................... 72
§ 71. Spelling not with adverbs .............................................. ........ 73
§ 72. Spelling neither ...................................................................... 75
XVIII. Spelling of interjections and onomatopoeic words 77
§ 73. Hyphen spelling of interjections and onomatopoeia. . 77
XIX. Spelling of foreign words 77
§ 74. Transcription of foreign words .............................................. ........ 77
XX. Punctuation at the end of a sentence and at a break in speech
§ 75. Point ............................................... ...............................................
§ 76. Question mark ............................................... ......................
§ 77. Exclamation point .............................................. ...................
§ 78. Ellipsis ............................................... ...................................
XXI. Dash between members of a sentence
§ 79. Dash between subject and predicate ..............................................
1. Subject and predicate - a noun in the nominative case (81). 2. Subject and predicate indefinite form of the verb (or noun and indefinite form of the verb) (82). 3. Dash before words this, that means and others (82). 4. Predicate - numeral (82). 5. Predicate - predicative adverb on O(83). 6. The predicate is an idiomatic turnover (83). 7. Subject-word This(83). 8. Subject - personal pronoun (83). 9. Predicate - interrogative pronoun (83). 10. Predicate - adjective, pronominal adjective, prepositional-safe combination (83). 11. Dash in footnotes (83)
§ 80. Dash in an incomplete sentence .............................................. ........ 84
1-2. Dash in elliptical sentences (84). 3. Dash in incomplete sentence, forming part of a complex sentence (84). 4. Dash in similarly constructed parts of a complex sentence (84)
§ 81. Intonation dash ............................................... ....................... 85
§ 82. Connecting dash .............................................. ...................... 85
1. A dash to indicate the limits of spatial, temporal, quantitative (85) 2. A dash between proper names that form the names of teachings, scientific institutions, etc. (85)
XXII. Punctuation marks in sentences with homogeneous members
85
§ 83. Homogeneous members, not connected by unions ..............................
1. Comma between homogeneous members (85). 2. Dot behind the fifth between homogeneous terms (86). 3. Dash between homogeneous members (86)
§ 84. Homogeneous and non-homogeneous definitions .................................. ........ 87
§ 85. Homogeneous and non-homogeneous applications .................................................. .........
§ 86. Homogeneous members connected by non-repeating unions ............................................................ ...............................................
1-3. Homogeneous members connected by single connecting and separating unions (90). 4. Homogeneous members connected by opposing unions (90) § 87. Homogeneous members,
United by repeated unions § 88. Homogeneous members connected by paired unions. . .
§ 89. Generalizing words with homogeneous terms ..............................................
1. Homogeneous terms with a preceding generalizing word (93). 2. Homogeneous terms followed by a generalization of the yush.im word (94). 3. Homogeneous terms after a generalizing word that do not end the sentence (95). 4. Generalizing word and homogeneous members in the middle of a sentence (95). 5. Semicolon between homogeneous members in the presence of a generalizing word (95)
XXIII. Punctuation marks for repeated words
§ 90. Comma with repeated words .............................................. .
§ 91. Hyphen spelling of repeated words ..................................
XXIV. Punctuation marks in sentences with separate members
§ 92. Separate definitions ............................................... ............
1. A common definition after the noun being defined (98). 2. Definition in combination with an indefinite pronoun (99). 3. Definitive, demonstrative and possessive pronouns in combination with participle turnover(99). 4. Two single definitions (99). 5. Single determination (100). 6. Definition with a circumstantial shade of meaning (100). 7. Definition in isolation from the noun being defined (100). 8. Definition with a personal pronoun (101). 9. Inconsistent definitions expressed by indirect cases of nouns (101). 10. Inconsistent definitions expressed by the comparative degree of adjectives (102). 11. Inconsistent definitions expressed in the indefinite form of the verb (102).
§ 93. Separate applications ............................................... ............
1. A common application with a common noun (103). 2. Single (non-spread) application (103). 3. Application with its own name (105). 4. Proper names of persons or the name of an animal as an application (105). 5. Applications attached by unions (106). 6. Application with a personal pronoun (106). 7. Application related to the missing defined word (106). 8. The use of a dash in a separate application (106)
§ 94. Separate circumstances .................................................... .......
1. Participle turnover (108). 2. Two single gerunds (PO). 3. Single gerund (111). 4. Circumstances expressed by nouns (111). 5. Circumstances expressed by adverbs (112)
§ 95. Separate additions .......................................................... ............
XXV. Punctuation marks in sentences with clarifying, explanatory words affiliate members offers
§ 96. Clarifying members of the sentence .............................................. ....
1. Clarifying circumstances (114). 2. Clarifying definitions (114). 3. Definitions specifying the meaning of pronouns this one, that one(114). 4. Words rather, rather, rather in the role introductory words (115)
§ 97. Explanatory members of the sentence ..........................................
1. Constructions with words namely, that is(115). 2. Constructions with an explanatory union or (116)
§ 98. Attaching members of the sentence ........................................
1. Constructions with words even, especially, for example, in particular, including and others (116). 2. Unionless connecting structures (117). 3. Signs for connecting structure (117)
XXVI. Punctuation marks for words not grammatically related to sentence members
§ 99. Introductory words and phrases .............................................. ......
1. Discharges of introductory words by value (117). 2. The distinction between introductory words and sentence members (119). 3. Punctuation with words finally, in the end, however, of course, means, in general, mainly, in any case(121). 4. Comma at the meeting of two introductory words (123). 5. Introductory words as part of isolated phrases (123). 6. Introductorywords after a coordinating conjunction (124). 7. Introductory words after the joining union (124)
§ 100
§ 101. Appeal ............................................... ................................. 126
§ 102. Interjection ............................................... ................................. 127
§ 103. Affirmative, negative and interrogative-exclamatory words. 129
XXVII. Punctuation marks in a compound sentence 130
§ 104. A comma in a compound sentence .............................. 130
§ 105. Semicolon in a compound sentence ... 132
§ 106. Dash in a compound sentence .................................. 132
XXVIII. Punctuation marks in a complex sentence 133
§ 107. Comma between main and subordinate clause 133
§ 108. A comma with complex subordinating conjunctions ....................... ...... 134
§ 109. Punctuation in a complex sentence with several subordinate clauses..135
§ 110. A comma at the junction of two unions .................................................. ....... ...... 136
§ 111. Dash in a complex sentence .............................................. ...... 137
§ 112. Colon in a complex sentence .................................. 138
§ 113. Comma and dash in a complex sentence and in
period ................................................................................ 138
XXIX. Punctuation for phrases that are not subordinate clauses 139
§ 114. Expressions that are integral in meaning .............................................. .. 139
1. Turnarounds type do as it should, spend the night where you have to, go wherever your eyes look etc. (139). 2. Combinations not that, not thatn etc. (139). 3. Combinations (not) more than, (not) earlier thanAnd etc. (140). 4. Combinations no one knows who no matter where, no matter what and so on. (140). 5. Combinations anyone, anywhere etc. (140). 6. Turnover type I have something to do, I'll find a place to turn etc. (140). 7. Combination only and... that (141)
§ 115. Comparative turnover .............................................. ............. 141
1. Turnovers with unions as if, exactly, as if and others (141).
2. Turnovers with the union How(142). 3. Absence of a comma in revolutions with a union How(143)
XXX. Punctuation marks in unionless complex sentence 145
§ 116. Comma and semicolon in non-union complex sentence 145
§ 117. Colon in a non-union complex sentence.... 146
§ 118. Dash in a non-union complex sentence ............................ ...... 148
XXXI. Punctuation marks in direct speech 151
§ 119. Direct speech after the author's words .............................................. ...... 151
§ 123. Punctuation marks in dialogue .............................................. ..... ...... 155
XXXII. Quote punctuation marks 156
§ 124. Quotation marks when quoting .............................................. ................... 156
§ 125. Ellipsis in quotations .............................................. .............. 157
§ 126. Uppercase and lowercase letters in quotations .................................. 157
XXXIII. Use of quotation marks 158
§ 128. Words used in an unusual, conditional, ironic meaning ... 158
§ 129. Names of literary works, press organs, enterprises, etc.. 159
§ 130. Names of orders and medals .............................................. ......... 160
§ 131. Names of brand names of machines, manufactured products, etc... 160
§ 132. Names of plant varieties .............................................. ........... 161
XXXIV. Combinations of punctuation marks 161
§ 133. Busy and dash .............................................. ............................... 161
§ 134. Question and exclamation marks .............................. ...... 162
§ 135. Quotation marks and other signs .............................................. ............... ...... 162
§ 136. Parentheses and other signs .............................................. ................. 163
§ 137. Ellipsis and other signs .............................................. .......... 164
§ 138. The sequence of characters in a footnote ................................. ...... 164
Literary editing
XXXV. Word choice 165
§ 139. Semantic and stylistic selection of lexical means 165
§ 140. Elimination of clericalism and stamps .............................................. 170
§ 141. Pleonasm and tautology .............................................. ................ ...... 173
§ 142. Sympathy of speech .................................................. ......................... 174
§ 143. Use of phraseological means .................................. ..... 175
XXXVI. Noun forms 178
§ 144. Fluctuations in the gender of nouns .............................................. 178
1. Words that have parallel masculine and feminine forms (178). 2. Words used in the masculine form (180). 3. Words used in the feminine form (181). 4. Words used in the form of the middle gender (181). 5. Words formed with suffixes (182)
§ 145. Differentiation of meanings depending on generic endings .............................. 182
§ 146. Gender of names of female persons by profession, position, etc. .................................................. 183
1. Words without paired formations (183). 2. Pair formations adopted in neutral speech styles (184). 3. Paired formations used in colloquial speech (184)
§ 147. The gender of indeclinable nouns .................................... 185
1. Words denoting inanimate objects (185).
2. Substantivized words (186). 3. Words denoting persons (186). 4. Words for animals, birds, etc. (186). 5. Geographical names (187). 6. Names of press organs (187). 7. Abbreviations (187)
§ 148. Features of the declension of some words and phrases 188 1. Words of the type house(188). 2. Words like house(188).
3. Compound words tina half an hour(188). 4. Compound words like raincoat tent, dining car(188). 5. Combination Moscow river(188). 6. Complex geographical
type names Orekhovo-Zuevo, Gus-Khrustalny(189). 7. Type combinations fifth of March(189)
§ 149. Declension of some names and surnames .................................. 189
1. Type names Levko, Gavrilo(189). 2. Type combinations
Jules Verne (189). 3. Names and surnames of the type Karel Chapek.(189). 4. Surnames ending in a consonant (189). 5. Indeclinable surnames on -ago, th and others (190). 6. Non-Russian surnames ending in a vowel (190). 7. Ukrainian surnames on -ko (191). 8. Korean, Vietnamese, Burmese surnames (191). 9. Double surnames (191). 10. Non-Russian surnames referring to two persons (191). 11. Type combinations two Petrovs(192). 12. Female patronymics (192)
§ 150. Genitive endings singular -and I)----- u(-u) ..192
§ 151. Forms of the accusative case of animate and inanimate nouns .............................................................. ........ 193
§ 152. Endings of the prepositional case of the singular of nouns male -e----- at............. 195
§ 153. Endings of the nominative pluralmasculine nouns -s(s)----- and I).... 196
§ J 54. Genitive plural endings 199
§ 155. Endings of the instrumental plural-ami ----- (b)mi ....................................................... 200
§ 156. The use of the singular in the meaning of the plural .................................................... .............................. 201
§ 157. The use of abstract, material and proper nouns in the plural ........ 201
§ 158. Variants of suffixes of nouns .............................. 202
1. Words like sparrows- sparrows(202). 2. Words like birch forest- birch(202). 3. Words like senselessness- nonsense(202)
XXXVII. Forms of adjectives 203
§ 159. Full and short form of qualitative adjectives 203
§ 160. Variant forms of short adjectives .............................. 205
1. Mold type related, characteristic(205). 2. Mold type determined, outspoken(205). 3. Mold type bright, swarthy(206)
§ 161. Forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives .... 206
§ 162. The use of possessive adjectives .... 207
1. Type adjectives fathers, uncles(207). 2. Type adjectives paternal, maternal(208). 3. Type adjectives elephant, snake(208). 4. Type adjectives fox(208).
§ 163
XXXVIII. Forms of nouns 210
§ 164. Combinations of numerals with nouns ....................... 210
1. Shapes eight- eight, fifty- five- syat, with three hundred rubles - with three hundred rubles, thousand - thousand(210). 2. Forms of compound numbers (211). 3. Type combinations 22 days(211). 4. Shapes of wallpaper: - both(212). 5. Counting word pair(212). 6. Type combinations two or more(212). 7. Combinations of the preposition po with numerals (212). 8. Type combinations 33.5 percent(213). 9. Numerals one and a half n a hundred and fifty(213)
§ 165. The use of collective numbers .......................... 213
§ 166. Numerals in compound words .................................................... 214
1. Words with an element two- And two-(214). 2. Numerals floor-(215). 3. Compound words tina 2500th anniversary(215)
XXXIX. The use of pronouns 216
§ 167. Personal pronouns ............................................... ................. 216
1. Pronoun and context (216). 2. Omission of the pronoun-subject with the verb-predicate (216). 3. Pleonastic repetition of a personal pronoun as a subject (217). 4. Shapes she has - she has(217). 5. Initial "for 3rd person pronouns (217)
§ 168. Reflexive and possessive pronouns .......................... 218
1. Pronoun myself(218). 2. Pronoun mine(218)
§ 169. Defining pronouns ............................................... .. 219
1. Any- every- any(219). 2. Myself- most(220)
§ 170. Indefinite pronouns ............................................... .220
XL. Use of verb forms 221
§ 171. Formation of certain personal forms .................................... 221
1. Insufficient type verbs win(221). 2. Personal forms of verbs like get well(222). 3. Verbs to build, to sway, to spread, to honor(222) ^. Abundant type verbs rinse, move(222). 5. Some Forms of the Imperative (223)
§ 172. Variants of specific forms .............................................. .......... 224
1. Type verbs manage- manage(224). 2. Verbs type condition- condition(224). 3. Type verbs popularize- popularize(225). 4. Verbs to disdain, to see, to smoke, to climb, to measure, to torture, to raise, to read, to whistle, to hear, to grow old(225). 5. Verbs of motion (226). 6. The combination of verbs of motion with the names of modes of transport (227). 7. Mold type mok- got wet (227)
§ 173. Returnable and non-returnable forms .............................................. 227
1. Type verbs turn white- turn white(227). 2. Type verbsthreaten - threaten(227). 3. Verbs circle- cru live, splash - splash n others (227). 4. The ambiguity of constructions with verbs in -sya (228)
§ 174. Forms of participles ............................................... ......................... 228
§ 175. Forms of gerunds ............................................... ................. 229
XLI. The structure of a simple sentence 229
§ 176. Types of sentence .......................................... ................... 229
1. Type i constructions I propose- I propose(229). 2. Type constructs please don't smoke- no smoking(229). 3. Constructions of type i Want- I would like to(230). 4. Turnovers real, passive and impersonal (230). 5. Offers with a "shifted" construction (230)
§ 177. Forms of the predicate ............................................... ................... 230
1. Colloquial forms of the predicate (230). 2. "Splitting" of the predicate (231). 3. Nominative and instrumental case in compound predicate (231)
XLII. Order of words in a sentence 232
§ 178. Place of the subject and predicate .................................................. 233
§ 179. Place of definition in a sentence .............................................. 234
1. Agreed definition (234). 2. Several agreed definitions (235). 3. Inconsistent definition (236)
§ 180. Place of addition in the sentence .......................................... 236
1. Direct and reverse word order (236). 2. Location of several additions (237). 3. Design typemother loves daughter(237)
§ 181. Place of the circumstance in the sentence .................................... 237
§ 182. Location of introductory words, addresses, particles, prepositions .............................................. ................... 239
XLIII. Agreement of the predicate with the subject 240
§ 183. Predicate with a subject that has a collective noun in its composition ............ 240
1. Type designs the majority voted(240). 2. Type designs the majority of the population voted(241). 3. Conditions for setting the predicate in the plural (241)
§ 184
1. Significance of joint and separate action (242).
2. The meaning of the undivided and divided whole (242).
3. The designation of the measure of weight, space, etc. (243). 4. Combination with words years, months etc. (243). 5. Combinations with numbers two three four(243). 6. Compound numbers ending in one(243). 7. Predicates with words thousand, million, billion(244). 8. Combinations with words all, these, only and others (244). 9. Subject - numeral without noun (244). 10. The value of the approximate amount (244). 11. Word combinations some(245). 12. Combinations with words a lot, a little etc. (245). 13. Combinations with words like troika(246). 14. Combinations with words like mass, lot(246). 15. Words like half an hour(246).
§ 185. Coordination of the predicate with the subject, which has an application with it ............................................ ................ 246
1. Grammatical agreement and agreement in meaning (246). 2. Combination of generic and specific concepts (246).
3. Combination of common noun and proper name (246).
4. Coordination with the subject in the presence of clarifying words, connecting structures, etc. (247). 5. Predicate with words like cafe-dining room (247).
§ 186. Predicate with a subject of type brother and sister.... 248 § 187. The predicate with the subject is an interrogative, relative, indefinite, negative pronoun. . 249 In the subject: 1. Interrogative pronoun (249) ^. Relative pronoun Who(250); 3. Relative pronoun What(250); 4. Indefinite pronoun (250) § 188. Predicate with a subject - an indeclinable noun, a complex abbreviated word, an inseparable group of words............................ ................................................. .............. 251
In the subject: 1. Substantiated word (251); 2. Borrowed indeclinable word (251); 3. Russian abbreviation (251); 4. Foreign language abbreviation (252); 5. Conditional name (252); 6. Inseparable group of words (252); 7. Nickname of a person (253) § 189. Coordination of the link with the nominal part of the predicate. . . 253 § 190. Coordination of the predicate with homogeneous subjects 254 1. Influence of the order of the main members of the sentence (254). 2. The role of unions (254). 3. Semantic proximity of homogeneous subjects (256). 4. Arrangement of subjects in order of gradation (256). 5. Influence of the lexical meaning of the predicate (256). 6. Personal pronouns in the composition of subjects (257)
XLIV. Harmonization of definitions and applications 257
§ 191. Definition with a noun of general gender .... 257
§ 192. Definition with a noun that has an application ............................................................ ... 258
§ 193. Definition with a noun depending on numerals two three four ............................ 259
§ 194. Two definitions with one noun ....................... 261
§ 195. Definition with nouns - homogeneous members 263 1. Definition in the singular form (263). 2. Plural definition (264). 3. Definition of nouns with a repeated preposition (264). 4. Definition with plural nouns (264). 5. Definition when combining type brother and sister(264)
§ 196. Approval of applications .............................................. .......... 265
1. Nicknames and conditional names (265). 2. Type combinationsbooster (265). 3. Type combinations by name, known ny as, whether it be, words-inserts (265). 4. Type combinations showcase-stand (265)
§ 197 Applications - geographical names............................. 265
XLV. Control 268
§ 198
1. Variants of non-prepositional and prepositional constructions (268). 2. Constructions with weak control (269). 3. Turnovers with words except, instead of and others (269).
§ 199. Choice of preposition ............................... :...................... ...................... 270
1. Combinations in address- by address, with- with help cabbage soup, with the aim- in order to etc. (270). 2. Prepositions with explanatorymeaning (oh, about, about etc.) (272). 3. Prepositions with spatial meaning (at, at, about, etc.) (272). 4. Prepositions with temporary meaning (274). 5. Prepositions with causal meaning (because of, because of, due to and others) (275). 6. Prepositions By- o with verbs denoting spiritual experience (276). 7. Denominative prepositions in a relationship- in relation to and others (276). 8. New prepositions in the case, in the area, in part, at the expense of, along the line(276). 9. Type combinations in the introduction- in the introduction(277)
§ 200. Choice of case form .............................................. ............. 277
1. Stylistic variants of case forms (277). 2. Combinations absent, in the 20s and others (278). 3. Prepositionsexcept, between, according to (278). 4. Designs with double dependency (279)
§ 201. Complement case for negative transitive verbs 279 1. Genitive(279).2. Accusative case (280). 3. Optional use of both cases (282). 4. Complement with a verb with a prefix under- (282). 5. Denial Not not with a verb-predicate (282). 6. Case of the complement in sentences with a shifted n-n construction (282)
§ 202. Management with synonymous words .................................... 282
§ 203. Various prepositional-case forms with one control word .............................................................. ................................. 283
1. Complements with verbs give up, donate, donate live, watchand others (283). 2. Type designs drink water - drink some water(288). 3. Type designs look for a place- look for places(288). 4. Genitive temporaryuse (288). 5. Tina designs owe something to someone(288). b. Tina designs traitor- traitor homeland (288). 7. Type designs close to what-close to what(289)
§ 204. Stringing the same forms .............................................. 290
I. Stringing genitive cases (290). 2. Threading other hopes (290). 3. Confluence of case forms with the same prepositions (290). 4. Confluence of infinitives (290). 5. Genitive subject and genitive object (290)
§ 205. Management with homogeneous members of the proposal. . . 291
XLV1. Offers With homogeneous members 291
§ 206. Unions with homogeneous members ....................................................... ... 291
§ 207. Prepositions with homogeneous members .............................................. 292
§ 208. Errors in combinations of homogeneous members .............................. 293
1. Incompatibility of concepts (293). 2. Lexical incompatibility (294). 3. Incompatibility of specific and generic concepts (294). 4. Intersecting concepts (294).
5. Unclearness with different series of homogeneous members (294).
6. Wrong pairwise connection of homogeneous members (294). 7. Morphological incompatibility (294). 8. Errors in the use of comparative conjunctions (295). 9. Violation of the connection between homogeneous members and a generalizing word (295). 10. Heterogeneous syntactic constructions (296)
XLVII. Difficult sentence 296
§ 209. Unions and allied words .............................................. .............. 296
1. Stylistic coloration unions (296). 2. Unions Bye Anduntil(297). 3. Allied words which And Which(297)
§ 210. Mistakes in complex sentences .................................................. 298
1. Diversity of parts of a complex sentence (298). 2. Structural displacement (298). 3. Misuse of conjunctions and allied words(299). 4. Wrong word order (300). 5. Mixing direct speech and indirect (300)
XLV1II. Parallel syntactic constructions 301
§ 211. Participle turnovers .............................................. ................. 301
1. The absence of participle forms of the future tense and the subjunctive mood (301). 2. Participle turnover isolated and non-isolated (301). 3. The meaning of tense, type and voice of participles (301). 4. Agreement of participles (302). 5. The order of words in participial circulation (303). 6. Explanatory words at the sacrament (303). 7. Replacing the accessory defining sentence participial turnover (303)
§ 212. Participle turns ............................................................... ............. 304
1. Normative use of adverbial phrases (304). 2. Place of adverbial turnover in the sentence (305). 3. Synonyms of adverbial turnover and other constructions (305)
§ 213. Constructions with verbal nouns. . . 306 1. The scope of the use of verbal nouns (306). 2. Disadvantages of constructions with verbal nouns (306). 3. Editing techniques (307)
Academic codes of spelling and punctuation
(arranged in reverse chronological order)
Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Full academic reference book: approved by the Spelling Commission of the Russian Academy of Sciences / [ed. N. S. Valgina, N. A. Eskova, O. E. Ivanova, S. M. Kuzmina, V. V. Lopatin, L. K. Cheltsova; resp. ed. V. V. Lopatin]; Ros. acad. Sciences, Dep. historical and philological. Sciences, Institute of Rus. lang. them. V. V. Vinogradova. - Moscow: Eksmo, 2006. - 478, p. – The reference book is an updated edition of the current “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” of 1956. – Editions after 2006 erased.
Code of rules of Russian spelling. Spelling and punctuation: project / [ed. B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova, O. E. Ivanova, S. M. Kuzmina, V. V. Lopatin, L. K. Cheltsova (spelling), N. S. Valgina (punctuation); scientific ed. N. A. Eskova, S. M. Kuzmina, V. V. Lopatin (spelling), E. N. Shiryaev (punctuation); ed. O. E. Ivanova]; Ros. acad. Sciences, Dep. lit. and lang., Spelling Commission and Institute of Rus. lang. them. V. V. Vinogradova. - Moscow: Azbukovnik, 2000. - 396, p. - The project was not approved.
Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation: approved. Acad. Sciences of the USSR, M-vom higher. arr. USSR and Ministry of Education. RSFSR / [the largest account. in comp. hosted by S. G. Barkhudarov, K. I. Bylinskiy, V. V. Vinogradov, I. S. Istrina, I. A. Kairov, E. I. Korenevsky, S. E. Kryuchkov, S. P. Obnorskiy, D N. Ushakov, A. B. Shapiro, L. V. Shcherba]. – Ed. 2nd, sr. - Moscow: State. educational-ped. publishing house M-va. enlightenment RSFSR, 1962. - 175, p. - Auth. indicated in approx. us. 4. - Ed. 1st - 1956 - The rules are posted on the portal in the Help section.
Handbooks on Spelling and Literary Editing by D. E. Rosenthal
Rosenthal D. E. Reference book on the Russian language: spelling, pronunciation, literary editing / D. E. Rozental, E. V. Dzhandzhakova, N. P. Kabanova. – 7th ed. - Moscow: Iris-press, 2010. - 491 p. – The text is printed in a new edition according to the edition: A Handbook of Spelling, Pronunciation and Literary Editing / D. E. Rozental, E. V. Dzhandzhakova, N. P. Kabanova. 4th ed., rev. Moscow: CheRo, 2001.
Rosenthal D. E. Handbook of spelling and literary editing / D. E. Rosenthal; [ed. I. B. Golub]. – Ed. 2nd, rev. - Moscow: Rolf, 1999. - 361, p.
Rosenthal D. E. Handbook of spelling and literary editing: for press workers / D. E. Rosenthal. – Ed. 3rd, rev. and additional - Moscow: Book, 1978. - 334 p.
Rosenthal D. E. Handbook of spelling and literary editing: for press workers / D. E. Rosenthal. - Moscow: Book, 1967. - 407, p.
A guide to punctuation by D. E. Rosenthal
(editions are in reverse chronological order)
Rosenthal D. E. Reference book on the Russian language. Punctuation / D. E. Rosenthal. - Moscow: ONYX 21st century: 2004. - 263 p.
Rosenthal D. E. A guide to punctuation: for press workers / D. E. Rosenthal; [Reviewer Dr. Philol. sciences, prof. V. F. Ivanova]. - Moscow: Book, 1984. - 272 p.
Reference books on spelling and punctuation by K. I. Bylinsky and N. N. Nikolsky
(editions are in reverse chronological order)
Bylinskiy K.I. A guide to spelling and punctuation for press workers / K. I. Bylinsky, N. N. Nikolsky. – Ed. 4th, revised. and additional - Moscow: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1970. - 343, p. - Previous ed.: A Spelling and Punctuation Guide for Press Workers / K. I. Bylinskiy and N. N. Nikolsky. 3rd ed., revised. Moscow: Art, 1957. 336 p.
Bylinskiy K.I. A guide to spelling and punctuation for the press / prof. K. I. Bylinsky and N. N. Nikolsky. – Ed. 2nd, revised. - Moscow: Art, 1952. - 311, p. - Previous ed.: A Spelling and Punctuation Guide for Press Workers / K. I. Bylinskiy and N. N. Nikolsky. Moscow; Leningrad: Gizlegprom, 1947. 116 p.
Spelling, Punctuation, Speech and Editing Guides
Belchikov Yu. A. Practical stylistics of the modern Russian language: norms for the use of words, phraseological expressions, grammatical forms and syntactic constructions / Yu. A. Belchikov; Ros. acad. Sciences. - 2nd. ed., rev. and additional - Moscow: AST-PRESS, 2012. - 422 p. - (Reference books of the Russian language).
Bylinskiy K.I. Difficult cases punctuation / K. I. Bylinskiy, D. E. Rosenthal; [ed. A. E. Milchin]. - Moscow: Art, 1961. - 231 p.
Grot J.K. Russian spelling: a manual compiled on behalf of the second branch of the Imperial Academy of Sciences / J. Grot. – Ed. 21st. - St. Petersburg: Printing house. Moscow Ways of Communication, 1914. - XII, 120, XLIV p.
Mamonov V. A. Practical stylistics of the modern Russian language / V. A. Mamonov, D. E. Rozental. - Moscow: Art, 1957. - 175, p.
Milchin A. E. Directory of the publisher and author: editorial and publishing design of the publication / Arkady Milchin, Lyudmila Cheltsova. - 4th ed. - Moscow: Art. Lebedev Studio Publishing House, 2014. - 1006 p. - This edition repeats the previous one, 3rd, rev. and additional ed. 2009
Ostroumova O. A. Difficulties of Russian punctuation. Dictionary of introductory words, combinations and sentences: [experience of a reference dictionary] / O. A. Ostroumova, O. D. Frampol. - Moscow: Publishing House of SGU, 2009. - 501 p.
Pakhomov V. M. Difficult cases of Russian punctuation: a reference dictionary / V. M. Pakhomov, V. V. Svintsov, I. V. Filatova. - Moscow: Eksmo, 2012. - 569, p. – (Library of EKSMO dictionaries). - The author's electronic version of the dictionary is posted on the portal in the "Help" section.
Editorial and publishing design of church printed publications: a guide for the author and publisher / Ed. Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, Synodal Library named after His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II, Publishing House of the Moscow Patriarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church; ch. ed. Publishing House of the Moscow Patriarchate Archpriest Vladimir Siloviev. - Moscow: Publishing House of the Moscow Patriarchate of Russia Orthodox Church, 2015. - 205 p.
Sluzhivov L.I. A proofreader's guide: a practical guide for a proofreader, compositor, editor and author / L. I. Sluzhivov. - Moscow: State. light industry publishing house, 1932. - 256 p.
1. Names, patronymics, surnames, nicknames, pseudonyms are written with capital letter: Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, Guy Julius Caesar, Emile Zola, Peter the Great (Peter I), Vsevolod the Big Nest, Catherine the Great, Timur the Iron Heel, Fedka Wash Yourself with Mud, Sinbad the Sailor, Demyan Poor, False Nero, Knight of the Sad Image(about Don Quixote), etc.
Note. The nickname is never enclosed in quotation marks: Vladimir Red Sun, Richard Lion Heart, Vanka Kain, Maid nicknamed the Great Mogul.
Remember:
August Strong
Alexander the Great
Anna of Austria
Boleslav the Brave
Vasily the Third Dark
Wilgelm the conqueror
Vladimir Red Sun
Vladimir Monomakh
Heinrich Birder
Heraclitus of Ephesus
David of Sasun
Diogenes of Sinop
Elena the beautiful
Ivan groznyj
Ivan Kalita
John Landless
John of Damascus
John Chrysostom
John the Baptist
Joseph the Beautiful
Charlemagne
Karl the Bald
Karl the Bold
Cato the Elder
Cato Utica
Kirill Turovsky
Louis the Pious
Saint Louis
Mary the Catholic
Mary the Bloody
Paskevich Erivansky
Nicholas the Wonderworker
Peter of Amiens
Pyotr Hermit
Pepin Short
Potemkin Tauride
Richard the Lionheart
Robin Hood
Suvorov Rymniksky
Tarquinius the Proud
Tarquinius the Ancient
Ferdinand the Catholic
Philip Handsome
Friedrich Barbarossa
Edward the Confessor
Julian the Apostate
Yury Dolgoruky
Yaroslav the Wise
2. Proper names that have become common nouns are written with a lowercase letter: Alphonse, Dzhimorda, Don Juan, Womanizer, mentor, philanthropist, vanka(‘cabman in pre-revolutionary Russia’), vanka-vstanka (‘toy’).
If the surname used in a common noun does not go into the category of common nouns, the spelling is retained with a capital letter: We ... were firmly convinced that we had our own Byrons, Shakespeares, Schillers, Walter Scotts(Bel.).
But if the individual name of a person is used in a contemptuous sense, as a generic designation, then it is written with a lowercase letter: despicable socks and sheidemanns(‘traitors social democrats’), quislings (‘collaborators’).
3. Names of objects, units physical quantity, plant species, etc., formed from the names of persons, are written with a lowercase letter: riding breeches, mac, revolver, remington, jacket, ampere, volt, pendant, ohm, x-ray, ivan da marya. Also: "Katyusha" (the colloquial name for the Guards mortar).
4. Individual names related to mythology and religion are capitalized: Zeus, Pallas Athena, Mars, Pegasus, Isis, Brahma, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Allah, Mohammed.
Generic names of mythological creatures are written with a lowercase letter: valkyrie, witch, devil, nymph, satyr, siren.
Note. The names of mythological creatures used in common or figurative meaning, are written with a lowercase letter: hercules ('croup'), atlas ('column'), peruny ('lightning').
5. In complex surnames written with a hyphen, each part is capitalized: Saltykov-Shchedrin, Mamin-Sibiryak, Novikov-Priboy, Rimsky-Korsakov, Nemirovich-Danchenko, Svyatopolk-Mirsky, Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky, Betman-Golweg, Georgiou-Dej.
6. In double (triple, etc.) non-Russian names, regardless of their separate or hyphenated spelling, all parts are capitalized:
1) ancient Roman: Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Tullius Cicero;
2) English (including Australian, Canadian, North American): George Noel Gordon Byron, Robert Louis Stevenson, John Boynton Priestley, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Charles Spencer Chaplin, Katharina Susanna Pritchard;
3) German: Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann, Erich Maria Remarque, Johann Sebastian Bach;
4) Scandinavian: Hans Christian Andersen, Svante August Arrhenius, Olof Reed Olsen;
5) French: Jean Jacques Rousseau, Pierre Henri Simon, Antoine Francois Prevost.
If there are only initials of names, a hyphen is placed between them: I.-S. Bach, V.-A. Mozart;
6) Italian: Giovanni Giacomo Casanova, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Maria Bianca Lugyurin;
7) Spanish (including Latin American): José Raul Capablanca, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Maria Teresa Peon;
8) Portuguese (including Brazilian, Angolese): Luis Carlos Martinez Pena, Maria Dlen Raposo, Agostinho Neto;
9) Flemish: Peter Paul Rubens;
10) Hungarian: Mihai Vitez Chokonai;
11) Romanian: Iona Stefan Radovic;
12) Polish: Bronislaw Wojciech Linke.
Note. In the names of the literary characters Don Quixote and Don Juan, both parts are capitalized and combined with a hyphen, forming a single proper name. But if the word don is used in the sense of ‘master’, it is written separately and with a lowercase letter: Don Basilio, Don Andrea. Common nouns donquixote, don juan are written in lower case.
7. After initial constituent parts viga-, quasi-, pan-, pseudo- and other proper names (names of persons and geographical names) are written with a capital letter: anti-France, quasi-Pushkin, pan-Europe, pseudo-Raphael, false Voltaire(but: False Dmitry II), cinema-Anna (‘the actress who played the role of Anna in the cinema’).
8. Articles, prepositions and particles ( af, van, yes, de la, della, del, der, di, dos, du, du, la, las, le, background) in Western European proper names are written with a lowercase letter:Gustav af Geijerstam, Ludwig van Beethoven, Leonardo da Vinci, Antoine de Saint-Exupery, d "Alembert, Garcilaso de la Vega, Luca della Robbia, Andrea del Sorta, Max von der Grun, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Cola di Rienzo, Fernando- di No Ronha, Delmonte y Aponte, Lara y Sanchas de Castro, Enrique dos Santos, Journal do Brasil, Roger Martin du Gard, Casa de las Americas, le Chapelier.
Service words are written with a capital letter:
1) if they have merged with the surname or name into one word (written together or with a hyphen): Vanloo, Descartes, Du-Belle, Dubois, Lamartine, Laplace, Las Vegas, Los Angeles;
2) if the surname is not used without a function word: Charles De Coster, De Leon, Dos Passos, Le Tellier;
3) if they are capitalized in the source language: Edmondo De Amicis, Di Vitshorio.
9. Particles O ' (Irish, attached with an apostrophe), Mac- (Scottish, attached with a hyphen), San-, Saint-, Saint- (Italian and French, attached with a hyphen) in front of the surname are written with a capital letter: O 'Henry, O ' Connor, McGregor, McDowell, San Marino, San Martin, Saint-Just, Saint-Saens, Sainte-Beuve.
10. In Arabic, Turkic, Persian personal names, components denoting social status, family relations, etc., as well as function words ( yeah, al, al, as, ash, bey, bek, ben, zade, zul, kyzy, ogly, ol, pasha, ul, khan, shah, ed, el etc., which, as a rule, are attached with a hyphen) are written with a lowercase letter: Kerim-aga, Zein al-Abadein, Sabah al-Salem, Omar ash-Sharif, Izmail-bey, Bekir-bek, Yu "suf bin Hedda, Tursun-zade, Salah-zul-Fikar, Marzaaga kyzy Suleymanova, Mammad- ogly(in Azerbaijani surnames, the word oglu is written separately: Aliyev Arif Saradt oghlu, but: Koroglu) , Hakim ol-Molk, Suleiman Pasha, Safe ul-Islam, Mirza Khan, Nadir Shah, Ahmad ed-Din, Mohammed el-Kuni, es-Zayat, Ahmed ibn al-Farid, Abu-l-Faraji, Ayvaz Oshar-ogly, Fahrad-din-Razi, Jalal-ad-Din, Mustafa-Zarif Pasha, ibn Abd Robbihi, ibn al-Athir.
However, some of the named components of personal names, titles settlements and press organs are written with a capital letter: Al-Walid, "Al-Akhbar", Ben Yusuf, Ibn-Rushd, Ibn-Sina, Ibn-Saud, Oglu Bekir-bek, Zulfiqar Ali Khan, Zahir Shah, El-Alamein, Abu Ali, Haji Giray(the element of haji is the honorary title of a Muslim who has made a pilgrimage to Mecca).
11. In two-part Chinese personal names, both parts are capitalized: Sun Yat-sen, An Qi, Lee Woo.
12. In Korean, Vietnamese, Burmese, Indonesian, Ceylon, Japanese personal names, all parts are written separately and with a capital letter: Pak Su Yong, Ho Shi Ming, Fom Van Done, Le Duan, Wu Not Vin, Mang Reng Soi, Kurahara Korehito.
In Japanese proper names the suffix -san (‘master’, ‘lady’), expressing respect for a person, is written with a lowercase letter and is joined by a hyphen: Cio-Cio-san, Suzuki-san, Toyama-san.
13. Names of characters in some works fiction(fables, fairy tales, plays, etc.) are written with a capital letter: Naughty Monkey, Donkey, Goat yes clumsy teddy bear decided to play a quartet(Cr.); Santa Claus, Serpent Gorynych, Little Red Riding Hood, Gray Wolf, Bluebeard(heroes of fairy tales); Cat, Dog, Milk, Sugar, Bread(characters of M. Maeterlinck's play "The Blue Bird"); "Song of the Petrel"(M. G.); Someone in gray (Andr.).
14. Animal names are capitalized: the dog Zhuchka, the cat Vaska, the cat Murka, the horse Sivka, the cow Pestrushka, the elephant Sambo.
If an individual name is used as the name of an animal species or in a figurative sense, then it is written with a lowercase letter: bears in Shishkin's painting; Teddy bear; vaskas and murks rushed around the village; the yard was guarded by an ordinary bug(‘yard dog’ - by a common nickname).
Solovyov Sergey Mikhailovich
History of Russia since ancient times (Volume 1-29)
FOREWORD
A Russian historian presenting his work in the second half of the 19th century does not need to tell his readers about the significance and usefulness of Russian history; his duty is to warn them only of the main thought of the work.
Do not divide, do not split Russian history into separate parts, periods, but connect them, follow mainly the connection of phenomena, the direct succession of forms, do not separate the beginnings, but consider them in interaction, try to explain each phenomenon from internal causes, before isolating it from the general connection of events and to subordinate to external influence - this is the duty of the historian at the present time, as the author of the proposed work understands it.
Russian history opens with the phenomenon that several tribes, not seeing the possibility of getting out of a tribal, special way of life, call on a prince from a foreign clan, call on a single common power that unites the clans into one whole, gives them an outfit, concentrates the forces of the northern tribes, uses these forces to concentrate the rest of the tribes of the current middle and southern Russia. Here main question for the historian, it consists in how the relations between the called-up governmental principle and the called-for tribes were determined, as well as those that were subsequently subordinated; how the way of life of these tribes changed as a result of the influence of the governmental beginning - directly and through another beginning - the squad, and how, in turn, the life of the tribes affected the determination of the relationship between the governmental beginning and the rest of the population when establishing internal order or attire. We notice precisely the powerful influence of this life, we notice other influences, the Greco-Roman influence, which penetrates as a result of the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium and is found mainly in the field of law. But, besides the Greeks, the newborn Rus' is in close connection, in unceasing relations with another European people - with the Normans: the first princes came from them, the Normans were mainly the original squad, they constantly appeared at the court of our princes, as mercenaries participated in almost all campaigns What was their influence? It turns out that it was insignificant. The Normans were not a dominant tribe, they only served the princes of the native tribes; many served only temporarily; those who remained in Rus' forever, due to their numerical insignificance, quickly merged with the natives, especially since in their national life they did not find obstacles to this merger. Thus, at the beginning of Russian society, there can be no talk of the domination of the Normans, of the Norman period.
It has been noted above that the life of the tribes, the life of the clan, powerfully acted in determining the relationship between the government and the rest of the population. This life had to undergo changes due to the influence of new principles, but it remained so powerful that in turn it acted on the principles that changed it; and when the princely family, the Rurik family, became numerous, tribal relations begin to dominate between its members, especially since the Rurik family, as a sovereign family, did not submit to the influence of any other principle. The princes consider the whole Russian land in common, indivisible possession of their whole family, and the eldest in the family, Grand Duke, sits on the senior table, other relatives, depending on the degree of their seniority, occupy other tables, other volosts, more or less significant; the relationship between the older and younger members of the genus is purely tribal, and not state; the unity of the clan is preserved by the fact that when the eldest or grand duke dies, his dignity, together with the main table, passes not to his eldest son, but to the eldest in the whole princely family; this senior is moved to the main table, and the rest of the relatives are moved to those tables that now correspond to their degree of seniority. Such relations in the lineage of rulers, such an order of succession, such transitions of princes have a powerful effect on the entire social life. ancient Rus', to determine the relationship of the government to the squad and to the rest of the population, in a word, are in the foreground, characterize the time.
We notice the beginning of a change in the aforementioned order of things in the second half of the 12th century, when Northern Rus' enters the scene; we notice here, in the north, new beginnings, new relations that have to bring about a new order of things; in the state sense. Thus, through the weakening of the clan connection between the princely lines, through their alienation from each other, and through the visible violation of the unity of the Russian land, the way is being prepared for its gathering, concentration, rallying parts around one center, under the rule of one sovereign.
The first consequence of the weakening of the family ties between the princely lines, their alienation from each other was the temporary separation of Southern Rus' from Northern Russia, which followed the death of Vsevolod III. Not having such solid foundations of state life as Northern Rus' had, Southern Rus' after the Tatar invasion fell under the rule of the Lithuanian princes. This circumstance was not disastrous for the people of the southwestern Russian regions, because the Lithuanian conquerors adopted the Russian faith, the Russian language, everything remained the same; but the unification of all Lithuanian-Russian possessions with Poland was disastrous for Russian life in the south-west as a result of the accession to the Polish throne of the Lithuanian prince Jagail: from that time on, South-Western Rus' had to enter into a fruitless struggle with Poland for its national development in order to preserve its nationality , the basis of which was faith; the success of this struggle, the opportunity for Southwestern Rus' to preserve its nationality, were determined by the course of affairs in Northern Rus', its independence and power.
Here the new order of things was firmly established. Soon after the death of Vsevolod III, after the separation of Southern Rus' from Northern, the Tatars also appeared in the latter, devastated a significant part of it, imposed tribute on the inhabitants, forced the princes to take labels for reigning from the khans. Since for us the subject of first importance was the replacement of the old order of things with a new one, the transition of tribal princely relations into state relations, on which the unity, power of Rus' and the change in the internal order depended, and since we notice the beginnings of a new order of things in the north before the Tatars, then Mongolian relations should be important to us insofar as they contributed to the establishment of this new order of things. We notice that the influence of the Tatars was not the main and decisive one here. The Tatars remained to live far away, cared only about the collection of tribute, without interfering in any way with internal relations, leaving everything as it was, therefore, leaving in full freedom to operate those new relations that had begun in the north before them. The khan's label did not claim the prince as inviolable on the table, it only ensured his volost from the Tatar invasions; in their struggles, the princes did not pay attention to labels; they knew that any of them who brought more money to the Horde would receive a label preferentially over the other and an army to help. Regardless of the Tatars, phenomena are found in the north that signify a new order - namely, the weakening of the clan connection, the revolts of the strongest princes against the weakest, bypassing tribal rights, the effort to acquire means to strengthen their principality at the expense of others. The Tatars in this struggle are only tools for the princes, therefore, the historian has no right to interrupt the natural thread of events from the middle of the 13th century - namely, the gradual transition of tribal princely relations into state ones - and insert the Tatar period, highlight the Tatars, Tatar relations, as a result of which the main phenomena, the main causes of these phenomena, must be closed.
The struggle of individual principalities ends in the north with the principality of Moscow, due to various circumstances, overpowering all the others, the Moscow princes begin to collect the Russian land: they gradually subjugate and then annex the remaining principalities to their possession, gradually, in their own way, their tribal relations give way to state, appanage princes lose their rights one by one, until, finally, in the will of John IV, the appanage prince becomes completely a subject of the grand duke, the elder brother, who already bears the title of king. This is the main, basic phenomenon - the transition of tribal relations between princes into state ones conditions a number of other phenomena, strongly responds in the relations of the government to the squad and the rest of the population; unity, the combination of parts determines the strength that the new state uses in order to defeat the Tatars and launch an offensive movement into Asia; on the other hand, the strengthening of Northern Rus' as a result of the new order of things conditions its successful struggle with the kingdom of Poland, the constant goal of which is to unite both halves of Rus' under one power; finally, the unification of parts, autocracy, the end of the internal struggle gives the Muscovite state the opportunity to enter into relations with the European states, to prepare a place for itself among them.
