The origin of the Kurdish people is still debatable among scientists, and besides this, it is also highly politicized. The fact is that this people, despite their numbers, cultural identity and ancient origin, still does not have their own statehood, but the Kurds themselves often call the places of their compact residence Kurdistan, which, according to them, includes separate territories of Turkey, Syria and Iraq.
Ethnogenesis and Kurdish languages
Despite the numerous hypotheses about the origin of the people, the most reliable for many scientists is the one according to which the people are a descendant of the militant tribe of the Kurtians, who once lived in the Armenian Highlands and in Atropatene Median.
Clarifying the question of the origin of the Kurds is further complicated by the fact that in Persian literature Kurds could be called any Iranian-speaking tribe that lived on the territory of the empire.
It is believed that the Kurds are an alien people and are descended from the Scythians and Sarmatians. In any case, this people, apparently, has always been a rather variegated set of tribes, each of which was named in accordance with the territory of its residence, and often had own language.
Iranian languages
All the languages spoken by the Kurds belong to the northwestern Iranian languages, which in turn are included in the Indo-European language family. The variety of Kurdish languages is great and there is no longer any understanding between some of them, despite the common origin and a large number of identical roots.
Any Kurdish language has numerous loanwords from the dominant language of the country in which the community lives. And since the Kurds have been living in Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran for a long time, borrowings from these languages are very significant, and the process of creating cripples from foreign words continues to this day.
The Kurds never had their own script and used the Arabic alphabet for a long time, until the Turkish authorities translated them into Latin in the 20th century. In the same time Latin language was adapted for the Soviet Kurds, who compactly lived on the territory of Armenia and Azerbaijan.
However, in 1946, the USSR changed its mind and translated the Kurmanji language into the Cyrillic alphabet, this was probably due to the nationalist turn and coincided in time with the deprivation of autonomy of the North Caucasian peoples.
The evolution of languages
The most common, as in geographically, and by the number of speakers, among the Kurds is Kurmanji. This language is found in southeastern and eastern Turkey, northern Syria and northwestern Iran.
But, despite its wide distribution and long history of its study in relation to other Kurdish languages, the evolution of Kurmanji does not seem obvious to scientists.
Today, Kurds who speak southern languages are deprived of the opportunity to understand their northern counterparts, since the languages differ too much lexically, in addition, there are significant differences in the morphology of words, as well as in pronunciation.
Some scholars dare to argue that the differences between Kurmanji and Sorani - another very common Kurdish language - are similar to those observed between English and German. However, this statement, although rather colorful, is not entirely true.
Such significant differences in the development of languages are connected, not least, with political reasons. After all, without having their own state, the Kurds cannot contribute to the development of their languages and in any way control this development.
Southern languages
In the Russian-language scientific literature, the South Kurdish language does not have a well-established name, but the name pehlewani is common in Western historiography. This language is native to three million people living mainly in the northwest of the Islamic Republic of Iran and in the east of Iraq.
In general, it is worth saying that various Kurdish tribes living in various provinces tend to name their languages by the area of \u200b\u200bresidence, and the word Kurmanji denotes their ethnicity.
Returning to the Pahlavani language, it is worth saying that he experienced a very strong influence of the Persian language. This also applies to grammar and, of course, vocabulary as well as pronunciation.
Like other Iranian languages, Pahlavani is quite old and has a history of up to three thousand years. In this regard, it is difficult to trace the history of its development in its entirety, since it experienced a variety of influences, because the region of its distribution has a very rich political life.
Politics and language
Starting from the XlX century, the Kurds thoroughly took up the cause of national liberation and began to make attempts to create a national state, getting rid of Ottoman rule.
Opportunity, it would seem, presented itself after the First World War, when the Ottoman Empire weakened, and then completely collapsed. However, the small Kurdish states created on its fragments did not last long, and the chance was missed.
After that, the history of the Kurds of Turkey is a series of unsuccessful attempts to achieve at least cultural autonomy. In the mid-eighties, the Kurdish supporters of independence decided to move to the active phase of the struggle for liberation and began an open armed confrontation, which after a long twenty years ended in a truce.
However, in 2016, the Kurdistan Workers' Party announced the end of the truce and a wave of terrorist attacks swept through the country again, the victims of which were police and military.
Simultaneously with the military pressure on the Kurdish community, the Turkish authorities sought to limit the cultural implementation of the Kurds in every possible way, prohibiting the teaching of it in schools and universities.
Kurmanji in the USSR
The first Kurds were in the territory Russian Empire after its conquest of lands in Transcaucasia. After that, immigrants from Iran began to appear on the territory of the empire and Ottoman Empire who spoke different dialects of Kurmanji and Sorani.
However, after the collapse of the empire and the formation of the USSR, the authorities took over the control of the cultural sphere and the reform of the Kurdish language, which was first translated into Latin, and then into Cyrillic.
In the USSR, newspapers were published in Kurmanji, research was conducted and dictionaries were compiled, which, however, did not differ high quality. The Soviet Kurds moved further and further away from their counterparts in the West, and this process stopped only after the liquidation of the USSR.
Along with the Assyrians, Armenians, partly Turks and Jews, the Kurds are the descendants of peoples belonging to the Hurrian-Urartian (Alarodian) language group. Historically, Kurdistan was part of the states of Assyria, Urartu, Mitanni, Mannei. In 850 B.C. e. Hurrian dialects were finally supplanted by Iranian (in particular, Median). The influence of Hurrian dialects can be traced in the ergative sentence structure of the modern Kurdish language and in Kurdish toponyms.
In the VI-V centuries BC. e. The Achaemenid dynasty seized the territory of the Upper Mesopotamia and established power over the peoples living there. During several centuries of dominance of Iranian culture, the local population adopted the Iranian religion (Zoroastrianism) and the Median language. At the beginning of the 1st millennium A.D. e. Kurdistan was part of the Sassanid Empire, in the IV-V centuries AD. e. Byzantium captured its territory, in the VI century it passed into the possession of the Arabs. At this time, the northwestern Iranian languages began to develop, subsequently spreading to the southeast of Iran. In the 7th century, the Arab state collapsed, and Kurdistan passed to the Baghdad Caliphate, in the 11th century Iran captured this territory, and then the Mongols. Since the 10th century, Kurdish communities have been spreading in Transcaucasia and Iran. In the 13th century, Kurdistan became part of the Seljuk Empire. Close contacts between the Kurds and the Turks took place in Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea, as a result of which some of the Kurdish clans became Turkicized, and individual tribes of the Turks moved into the Kurdish clans.
In the 16th century, Safavid Iran and the Ottoman Empire launched a struggle for Kurdish territory. In 1639, the Zohab Peace was concluded, according to which the north of Kurdistan was ceded to the Ottoman Empire, and the south to Iran. IN late XIX century, Kurdistan was divided among themselves by Syria, Türkiye, Iran and Iraq. During that period, for the first time, the concept of “Kurd” (from the Persian Gurjistan - the Country of Wolves) was heard, which began to be used in the Middle East to refer to the tribes that spoke the northwestern Iranian languages, which originated from Median. According to another version, “kur-manj” can be translated as “son of Media”.
From 1923 to 1929, the Kurdish ASSR existed as part of the Azerbaijan SSR. In 1942, several thousand Kurds, together with the Meskhetians, were resettled in Central Asia, from where they returned only ten years later, settling in Azerbaijan and Armenia, but many migrated to Turkey and Iran. In 1946, the Kurdish republic of Mahabad was created in Iran, which did not last very long. In 1979, in Turkey, under the leadership of the Kurdish leader Abdullah Ocalan, the Kurdish Workers' Party was formed, which advocated for the rights of the people. Since 1985, the "Kurdish Parliament in Exile" has been operating in Brussels.
Additional Information about Kurdish:
According to cultural and linguistic characteristics, Kurdish peoples can be divided into Kurds, Zaza-Gorani, Lurs, Zoroastrians and Kurdish Jews. Actually Kurds speak three dialects: literary Kurmanji, Sorani and transitional. According to the classification of the English Kurdish scholar D. N. Mackenzie, Kurmanji is the northern dialect, Kurdi is the central one, Sorani is the southern one. The Kurmanji and Sorani dialects are two literary forms of the Kurdish language, grammatically identical but different phonetically and lexically. Kurdish dialects are characterized by ergative structure, word order like SOV ( Subject-Object-Verb), a developed system of prepositions and postpositions.
Kurmanji. The number of people speaking this dialect is 8 million people, of which 3.9 million live in Turkey, 938 thousand in Syria, 200 thousand in Iran, 58 thousand in Armenia, 20 thousand in Azerbaijan. This dialect has been heavily influenced by Armenian (phonetically) and Turkish (lexically) but is mostly quite archaic. Its literary form developed by the 14th century.
Sorani and Kurdi. These dialects are spoken by 6 million people: 3.25 million in Iran; 2.79 million in Iraq. They live separately in Iraq and Iran. Arabic script is used, and a significant influence of Arabic can be traced in the vocabulary. The literary form of the dialects emerged in the 18th century.
The following tribal dialects are classified as separate Kurdish languages: Mukri, Surchi, Kherki and Shekkaki. Surchi, Kherki and Shekkaki are similar to Kurmanji, but more conservative. Mukri is more commonly associated with Sorani. In Europe, the Kurdish language began to be studied after the publication in Rome in 1787 of the first grammar of the Kurdish language by M. Gartsoni. It contained basic data on the parts of speech, as well as a 200-page Italian-Kurdish dictionary. At the beginning of the 20th century, interest in the Kurdish language increased. From 1913 to 1926, several more works on grammar were published with rather extensive glossaries (mainly on the Kurmanji dialect). Among the authors of these works were E. Soun, R. Jardine, P. Beidar, Ali Badirkhan Kamuran, I.I. Zuckerman and C.H. Bakaev.
According to one of the famous Zazaist linguists, Seidkhan Kurizh, the creation of a standardized literary form of the Kurdish language is a complex and time-consuming process. Attention must be paid to the standardization and development of all Kurdish dialects. In order to create a unified terminological base, Kurdish language researchers are trying to reduce the differences between the Kurmanji and Zaza dialects, as well as introduce common terms.
It should also be noted that Kurdish was recognized as one of the languages international system education. The American Educational Testing Service assigned the Kurdish language an appropriate code, now it is number 342 among the languages of the world. According to Mustafa Abbas, head of the English Department of the University of Sulaymaniyah, the assignment of this code confirms the fact that the Kurdish language is recognized in the world scientific community.
Sources:
- http://randevu-zip.narod.ru/caucase/kurd.htm
- http://www.kurdist.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=285
- http://www.kurdist.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=323
Kurdish(كوردی, Kurdî) - the language of the Kurds, one of the representatives of the Western Iranian subgroup in the composition. Distributed in a region informally called.
Story
Linguistic characteristic
Writing
| A a | B b | in in | G g | G "g" | D d | Her | Ә ә |
| Ә́ ә́ | F | W h | And and | th | K to | K" to" | L l |
| Mm | N n | Oh oh | Ö ö | P p | P "p" | R p | R "r" |
| C with | T t | T"t" | u u | f f | x x | Һ һ | Һ" һ" |
| h h | h"h" | W w | u u | b b | uh uh | Q q | W w |
IN Lately former Soviet Kurds have almost completely switched to the Latin alphabet. The issue of switching to the Latin alphabet is also constantly raised in, including at the government level; however, in reality, steps in this direction are being made very slowly.
Phonological information
Vocalism is represented by the following phonemes:
| front | central | back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long | |
| close | ||||||
| mid | ||||||
| open | ||||||
Syllable
Morphological type of language
The composition and nature of morphological categories
The main ways of word formation
Kurdish is one of the languages with a system.
Sentence structure
Genetic and areal characteristics of vocabulary
Information about dialects
Kurdish is divided into several large dialects, one of them is the Kurmanji dialect, which is spoken by the Kurds of the former Soviet Union. The main area of its distribution is the Turkish, Iranian and Syrian parts of Kurdistan. The vast majority of Kurds in these regions call themselves "Kurmanji", while clearly realizing themselves as ethnic Kurds. Famous Kurdish historians Sharaf Khan Bidlisi (2-82), Mah Sharaf-Khanum Kurdistani (3-47) and Khusraw ibn Muhammad Bani Ardelan (4-100) divide the Kurds into four groups ( taife), “whose language and customs differ”: in “Kurmanji”, “lur”, “kalhor” (Mah Sharaf-Khanum and Khusrav ibn Muhammad instead of “kalhor” call “Bani Ardelan”, meaning by the latter all the Ardelan Kurds) and “ guran" ("gorans"). The Ardelan Kurds called their immediate neighbors - the Baban Kurds "Kurmanj" or "Kurmanji", and themselves - Kurds. In scientific literature, the dialect spoken by Baban Kurds is usually called Sorani (Sorani), in contrast to Kurmanji, the language of the Kurds of Northwestern Kurdistan (3-194). Despite the fact that the Sorani dialect is part of the southern Kurdish dialect group, babans continue to call themselves "Kurmanji", and this is of particular curiosity to scientists - and.
In Kurdish history, there are cases when the speakers of one Kurdish dialect switched to another. At the beginning of the century, in the Leilakh (or Eilak) district of Senenjen Kurdistan, where the former population was exclusively Gorani, the Gorge, Sheikh Ismaili, Baylavand and Jaf tribes settled - carriers of the Kurmanji dialect, which replaced Gorani (3-195). We observe the same intra-Kurdish dialectal assimilation process in the case when in the Bivanizh region, located in the middle of the Zagros mountains not far from Zohab, the old Bivanizh Kurdish dialect, which was observed by the well-known Kurdish philologist from Iran Dr. Sorani dialect (5-153).
The Mukri Kurds also refer to themselves as "Kurmanji", although their spoken dialect is Sorani and belongs to the Southern Kurdish dialects. In written sources, we find one more meaning - in addition to the dialect and self-name of the Kurds - the word "Kurmanji". The Kurdish historian-ethnographer Mela Mahmud Bayazidi understood only settled Kurds by the word "Kurmanji", as an alternative for the ethnonym "Kurd" in the meaning of "nomad" (6-80). In contrast, the remarkable Russian scientist T.F. Aristova in the word "Kurmanji", in addition to "reflecting the self-name of the Kurds" and the name of one of the Kurdish dialects, also saw a third meaning - "Kurdish nomadic population" (7-12).
Thus, we observe a curious fact when the tribes speaking the Sorani dialect (Babans, Mukri, etc.) call themselves Kurmanji, using the word denoting the North Kurdish dialect as a self-name (27), and at the same time emphasize their belonging to the Kurdish ethnic group. The word "Kurmanji" also means either "sedentary" or "nomadic" Kurdish population. There is a fact that there is no clearly defined meaning of the word "Kurmanji". So what is the true meaning of this word? What is behind it? We will try to answer this question.
In fairness, it should be noted that the Armenian scientist Gr. Gapantsyan. Referring to the Hittite Code of Law dating back to the 14th century BC, which reported on the Manda and Sila tribes, exempted from the special duty of lurii (ahhan), the scholar wrote: "In connection with the topic of Mandas, I would like to scientifically raise the question and about the ethnic name "kurmanj", as most of the Kurds call themselves.I consider this kurmanj as compound word kurmanj, and I take the first part for kur, and the second part I deduce from the name manda, this ancient warlike people, distributed in different places, or, more precisely, tribes, although there is still a Kurdish tribe mandaka without changing "d" to "j" ("dz"). Here the concept of “son” becomes, as it were, a formal word for belonging to a tribe, like the suffix “ak” ... The formation of the Kurdish national name is undoubtedly based on this ancient ideology ... It would be less successful to derive kurmanj (kurmanj) from the addition of “Kurd” and “manj” , that is, to understand as "Kurds (from the tribe) Manj" (that is, manda). In both cases, there is a great influence in antiquity of the manda tribes. I leave the question of the similarity of the name manda with the Matiens and Madas (=Medes), as discussed by many scholars (8-140).
G. Gapantsyan, having perspicaciously connected the words “manda” with the Kurds, a little earlier on the pages of his work, speaking of the tribes manda and sala, their reflection tends to be seen in the princely clans mandakuni and salkuni from ancient Armenian sources, and explains the meaning of the words mandak as “mand- ets" and "sal-ets" (8-136).
We see the key to unraveling the meaning of the word "Kurmanji" in the following: at the dawn of mankind, when there was no writing yet, primitive drawings played the role of a message. These drawings are considered the first step of mankind in the creation of all species, as it was the easiest way to transfer simple concepts. For example, the image of a human figurine meant “man”, if it was depicted in his hands, or co - it meant “warrior”, if there was an image of a gazelle, etc. - we already have a “hunter” in front of us. And if a warrior is depicted fighting with some predatory and strong beast or mythical creature, then we already see the hero of the famous
KURDISH
(Kurmanji) - refers to the Iranian system, or (in the still held terminology of the Indo-Europeanists) the “family” of the language, namely, to its western branch. The latter is subdivided into the northwestern and southwestern language groups, and the Kurdish language. belongs to the northwestern group, while Persian belongs to the southwestern group. However, Iranian languages. and adverbs have not yet been sufficiently studied to be able to give their final classification, and within their western group there is a certain mixing and mutual penetration of southern and northern elements. In addition, the Iranianists in their works on the Iranian language. and dialects do not take enough into account the possibility of preserving in them the experiences of the pre-Iranian ethnic layer. In particular, some phenomena of articulation, as well as morphological and syntactic order are in the Kurdish language. common not only with a number of other Iranian dialects and languages, but also with the language. Caucasus. The vocabulary has its own words that are not found in other Iranian dialects (denial - ??, t?, preposition 'c' - digel, te?i - full, h?tin - come, ?nin - bring, n?rd - send etc.); there are many Persian loanwords to which Kurdish phonetic laws do not apply. There are many Turkish words (in particular, participles in mi?) in the dialects bordering on the settlement of the Turks. In Kurdish. many more words of the Arabic lit-th dictionary have entered (through Turkish and Persian); there are also Arabic folk forms and Armenian and Aramaic words; it is possible that some Armenian and Kurdish words go back to yaz. local pre-Iranian population. Kurdish dialects have not yet been sufficiently examined and studied, and the final division
754 of them cannot be produced yet. A significant part of the materials of the researcher of the dialects of the Eastern and Persian groups - O. Mann - has not yet been published. A number of Kurdish dialects bear the common name "Kurmanji" and can be divided into two groups: eastern (more precisely, southeastern) and western. The boundary between the two has not yet been clarified. Then it is necessary to single out a group of Persian Kurdish dialects (the Senne-Kermanshah region), designated either by the common name "Kurdi", or by the name of the area (for example, Zangana, Kalhuri, Senna, Kermanshahs), as well as small groups scattered here and there in Persia. An attempt to classify the Kurdish dialects was made by E. S. Soane in his "Grammar of the Kurmanji" (L., 1913). Bibliography: II. Justi, Kurdische Grammatik, St. Petersburg, 1880; Socin A., Die Sprache der Kurden, "Grundriss der iranischen Philologie", B. I, 2 Abt., S. 249-286 (both based mainly on Western Kurmanji); Mann O., Die Mundart der Mukri Kurden, Grammatische Skizze, "Kurdisch-Persische Forschungen", vol. I, 1906; Soane E. S., Notes on the Phonology of Southern Kurmanji, J. R. A. S., 1922, pp. 199-226. The only dictionary so far: Jaba A. - Justi F., Dictionnaire Kurde-fran?ais, St. Petersburg., 1879. III. Minorsky W., Kurden, "Enzyclop?die des Islam" (comprehensive bibliography). B. Miller
Literary encyclopedia. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is the KURDIAN LANGUAGE in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- KURDISH
- KURDISH in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB:
language, the language of the Kurds living in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria and partly in other countries (Afghanistan, Lebanon, the USSR). The number of speakers... - KURDISH
refers to Indo-European family languages (Iranian group). The modern Kurdish language is written in Iraq (based on Arabic script) and in … - KURDISH
- one of the Iranian languages \u200b\u200b(Northwestern group). Distributed in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria and the USSR. Official language (along with Arabic) ... - LANGUAGE in the Wiki Quote:
Data: 2008-10-12 Time: 10:20:50 * Language has great importance also because with it we can hide our ... - LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of thieves' jargon:
- investigator, operative ... - LANGUAGE in Miller's Dream Book, dream book and interpretation of dreams:
If in a dream you see your own language, it means that soon your acquaintances will turn away from you. If in a dream you see ... - LANGUAGE in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing the opportunity ... - LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
- a complex developing semiotic system, which is a specific and universal means of objectifying the content of both individual consciousness and cultural tradition, providing ... - LANGUAGE
OFFICIAL - see OFFICIAL LANGUAGE... - LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
STATE - see STATE LANGUAGE ... - LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedia of Biology:
, an organ in the oral cavity of vertebrates that performs the functions of transportation and taste analysis of food. The structure of the tongue reflects the specifics of animal nutrition. At… - LANGUAGE in the Concise Church Slavonic Dictionary:
, tongues 1) people, tribe; 2) language, ... - LANGUAGE in the Bible Encyclopedia of Nicephorus:
like speech or adverb. "The whole earth had one language and one dialect," says the chronicler (Genesis 11:1-9). The legend of one... - LANGUAGE in the Lexicon of Sex:
multifunctional organ located in the oral cavity; pronounced erogenous zone of both sexes. With the help of Ya, orogenital contacts of the most diverse ... - LANGUAGE in Medical terms:
(lingua, pna, bna, jna) a muscular organ covered with a mucous membrane located in the oral cavity; participates in chewing, articulation, contains taste buds; … - LANGUAGE in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
..1) natural language, essential tool human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ... - LANGUAGE in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking, it is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ... - LANGUAGE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
2, -a, pl. -i, -ov, m. 1. A historically established system of sound ^ vocabulary and grammatical means, objectifying the work of thinking and being ... - KURDISH in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, th, th. 1. see Kurds. 2. Referring to the Kurds, to their language, national character, lifestyle, culture, and… - LANGUAGE
MACHINE LANGUAGE, see Machine language ... - LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
LANGUAGE, natural language, the most important means of human communication. I. is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ... - LANGUAGE in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
LANGUAGE (anat.), in terrestrial vertebrates and humans, a muscular outgrowth (in fish, a fold of mucous membrane) at the bottom of the oral cavity. Participates in … - KURDISH in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
URDIAN LANGUAGE, official. the language of Iraq (along with Arabic). Refers to Indo-European. family of languages (Iranian gr.). Modern K.I. has writing... - LANGUAGE
languages"to, languages", language", language"in, language", language"m, language", language"in, language"m, language"mi, language", ... - LANGUAGE in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
languages"to, languages", language", language"in, language", language"m, languages"k, languages", language"m, language"mi, language", ... - KURDISH in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
ku"rdsky, ku"rdskaya, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku" rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ku"rdsky, ... - LANGUAGE in the Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary:
- the main object of study of linguistics. Under I., first of all, they mean natures. human self (in opposition to artificial languages and ... - LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:
1) The system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means, which is a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, expressions of will and serving as the most important means of communication between people. Being… - LANGUAGE in the Popular explanatory-encyclopedic dictionary of the Russian language.
- LANGUAGE
"My Enemy" in... - LANGUAGE in the Dictionary for solving and compiling scanwords:
Weapon … - LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of synonyms of Abramov:
dialect, adverb, dialect; syllable, style; people. See people || talk of the town See spy || to be fluent in the tongue, temperate in the tongue, ... - KURDISH in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
adj. 1) Pertaining to the Kurds, associated with them. 2) Peculiar to the Kurds, characteristic of them. 3) Owned... - KURDISH in the Dictionary of the Russian language Lopatin.
- KURDISH in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language.
- KURDISH in the Spelling Dictionary.
- LANGUAGE in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
1 mobile muscular organ in the oral cavity, perceiving taste sensations, in humans also involved in the articulation Lick with the tongue. Try on… - LANGUAGE in the Dahl Dictionary:
husband. a fleshy projectile in the mouth, which serves to line the teeth with food, to recognize its taste, and also for verbal speech, or, ... - LANGUAGE in Modern explanatory dictionary, TSB:
,..1) natural language, the most important means of human communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking; is a social means of storing and transmitting information, one ... - LANGUAGE
language (language of bookish obsolete, only in 3, 4, 7 and 8 meanings), m. 1. An organ in the oral cavity in the form of ... - KURDISH in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
Kurdish, Kurdish. App. to the Kurds. Kurdish… - KURDISH in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
Kurdish adj. 1) Pertaining to the Kurds, associated with them. 2) Peculiar to the Kurds, characteristic of them. 3) Owned... - KURDISH in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
- KURDISH in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
adj. 1. Pertaining to the Kurds, associated with them. 2. Peculiar to the Kurds, characteristic of them. 3. Owned… - Türkiye in the Directory of Countries of the World:
REPUBLIC OF TURKISH A state in Southeast Europe and Southwest Asia. In the northwest it borders with Bulgaria and Greece, in the northeast with …
KURDISH, the language of the Kurds. Official language Iraqi Kurdistan. Distributed in Kurdistan, in the republics of the former USSR (mainly in Armenia, Georgia, as well as in Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, etc.), in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The total number of speakers is over 35 million people (2008, estimate), including about 20 million people in Turkey, about 6 million people in Iraq, about 7 million people in Iran, about 1 million people in Syria, and 36.5 thousand people in Russia (2002 , census).
Kurdish is one of the Iranian languages (Northwestern group). It is a collection of dialects. In Russian Iranian studies, there are 2 main groups of them. The northern one (the most common; the area is mainly Turkish Kurdistan, partly Syria, Iraq, Iran, Transcaucasia, Russia) includes the dialects of the Kurmanji and Zaza dialects (Zazaki, dymli). Southern (Iran, Iraq) includes two subgroups of the largest dialects [Sorani, Suleimani, Mukri, Synei (conditionally united by the linguonym "Sorani"); Gorani, Avramani, Kandulai, Badjalani (united by the term "Gorani")], as well as insufficiently studied dialects of Kermanshahi, Luri, Files, Laki, etc. There is a point of view in Iranian studies, according to which 3 proper Kurdish languages are distinguished as part of the Iranian languages [Northern (Kurmanji), Central (Sorani) and Southern (Kelkhuri; includes the understudied dialects listed)], while Zaza and Gorani, whose speakers are also considered Kurds, are classified as separate subgroups of northwestern Iranian languages.
The described dialect division is based on a combination of phonetic, grammatical and lexical features that characterize each of the groups. Most character traits Kurmanji, which distinguish it from Sorani, belong to the field of phonetics: the presence of aspirated p’, t’, k’, pharyngealized affricate c’, labiodental fricative v (in Sorani it corresponds to labiolabial round fricative w); the absence of velarized l, as well as the diphthongoids ua, uê, uî specific to Sorani. In morphology, this is: the presence of indicators of the indirect case of the name differentiated by gender and number [there are no cases in Sorani, in it the plural of the name has general form into -an, while in Kurmanji the suffix -a(n) only indicates the indirect case plural]; opposition according to the gender and number of izafet forms [in Sorani, izafet has a general form in -l (y)]; the absence of the suffix indicator of certainty -eke (widely used in Sorani); in the verb system - the presence of the object conjugation of the transitive verb in the past tense forms (in contrast to the subjective in Sorani), as well as the analytical form of the passive (in contrast to the simple form in Sorani). One of the main features that distinguish Sorani from Kurmanji is the use in Sorani of multifunctional personal enclitic pronouns (see Klitika), which permeate the grammatical structure of all southern dialects: they act as personal indicators of transitive verbs in the past tense, are part of complex prepositional complexes, widely are used in object-attribute functions, as well as in the construction of various syntactic constructions.
The main Kurdish dialects (Kurmanji, Zaza, Gorani, Avramani, Sorani, Suleymani, etc.) have significant literature, including artistic, religious, historiographic works [the first written monument in Kurdish (in Kurmanji) dates back to the 11th century]. However, the status literary language had only Kurmanji (the literary form was formed on the basis of the Hakkari dialect), Gorani (the literary form based on Avramani, was used until the middle of the 19th century) and Sorani (the literary form based on Suleymani). Modern literature most actively developed on Kurmanji and Sorani.
In Turkish Kurdistan, writing based on the Latin alphabet is used, in Iran and Iraq - the Arab-Persian alphabet, in Syria - alphabets based on the Arabic and Latin graphic alphabets (all from the middle of the 20th century). Writing in former USSR(mainly in Armenia and Georgia) since 1921 on the basis of the Armenian, since 1929 - the Latin, since 1945 - the Cyrillic alphabet.
Lit .: Sokolova V.S. Essays on the phonetics of Iranian languages. M.; L., 1953. T. 1; Kurdoev K.K. Grammar of the Kurdish language (Kurmanji). M.; L., 1957; MacKenzie D. N. Kurdish dialect studies. L., 1961-1962. Vol. 1-2; Tsukerman I.I. Essays on Kurdish Grammar. M., 1962; Eyubi K. R., Smirnova I. A. Kurdish dialect of mukri. L., 1968; Bakaev Ch.Kh. The language of the Kurds of the USSR. M., 1973; Tsabolov R. L. Essay on the historical morphology of the Kurdish language. M., 1978; he is. Kurdish language // Fundamentals of Iranian linguistics. New Iranian languages. M., 1997. Part 2; Yusupova Z. A. Suleymani dialect of the Kurdish language. M., 1985; she is. Gorani Kurdish dialect. SPb., 1998; she is. Kurdish Avramani dialect. St. Petersburg, 2000; Pireiko L. A. Gorani. Zaza // Fundamentals of Iranian Linguistics. New Iranian languages: northwestern group. M., 1997. Part 2; Smirnova I. A., Eyubi K. R. Kurdish dialect of Zaza (Dersim). SPb., 1998; they are. Historical and dialectological grammar of the Kurdish language. SPb., 1999; they are. Kurdish dialect sonei. SPb., 2001; Todd T. L. A Grammar of Dimili also known as zaza. 2nd ed. Stockh., 2002.
Dictionaries: Bakaev Ch. Kh. Kurdish-Russian Dictionary. M., 1957; Farizov I. O. Russian-Kurdish Dictionary. M., 1957; Kurdoev K. K. Kurdish-Russian Dictionary. M., 1960; Khamoyan M. U. Kurdish-Russian Phraseological Dictionary. Er., 1979; Kurdoev K.K., Yusupova Z.A. Kurdish-Russian Dictionary (Sorani). M., 1983.
