When historians analyze the reasons for the success of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, they name the presence of a powerful khan in power among the most important and significant reasons. Often, the khan became the personification of strength and military power, and therefore he was feared by both the Russian princes and representatives of the yoke itself. What khans left their mark on history and were considered the most powerful rulers of their people.
The most powerful khans of the Mongol yoke
During the entire existence of the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde, many khans have changed on the throne. Especially often the rulers changed during the great zamyatne, when the crisis forced the brother to go against the brother. Various internecine wars and regular military campaigns have confused the family tree of the Mongol khans, but the names of the most powerful rulers are still known. So, which khans of the Mongol Empire were considered the most powerful?
- Genghis Khan because of the mass of successful campaigns and the unification of lands into one state.
- Batu, who managed to completely subdue Ancient Rus' and form Golden Horde.
- Khan Uzbek, under whom the Golden Horde reached its greatest power.
- Mamai, who managed to unite the troops during the great memorial.
- Khan Tokhtamysh, who made successful campaigns against Moscow, and returned Ancient Rus' to the forced territories.
Each ruler deserves special attention, because his contribution to the history of the development of the Tatar-Mongol yoke is huge. However, it is much more interesting to tell about all the rulers of the yoke, trying to restore the family tree of the khans.
Tatar-Mongol khans and their role in the history of the yoke
The name and years of the reign of the Khan | His role in history |
|---|---|
Genghis Khan (1206-1227) | And before Genghis Khan, the Mongol yoke had its own rulers, but it was this khan who managed to unite all the lands and make surprisingly successful campaigns against China, North Asia and against the Tatars. |
Ogedei (1229-1241) | Genghis Khan tried to give all his sons the opportunity to rule, so he divided the empire between them, but it was Ogedei who was his main heir. The ruler continued his expansion into Central Asia and Northern China, strengthening his position in Europe as well. |
Batu (1227-1255) | Batu was only the ruler of the ulus of Jochi, which later received the name of the Golden Horde. However, a successful Western campaign, expansion Ancient Rus' and Poland, made a national hero out of Batu. Soon he began to spread his sphere of influence over the entire territory of the Mongolian state, becoming an increasingly authoritative ruler. |
Berke (1257-1266) | It was during the reign of Berke that the Golden Horde almost completely separated from the Mongol Empire. The ruler focused on urban planning, improving the social status of citizens. |
Mengu-Timur (1266-1282), Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287), Tula-Bugi (1287-1291) | These rulers did not leave a big mark on history, but they were able to isolate the Golden Horde even more and defend its rights to freedom from the Mongol Empire. The basis of the economy of the Golden Horde was a tribute from the princes of Ancient Rus'. |
Khan Uzbek (1312-1341) and Khan Janibek (1342-1357) | Under Khan Uzbek and his son Dzhanibek, the Golden Horde flourished. The offerings of the Russian princes were regularly increased, urban planning continued, and the inhabitants of Sarai-Batu adored their khan and literally worshiped him. |
Mamai (1359-1381) | Mamai had nothing to do with the legitimate rulers of the Golden Horde and had no connection with them. He seized power in the country by force, seeking new economic reforms and military victories. Despite the fact that Mamai's power was growing stronger every day, problems in the state were growing due to conflicts on the throne. As a result, in 1380 Mamai suffered a crushing defeat from the Russian troops on the Kulikovo field, and in 1381 he was overthrown by the legitimate ruler Tokhtamysh. |
Tokhtamysh (1380-1395) | Perhaps the last great khan Golden Horde. After the crushing defeat of Mamai, he managed to regain his status in Ancient Rus'. After the march on Moscow in 1382, tribute payments resumed, and Tokhtamysh proved his superiority in power. |
Kadir Berdi (1419), Hadji-Muhammed (1420-1427), Ulu-Muhammed (1428-1432), Kichi-Muhammed (1432-1459) | All these rulers tried to establish their power during the period of the state collapse of the Golden Horde. After the beginning of the internal political crisis, many rulers changed, and this also affected the deterioration of the country's situation. As a result, in 1480 Ivan III managed to achieve the independence of Ancient Rus', throwing off the shackles of centuries of tribute. |
As often happens, a great state falls apart due to a dynastic crisis. A few decades after the liberation of Ancient Rus' from the hegemony of the Mongol yoke, the Russian rulers also had to go through their dynastic crisis, but that's a completely different story.
Since ancient times, numerous nomads, famous for their courage and militancy, roamed the endless expanses. They did not have a single government, they did not have a commander under whose leadership they could become united and invincible. But at the beginning of the 13th century it appeared. He managed to unite under his command most of the nomadic tribes. Genghis Khan was not a well-known nomad, but ideas about world domination reigned in his soul. In order to implement them, he needed a well-trained army, ready to go even to the ends of the Earth. So he set about preparing his army. With all his might, Genghis Khan went to Central Asia, China and the Caucasus. Encountering no serious resistance on his way, he enslaved them. Now in the thoughts of the ardent Mongol-Tatar commander is the idea of eliminating Rus', which has long been famous for its wealth and beauty, from the list of its enemies.Mongol-Tatars in Rus'
Taking a short break from previous battles and replenishing provisions, the Tatar horde headed for the Russian lands. The organization of the offensive was carefully thought out, providing for all the pluses and minuses that could arise in the course of its implementation. In 1223, the first armed clash of nomadic tribes with Russian warriors and Polovtsian warriors took place. The battle took place on the Kalka River. Several combat detachments under the command of the Khan's commanders Dzhebe and Subede fought for three days with a small army of Russian-Polovtsian soldiers. The Polovtsy were the first to take the blow, for which they immediately paid own life. No less severe blow fell on the main Russian forces. The outcome of the battle was a foregone conclusion. The Tatars defeated the Russians.Important! In this battle, more than nine Russian princes fell, among whom were Mstislav the Old, Mstislav Udatny, Mstislav Svyatoslavich.
Rice. 2. The only portrait of Genghis Khan
The death of Genghis Khan and the accession of Batu
During the next trip to the countries of Central Asia, Genghis Khan died. After the death of the leader, strife began between the sons, which caused a lack of autocracy. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan, managed to reunite the power of the army again. In 1237, he decides to go to North-Eastern Rus' again. In the autumn of 1237, the khan's commander sent ambassadors to the Ryazan prince Yuri demanding tribute. Answering with a proud refusal, Yuri began to prepare for battle, hoping for help. Vladimir prince but he was unable to provide it. In the meantime, having entered into battle with the vanguard of Ryazan, the Tatars defeated it, and already on December 16, 1237, the city was besieged. After a nine-day siege, the Mongols set in motion wall-beating machines and broke into the city, where they staged a massacre. The heroic resistance of the Russian people did not stop there.Evpaty Kolovrat appeared. He assembled a detachment of about 1,700 people from partisans and surviving people.Operating behind enemy lines, he inflicted serious damage on the attackers. The Tatars, not understanding what was happening, thought that the Russians had risen from the dead. Surrounding a handful of Russian knights, the Mongols killed them. Yevpaty Kolovrat himself also fell. Many believe that this is fiction, but in reality these are facts, as the chronicle says.Meeting of the Mongol-Tatars and combatants on the Vladimir-Suzdal land - a chronology of events
As soon as the nomads with their leader Batu entered the Vladimir-Suzdal land, Yuri II sent military regiments under the command of his son Vsevolod to meet them. Having met near Kolomna, Batu defeated them.Moscow and Vladimir
Moscow was the next stop on the way. At that time it was a capital city and was surrounded by high oak walls. The Tatars smashed everything, Moscow was destroyed, and the way to Vladimir was opened. On February 3, 1238, the grand ducal capital was besieged.Yuri Vsevolodovich decides to leave Vladimir and goes to the Sit River, where he begins to gather a new army. On February 7, infidels enter the city. Members of the princely family and bishops, trying to hide in the church, fell victim to the fire.
Suzdal, Rostov and Veliky Novgorod
While some enemies besieged Vladimir, others ravaged Suzdal. Sweeping away Pereyaslavl and Rostov along the way, the invaders split up. One part went to the river Sit, where the battle later took place. Prince Yuri II was killed, and his army was defeated. The second part went to Novgorod and Torzhok. Meanwhile, the Novgorodians were preparing for a long defense.Important! Approaching Veliky Novgorod, the Mongol-Tatar authorities make an unexpected decision to turn south, so as not to get bogged down in the spring thaw. It happened too suddenly. Only 100 miles saved the city from ruin.
Chernihiv
Now the Chernihiv lands are under attack. Having met the city of Kozelsk on their way, the conquerors lingered near it for almost two months. After this time, the city was captured and nicknamed "evil".Kyiv
The Polovtsian lands were next in line for destruction. Having made devastating raids, the next year Batu again returns to the northeast, andKyiv was captured in 1240. At this, the suffering of Rus' temporarily ceased. Weakened by continuous fighting, Batu's troops withdrew to Volhynia, Poland, Galicia, and Hungary. The main burden of ruin and cruelty fell on the Russian share, but other countries received vital positions. The whole culture of Ancient Rus', all knowledge and discoveries went into oblivion for many years.What caused the rapid victory of the conquerors?
The victory of the Mongol-Tatars was not at all in the fact that they were good warriors and possessed excellent weapons, which had no equal. The point was that each of the princes Kievan Rus wanted to curry favor and be a hero. And so it turned out, everyone became heroes, only posthumously. The main thing was to unite forces into one whole, and with this power to deliver a decisive blow to the Golden Horde (as the troops of the great khan were called). This did not happen, total control was established. Princes were appointed only in the Horde, the Baskaks controlled their actions. They still paid tribute. For the solution of global issues, it was necessary to go to the khan. Such a life could not be called free.
Rice. 4. "Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field". O. Kiprensky. 1805
Dmitry Donskoy
But in 1359, Dmitry Ivanovich was born, who would later receive the nickname Donskoy. His father, Ivan the Red, ruled his principality wisely. He did not ask for trouble, he obediently carried out everything, regularly paid tribute to the Horde. But soon he died, and power passed to his son. However, before that, power belonged to his grandfather, Ivan Kalita, who received from the khan the right to collect tribute from all over Rus'. From childhood, Dmitry Donskoy could not watch how his father was running errands for the Horde Khan and fulfilled all his requirements, made numerous censuses. The new prince revealed open disobedience to Batu, and, realizing what followed, began to gather an army. The Horde Khan, seeing that Dmitry Ivanovich was proud, decided to punish him, again plunging him into dependence. Hastily collecting a huge army, he set off on a campaign. At the same time, the Moscow prince managed to unite under his command the squads of almost all Russian princes.History says that there has never been such a force in Rus'. The battle was to take place on the Kulikovo field. Before the battle Grand Duke turned to the monastery to Sergius of Radonezh. He blessed him and gave two monks to help him: Peresvet and Oslyabya.
Rice. 5. "Morning on the sandpiper field." A. P. Bubnov. 1943–1947
Battle on the Kulikovo field
Early in the morning September 8, 1380two armies lined up on both sides of the vast field. Before the start of the battle, two warriors fought. Russian - Peresvet and Khan's - Chelubey. Having dispersed on their horses, they pierced each other with spears and fell dead on the damp earth. This was the signal for the start of the battle. Dmitry Ivanovich, despite his age, was a fairly experienced strategist. He placed part of the army in the forest in such a way that the Horde could not see it, but in which case they could change the course of the battle. Their task was to strictly carry out the order. Not earlier, not later. This card was a trump card. And so it happened. In a fierce battle, the Tatars began to crush the Russian regiments one by one, but they steadfastly held on. Not expecting such a maneuver, the new Khan Mamai realized that he could not win a victory, and rushed away from the battlefield. The fact of the appearance of fresh forces changed everything. Left without a leader, the Mongol-Tatars were confused and, after Mamai, they rushed to run. Russian troops caught up with them and killed them. In this battle, the horde lost almost the entire army, while the Russians lost about 20 thousand people. The end of the battle marked that the main thing in the fight against the enemy is the cohesion of actions. “When we are united, we are strong,” the prince said after the battle.It is believed that it was Dmitry Donskoy who liberated the Russian lands from numerous enemy raids.Fighting clashes between the Russian people and the Mongol conquerors will continue for a whole century, but now they will no longer bear such consequences as before.The overthrow of the Horde yoke
Soon Ivan Vasilyevich the Third reigned on the Moscow throne. He, like Dmitry Ivanovich, completely refused to pay tribute and began to prepare for the last battle. Autumn 1480two troops stood on both banks of the Ugra River. No one dared to cross the river. There were attempts by the Mongols to swim across it, but to no avail. Only occasionally shooting from guns in the direction of the enemy, the confrontation ended. It is standing on the Ugra River that is considered to be the point of liberation, when Rus' regained its independence and became independent. The dominion of the Golden Horde, which lasted 2 centuries, was overthrown to the end, so this date became sacred for the Russian people. Gradually, lost skills and abilities began to return, cities were revived and fields were sown. Life started picking up its pace. No matter how much grief befalls the Russian people, they will always be able to regain their former happiness, they will go against the establishment, contrary to the system, but they will achieve their goal. We recommend to see interesting video about the Tatar-Mongol yoke:
1480. Moscow has not paid tribute to Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat for 7 years. He came to collect his own and stopped on the banks of the Ugra River. On the opposite bank lined up the troops of Moscow Prince Ivan III.
They stood opposite each other for more than a month. Only the river separated them.
On November 6 (according to the old style), 1480, Khan Akhmat left. " Ran from Ugra in the night of November on the 6th day“, tell us the sources of the time.
Together with Khan Akhmat, the yoke also left.
Let's not argue whether it was in Rus' or not. For some of us it was a yoke, for some it was a peculiarity of political relations. Let's better describe the events of 1237-1480 in the language of numbers.
169 documented trips
committed to the Horde from 1243 to 1430 on a variety of occasions. In reality, there were probably even more trips.
11 Russian princes
were killed in the Horde. Often, people not of princely dignity, family members, accompanying people were also killed with them. This figure did not include those who died outside the Horde, such as, for example, poisoned by Khan Berke, returning home.
70 Ryazan boyars
perished in September 1380. So, at least, tells us "Zadonshchina", which was written in the 14th or 15th century.
24.000 people
died during the destruction of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382. In fact, every second inhabitant of the capital died.
27 and 70 skulls
discovered archaeologists during excavations at the site of Ryazan devastated by the Mongols. The main version is traces of executions, chopping off heads.
Let us clarify that modern Ryazan is, in fact, the ancient Russian city of Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky, which began to be called that from the middle of the 14th century. That Ryazan, which was devastated in 1237, was no longer restored.
4 younger brothers
Prince Mstislav Glebovich died after the fall of Chernigov, during the ruin by the Mongols of nearby cities, such as Gomiy, Rylsk and others.
During the excavations of the devastated Gomia, archaeologists discovered a workshop destroyed by the invasion, where artisans made armor. We talked about this workshop in more detail in the article.
4,000 Mongol warriors and siege engines
were destroyed by the defending inhabitants of Kozelsk during a sortie on the third day of the assault. However, the detachment itself died, after which the city, which had lost its protection, was destroyed.
Money
14 types of tribute
paid the Mongols. They paid not only a fixed amount for the khan, but there were also various “gifts” and “honors” to the khan, his relatives and close associates, as well as trade fees, the obligation to maintain the khan’s embassy, and so on. In addition, unscheduled fundraising was periodically announced - for example, before a large military campaign.
300 rubles
spent by Dmitry Donskoy on the burial of the bodies of dead Muscovites (a ruble for 80 buried bodies) after the devastation of Moscow by Tokhtamysh. At that time - serious money, a sixth of the tribute that the Vladimir principality paid to the Golden Horde.
3.000 Lithuanian rubles
gave Kyiv as compensation to the Nogais of Edigey, who pursued the allies retreating from Vorskla in the Kyiv and Lithuanian lands. More on this battle below.
5.000 rubles
it was no longer the Russians who paid the Horde, but vice versa. The case was taken in the spring of 1376. The governor and namesake of Dmitry Donskoy, Prince Bobrok-Volynsky (future hero of the Battle of Kulikovo) invaded the Volga Bulgaria. On March 16, he defeated the united army of its rulers - Emir Hassan Khan and Muhammad Sultan, appointed by the Horde.
Time
5 days
Moscow resisted the Mongols, which was defended by Prince Vladimir Yuryevich and governor Philip Nyanka " with a small army". Pereyaslavl-Zalessky defended the same amount, which ended up in the path of the main forces of the Mongols, moving from Vladimir to Novgorod.
6 days
the siege of Ryazan continued, which fell at the end of December and was completely ruined. About this - above.
8 days
besieged Vladimir defended himself, but was nevertheless taken in early February 1238. The whole family of Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich perished in the city. The Mongols hesitated, and began the assault on Vladimir only upon the return of another Mongol detachment with many prisoners from the captured Suzdal.
Almost 50 days
the siege of Kozelsk continued.
3 days
the assault on Kozelsk continued, ending its long siege by the Mongols (May 1238)
12 years
was Prince Kozelsky Vasily, when the Mongols besieged the city in which he was planted to rule. The defense was led by an experienced governor and boyars, under the formal command of the prince.
14 years in Mongol captivity
held by Prince Oleg Ingvarevich Krasny, after which he was released.
Territories
5
Russian principalities
as well as 3 principalities of the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Tokhtamysh, deprived of the Khan's throne on the eve of the Horde, with a detachment of several thousand Tatars.
All of them rose against the Golden Horde of Kutlug.
But on August 12, 1399, on the banks of the Vorskla River, the allies were defeated.
11 cities
captured by the Tatars before standing on the Ugra River in 1480 in order to exclude an attack on them from the rear.
14 cities per month
were taken by the Tatars in February 1238. If we calculate the average, then the gates of Russian cities were opened to the invaders every other day.
Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Tver, Gorodets, Kostroma, Galich-Mersky, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Kashin, Ksnyatin, Dmitrov, as well as the Novgorod suburbs of Vologda and Volok Lamsky fell.
On this we will put an end. Numbers are numbers.
Photo
Tatyana Ushakova and Marina Skoropadskaya, graphics - Pavel Ryzhenko and Elena Dovedova
Download this article in .pdf format.
We all know from the school history course that Rus' at the beginning of the 13th century was captured by the foreign army of Batu Khan. These invaders came from the steppes of modern Mongolia. Huge hordes fell upon Rus', merciless horse riders, armed with bent sabers, did not know mercy and acted equally well both in the steppes and in Russian forests, and the frozen rivers were used to quickly move along Russian impassability. They spoke in an incomprehensible language, were pagans and had a Mongoloid appearance.
Our fortresses could not resist skilful warriors armed with wall-beating machines. Terrible dark times came for Rus', when not a single prince could rule without a khan's “label”, to obtain which it was necessary to humiliatingly crawl on his knees the last kilometers to the headquarters of the chief khan of the Golden Horde. The “Mongol-Tatar” yoke existed in Rus' for about 300 years. And only after the yoke was thrown off, Rus', thrown back centuries ago, was able to continue its development.
However, there is a lot of information that makes you look at the version familiar from school differently. Moreover, we are not talking about some secret or new sources that historians simply did not take into account. We are talking about all the same chronicles and other sources of the Middle Ages, on which the supporters of the version of the “Mongol-Tatar” yoke relied. Often inconvenient facts are justified by the "mistake" of the chronicler or his "ignorance" or "interest".
1. There were no Mongols in the “Mongol-Tatar” horde
It turns out that there is no mention of warriors of the Mongoloid type in the troops of the “Tatar-Mongols”. From the very first battle of the “invaders” with the Russian troops on the Kalka, there were wanderers in the troops of the “Mongol-Tatars”. Brodniki are free Russian warriors who lived in those places (the predecessors of the Cossacks). And at the head of the wanderers in that battle was the governor Ploskin - Russian.
Official historians believe that Russian participation in the Tatar troops was forced. But they have to admit that, “probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army stopped later. There were mercenaries who had already voluntarily entered into Tatar troops” (M. D. Poluboyarinova).
Ibn-Batuta wrote: "There were many Russians in Sarai Berke." Moreover: “The bulk of the armed service and labor forces of the Golden Horde were Russian people” (A. A. Gordeev)
“Let's imagine the absurdity of the situation: the victorious Mongols for some reason transfer weapons to the “Russian slaves” they conquered, and those (being armed to the teeth) calmly serve in the conquering troops, making up the “main mass” in them! Let us recall once again that the Russians were supposedly just defeated in an open and armed struggle! Even in traditional history Ancient Rome never armed the slaves he had just conquered. Throughout history, the victors have taken away weapons from the vanquished, and if they later accepted them into service, then they constituted an insignificant minority and were considered, of course, unreliable.
“But what can be said about the composition of Batu’s troops? The Hungarian king wrote to the Pope:
“When the state of Hungary from the invasion of the Mongols, as from a plague, for the most part, was turned into a desert, and like a sheepfold was surrounded by various tribes of infidels, namely: Russians, roamers from the east, Bulgarians and other heretics from the south ...”
“Let us ask a simple question: where are the Mongols here? Russians, wanderers, Bulgarians are mentioned - that is, Slavic tribes. Translating the word “Mongol” from the king’s letter, we get simply that “great (= megalion) peoples invaded”, namely: Russians, wanderers from the east, Bulgarians, etc. Therefore, our recommendation: it is useful every time to replace the Greek word “Mongol = megalion” by its translation = “great”. As a result, a completely meaningful text will be obtained, for the understanding of which one does not need to involve some distant people from the borders of China (there is not a word about China, by the way, in all these reports).” (With)
2. It is not clear how many “Mongol-Tatars” were
And how many Mongols were at the beginning of the Batu campaign? Opinions on this matter vary. There are no exact data, so there are only estimates of historians. In early historical writings, it was assumed that the army of the Mongols was about 500 thousand horsemen. But the more modern the historical work, the smaller the army of Genghis Khan becomes. The problem is that for each rider you need 3 horses, and a herd of 1.5 million horses cannot move, since the front horses will eat all the pasture and the rear ones will simply starve to death. Gradually, historians agreed that the “Tatar-Mongol” army did not exceed 30 thousand, which, in turn, was not enough to capture all of Russia and enslave it (not to mention the other conquests in Asia and Europe).
By the way, the population of modern Mongolia is a little more than 1 million, while even 1000 years before the conquest of China by the Mongols, there were already more than 50 million there. And the population of Rus' already in the 10th century was about 1 million. At the same time, nothing is known about targeted genocide in Mongolia. That is, it is not clear how such a small state could conquer such large ones?
3. There were no Mongolian horses in the Mongolian troops
It is believed that the secret of the Mongolian cavalry was a special breed of Mongolian horses - hardy and unpretentious, capable of independently obtaining food even in winter. But it is in their own steppe that they can break the crust with their hooves and profit from grass when they graze, and what can they get in the Russian winter, when everything is swept up by a meter layer of snow, and you also need to carry a rider. It is known that in the Middle Ages there was a small ice age (that is, the climate was harsher than now). In addition, experts in horse breeding, based on miniatures and other sources, almost unanimously assert that the Mongol cavalry fought on Turkmen women - horses of a completely different breed that cannot feed themselves without human help in winter.
4. The Mongols were engaged in the unification of Russian lands
It is known that Batu invaded Rus' at the time of permanent internecine struggle. In addition, the question of succession to the throne was acute. All these civil strife were accompanied by pogroms, ruin, murders and violence. For example, Roman Galitsky buried alive in the ground and burned his recalcitrant boyars at the stake, chopped “on the joints”, tore off the skin from the living. A gang of Prince Vladimir, expelled from the Galician table for drunkenness and debauchery, walked around Rus'. As the chronicles testify, this daring freewoman “dragged girls and married women for fornication, killed priests during worship, and put horses in the church. That is, there was an ordinary civil strife with a normal medieval level of atrocities, the same as in the West at that time.
And, suddenly, “Mongol-Tatars” appear, who rapidly begin to restore order: a strict mechanism of succession to the throne with a label appears, a clear vertical of power is built. Separatist encroachments are now nipped in the bud. It is interesting that nowhere, except for Rus', the Mongols do not show such preoccupation with restoring order. But according to the classical version, half of the then civilized world is in the Mongol empire. For example, during its western campaign, the horde burns, kills, robs, but does not impose tribute, does not try to build a vertical of power, as in Rus'.
5. Thanks to the “Mongol-Tatar” yoke, Rus' experienced a cultural upsurge
With the advent of the “Mongol-Tatar invaders”, Rus' begins to flourish Orthodox Church: many temples are being built, including in the horde itself, church ranks are being elevated, the church receives many benefits.
It is interesting that the written Russian language during the “yoke” brings to a new level. Here is what Karamzin writes:
“Our language,” writes Karamzin, “from the 13th to the 15th centuries acquired more purity and correctness.” Further, according to Karamzin, under the Tatar-Mongols, instead of the former “Russian, uneducated dialect, writers more carefully adhered to the grammar of church books or ancient Serbian, which they followed not only in declensions and conjugations, but also in pronunciation.”
So, in the West, classical Latin appears, and in our country, the Church Slavonic language in its correct classical forms. Applying the same standards as for the West, we must recognize that the Mongol conquest was the heyday of Russian culture. Mongols were strange conquerors!
Interestingly, not everywhere the "invaders" were so indulgent towards the church. In the Polish chronicles there is information about the massacre perpetrated by the Tatars among Catholic priests and monks. Moreover, they were killed after the capture of the city (that is, not in the heat of battle, but intentionally). This is strange, since the classical version tells us about the exceptional religious tolerance of the Mongols. But in the Russian lands, the Mongols tried to rely on the clergy, providing the church with significant concessions, up to full release from taxes. It is interesting that the Russian Church itself showed amazing loyalty to the “foreign invaders”.
6. Nothing left after the great empire
Classical history tells us that the "Mongol-Tatars" managed to build a huge centralized state. However, this state disappeared and left no traces behind. In 1480, Rus' finally threw off the yoke, but already in the second half of the 16th century, Russians began to move eastward - beyond the Urals, to Siberia. And they did not meet any traces of the former empire, although only 200 years had passed. No major cities and villages, there is no Yamsky tract thousands of kilometers long. The names of Genghis Khan and Batu are not familiar to anyone. There is only a rare nomadic population, engaged in cattle breeding, fishing, and primitive agriculture. And no legends about great conquests. By the way, the great Karakoram was never found by archaeologists. But it was a huge city, where thousands and tens of thousands of artisans and gardeners were taken away (by the way, it’s interesting how they were driven through the steppes for 4-5 thousand km).
There are also no written sources left after the Mongols. In the Russian archives, no “Mongolian” labels for reigning were found, which should have been many, but there are many documents of that time in Russian. Several labels were found but already in the 19th century:
Two or three labels found in the 19th century And not in state archives, and in the papers of historians. For example, the famous label of Tokhtamysh, according to Prince M.A. Obolensky, was discovered only in 1834 “among the papers that were once in the Krakow crown archive and were in the hands of the Polish historian Narushevich” Regarding this label, Obolensky wrote: “He (Tokhtamysh’s label - Auth) positively resolves the question in what language and with what letters the ancient khan’s labels to the Russian grand dukes were written. From the acts known to us - this is the second diploma” , not in the least similar to the label of Timur-Kutluy of 1397 already printed by Mr. Hammer”
7. Russian and Tatar names are difficult to distinguish
Old Russian names and nicknames did not always resemble our modern ones. These are the old Russian names and nicknames that can be mistaken for Tatar ones: Murza, Saltanko, Tatarinko, Sutorma, Eyancha, Vandysh, Smoga, Sugonai, Saltyr, Suleisha, Sumgur, Sunbul, Suryan, Tashlyk, Temir, Tenbyak, Tursulok, Shaban, Kudiyar , Murad, Nevruy. These names were borne by Russian people. But, for example, the Tatar prince Oleks Nevruy has a Slavic name.
8. Mongol khans fraternized with the Russian nobility
It is often mentioned that the Russian princes and " Mongolian khans”became sworn brothers, relatives, sons-in-law and father-in-law, went on joint military campaigns. Interestingly, in no other country defeated or captured by them, the Tatars did not behave like this.
Here is another example of the amazing closeness of ours and the Mongol nobility. The capital of the great nomadic empire was in Karakorum. After the death of the Great Khan, the time comes for the election of a new ruler, in which Batu must also take part. But Batu himself does not go to Karakorum, but sends Yaroslav Vsevolodovich there to represent his person. It would seem that a more important reason to go to the capital of the empire could not be imagined. Instead, Batu sends a prince from the occupied lands. Marvelous.
9. Super-Mongol-Tatars
Now let's talk about the capabilities of the "Mongol-Tatars", about their uniqueness in history.
The stumbling block for all nomads was the capture of cities and fortresses. There is only one exception - the army of Genghis Khan. The answer of historians is simple: after the capture of the Chinese Empire, Batu's army took possession of the machines themselves and the technique of using them (or captured specialists).
It is surprising that the nomads managed to create a strong centralized state. The fact is that, unlike the farmer, nomads are not tied to the land. Therefore, with any dissatisfaction, they can simply pick up and leave. For example, when in 1916 the tsarist officials did something to the Kazakh nomads, they took and migrated to neighboring China. But we are told that the Mongols succeeded at the end of the XII century.
It is not clear how Genghis Khan could persuade his fellow tribesmen to go on a trip “to the last sea”, not knowing the maps and nothing at all about those who would have to fight along the way. This is not a raid on neighbors you know well.
All adult and healthy men among the Mongols were considered warriors. In peacetime, they ran their household, and in wartime, they took up arms. But who did the "Mongol-Tatars" leave at home after they went on campaigns for decades? Who tends their flocks? Old people and children? It turns out that in the rear of this army there was no strong economy. Then it is not clear who ensured the uninterrupted supply of food and weapons to the army of the Mongols. This is a difficult task even for large centralized states, not to mention the state of nomads with a weak economy. In addition, the scope of the Mongol conquests is comparable to the theater of operations of World War II (and taking into account the battles with Japan, and not just Germany). The supply of weapons and provisions is simply impossible.
In the 16th century, the “conquest” of Siberia by the Cossacks began, which was not an easy task: it took about 50 years to fight several thousand kilometers to Baikal, leaving behind a chain of fortified fortresses. However, the Cossacks had a strong state in the rear, from where they could draw resources. A military training the peoples who lived in those places could not be compared with the Cossacks. However, the “Mongol-Tatars” managed to cover twice as much distance in the opposite direction in a couple of decades, conquering states with developed economies. Sounds fantastic. There were other examples as well. For example, in the 19th century, it took Americans about 50 years to travel a distance of 3-4 thousand km: the Indian wars were fierce and the losses of the US army were significant despite the gigantic technical superiority. Faced similar problems European colonizers in Africa in the 19th century. Only the “Mongol-Tatars” succeeded easily and quickly.
Interestingly, all the major campaigns of the Mongols in Rus' were winter. This is not typical for nomadic peoples. Historians tell us that this allowed them to move quickly across frozen rivers, but this, in turn, requires a good knowledge of the terrain, which the alien conquerors cannot boast of. They fought equally successfully in the forests, which is also strange for the steppes.
There is evidence that the Horde distributed fake letters on behalf of the Hungarian king Bela IV, which caused great confusion in the camp of the enemy. Not bad for the steppes?
10. Tatars looked like Europeans
A contemporary of the Mongol wars, the Persian historian Rashid-ad-Din writes that in the family of Genghis Khan, children "were born mostly with gray eyes and blond." Chroniclers describe the appearance of Batu in similar expressions: fair-haired, light-bearded, light-eyed. By the way, the title "Genghis" is translated, according to some sources, as "sea" or "ocean". Perhaps this is due to the color of his eyes (in general, it is strange that the Mongolian language of the 13th century has the word “ocean”).
In the Battle of Liegnitz, in the midst of a skirmish, the Polish troops panic, and they take to flight. According to some sources, this panic was provoked by the cunning Mongols, who wormed their way into the battle formations of the Polish squads. It turns out that the “Mongols” looked like Europeans.
And here is what Rubricus, a contemporary of those events, writes:
“In 1252-1253, from Constantinople through the Crimea to the headquarters of Batu and further to Mongolia, the ambassador of King Louis IX, William Rubrikus, traveled with his retinue, who, driving along the lower reaches of the Don, wrote: “Everywhere among the Tatars settlements of the Rus are scattered; Russians mixed with the Tatars ... learned their customs, as well as clothes and lifestyle - Women decorate their heads with headdresses similar to the headdresses of French women, the bottom of the dress is trimmed with furs, otters, squirrels and ermine. Men wear short clothes; caftans, chekminis and lambskin hats… All routes of transportation in the vast country are served by the Rus; at the crossings of the rivers - everywhere the Rus"
Rubricus travels through Rus' only 15 years after its conquest by the Mongols. Didn't the Russians mix with the wild Mongols too quickly, adopted their clothes, preserving it until the beginning of the 20th century, as well as their customs and way of life?
On the image in the tomb of Henry II the Pious with the comment: “The figure of a Tatar under the feet of Henry II, Duke of Silesia, Krakow and Poland, placed on the grave in Breslau of this prince, who was killed in the battle with the Tatars at Lingnitz on April 9, 1241,” we see Tatar, no different from Russian:
And here's another example. On the miniatures from the 16th century Facial Code, it is impossible to distinguish a Tatar from a Russian:
Other interesting information
Several Yet interesting moments, which are worth paying attention to, but which I did not figure out which section to put in.
At that time, not all of Russia was called “Rus”, but only: Kiev, Pereyaslav and Chernihiv Principality. Often there were references to trips from Novgorod or Vladimir to “Rus”. For example, the Smolensk cities were no longer considered "Rus".
The word “horde” is often mentioned not in relation to the “Mongol-Tatars”, but simply to the troops: “Swedish horde”, “German horde”, “Zalesian horde”, “Land of the Cossack Horde”. That is, it simply means - an army and there is no “Mongolian” color in it. By the way, in modern Kazakh “Kzyl-Orda” is translated as “Red Army”.
In 1376, Russian troops entered the Volga Bulgaria, besieged one of its cities and forced the inhabitants to swear allegiance. Russian officials were planted in the city. According to the traditional story, it turned out that Rus', being a vassal and tributary of the “Golden Horde”, organizes a military campaign on the territory of the state that is part of this “Golden Horde” and forces it to take its vassal oath. As for written sources from China. For example, in the period 1774-1782 in China, seizures were made 34 times. A collection of all printed books ever published in China was undertaken. This was due to the political vision of history by the ruling dynasty. By the way, we also had a change of the Rurik dynasty to the Romanovs, so the historical order is quite probable. It is interesting that the theory of the "Mongol-Tatar" enslavement of Rus' was born not in Russia, but among German historians much later than the alleged "yoke".
Conclusion
Historical science has a huge number of conflicting sources. Therefore, one way or another, historians have to discard some of the information in order to get a whole version of events. What was presented to us in school course history - was just one of the many versions. And, as we can see, it has many contradictions.
As it is written in most history textbooks, in the XIII-XV centuries, Rus' suffered from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, in Lately more and more people are asking the question: did it exist at all? Did the huge hordes of nomads really flood the peaceful principalities, enslaving their inhabitants? Let's analyze historical facts, many of which may be shocking.
The yoke was invented by the Poles
The term "Mongol-Tatar yoke" itself was coined by Polish authors. The chronicler and diplomat Jan Dlugosh in 1479 called the time of the existence of the Golden Horde so. He was followed in 1517 by the historian Matvey Mekhovsky, who worked at the University of Krakow. This interpretation of the relationship between Rus' and the Mongol conquerors was quickly picked up in Western Europe, and from there it was borrowed by domestic historians.
Moreover, there were practically no Tatars in the Horde troops themselves. It’s just that in Europe they knew the name of this Asian people well, so it spread to the Mongols. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan tried to exterminate the entire Tatar tribe, defeating their army in 1202.
The first census of the population of Rus'
The Horde held the first census in the history of Rus'. They wanted to get accurate information about the inhabitants of each principality, their class affiliation. The main reason for such an interest in statistics on the part of the Mongols was the need to calculate the amount of taxes that were levied on subjects.
The census took place in Kyiv and Chernigov in 1246, the Ryazan principality was subjected to statistical analysis in 1257, the Novgorodians were counted two years later, and the population of the Smolensk region - in 1275.
Moreover, the inhabitants of Rus' raised popular uprisings and drove out from their land the so-called "besermen", who collected tribute for the khans of Mongolia. But the governors of the rulers of the Golden Horde, called "Baskaks", lived and worked in the Russian principalities for a long time, sending the collected taxes to Saray-Batu, and later - to Saray-Berka.
Joint trips
The princely squads and the Horde often made joint military campaigns, both against other Russians and against the inhabitants of Eastern Europe. So, from 1258 to 1287, the troops of the Mongols and Galician princes regularly attacked Poland, Hungary, and Lithuania. And in 1277, the Russians participated in the military campaign of the Mongols in the North Caucasus, helping their allies conquer Alania.
In 1333 the Muscovites attacked the Novgorodians, and the following year the Bryansk squad attacked the Smolensk people. Each time, the Horde troops also participated in these internecine raids. In addition, they regularly helped the Grand Dukes of Tver, who were considered at that time the main rulers of Rus', to pacify the recalcitrant neighboring lands.
The basis of the horde was the Russians
The Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the city of Saray-Berke in 1334, wrote in his essay “A Gift to those who contemplate the wonders of cities and the wonders of wanderings” that there are many Russians in the capital of the Golden Horde. Moreover, they make up the bulk of the population: both working and armed.
This fact was also mentioned by the white émigré author Andrei Gordeev in the book “History of the Cossacks”, which was written in France in the late 20s of the twentieth century. According to the researcher, most of the Horde troops were the so-called "roamers" - ethnic Slavs who inhabited the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Don steppes. These predecessors of the Cossacks did not want to obey the princes, so they moved south for the sake of a free life. The name of this ethno-social group probably comes from the Russian word "roam" (to wander).
As is known from chronicles, in the Battle of Kalka in 1223, roamers fought on the side of the Mongol troops, led by the voivode Ploskynya. Perhaps his knowledge of the tactics and strategy of the princely squads had great importance to defeat the combined Russian-Polovtsian forces.
In addition, it was Ploskinya who lured the ruler of Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich, along with two Turov-Pinsk princes, by cunning, and handed them over to the Mongols for execution.
However, most historians believe that the Mongols forced the Russians to serve in their army. That is, the invaders forcibly armed the representatives of the enslaved people, which seems implausible.
And Marina Poluboyarinova, a senior researcher at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, wrote in the book “Russian people in the Golden Horde” (Moscow, 1978): “Probably, the forced participation of Russian soldiers in the Tatar army stopped later. There were mercenaries who had already voluntarily joined the Tatar troops.”
Caucasian Invaders
Yesugei-bagatur, the father of Genghis Khan, was a representative of the Borjigin clan of the Mongolian tribe Kiyat. According to the descriptions of many eyewitnesses, both he himself and his legendary son were tall fair-skinned people with reddish hair.
The Persian scholar Rashid-ad-Din in his work "Collection of Chronicles" (early XIV century) wrote that all the descendants of the great conqueror were mostly blond and gray-eyed.
We are accustomed to believe that in the XIII century, Rus' was filled with countless hordes of Mongol-Tatars. Some historians mention a 500,000-strong army. However, it is not. After all, even the population of modern Mongolia barely exceeds 3 million people, and given the brutal genocide of fellow tribesmen committed by Genghis Khan on the way to power, his army could not be so impressive.
It is difficult to imagine how to feed the half-million army, which, moreover, traveled on horseback. Animals simply would not have enough pasture. But each Mongolian horseman led at least three horses with him. Now imagine a herd of 1.5 million. The horses of the warriors riding in the vanguard of the army would have eaten and trampled everything they could. The rest of the horses would die of starvation.
According to the most daring estimates, the army of Genghis Khan and Batu could not exceed 30 thousand horsemen. While the population of Ancient Rus', according to the historian Georgy Vernadsky (1887-1973), before the start of the invasion was about 7.5 million people.
Bloodless executions
The Mongols, like most peoples of that time, executed people who were not noble or respected by cutting off their heads. However, if the sentenced person enjoyed authority, then his spine was broken and left to die slowly.
The Horde were sure that blood is the seat of the soul. Shedding it means complicating the afterlife path of the deceased to other worlds. Bloodless execution was applied to rulers, political and military figures, shamans.
The reason for the death sentence in the Golden Horde could be any crime: from desertion from the battlefield to petty theft.
The bodies of the dead were thrown into the steppes
The method of burial of the Mongol also directly depended on his social status. Rich and influential people found peace in special burials, in which valuables, gold and silver jewelry, and household items were buried along with the bodies of the dead. And the poor and ordinary soldiers who died in battle were often simply left in the steppe, where life path specific person.
In the disturbing conditions of a nomadic life, consisting of regular skirmishes with enemies, it is difficult to arrange funeral rites. The Mongols often needed to hurry, because any delay in the steppe could end badly.
It was believed that the corpse of a worthy person would be quickly eaten by scavengers and vultures. But if birds and animals do not touch the body for a long time, according to popular beliefs, this meant that a serious sin was registered behind the soul of the deceased.
