One of the first models of attention, which became the starting point for all others, was proposed by D.E. Broadbent (1958). In the future, it was called the filter model. When creating it, the author relied on the theory of K. Shannon and W. Weaver, who believed that information processing in the central nervous system is limited to only one channel, the bandwidth of which determines the amount of attention.

D.E. Broadbent suggested that the nervous system, having a large number of sensory inputs, can use only one channel in the process of communication. At the channel inputs, filters are installed that select the most significant signals at the moment. Unclaimed information is stored for some time in short-term memory in front of the filter and

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channel only if there is a shift in attention.

Rice. 10.2. Attentive look of the child.

Rice. 10.3. Possible mechanism of attention (Broadbent, 1958).

According to Broadbent, messages passing through an individual nerve differ both in the number of impulses and in the quality of the information transmitted. When several nerves are stimulated at the same time, the brain can receive all messages, which are then processed by parallel sensory channels (Fig. 10.3). Each channel has its own nerve code, according to which signals are selected for processing. If further attention is paid to this information, then it is transferred to a channel with limited bandwidth, where it is further processed. A distinctive feature of Broadbent's ideas is that the selection of material is made not by its content, but by physical characteristics.

perceived signal.

In support of his hypothesis, he refers to the observation of John / Webster, according to which air traffic controllers can identify simultaneously the call signals of two aircraft, although they understand only one and:? these messages. Broadbent explains this ability by saying that one message is understood because the dispatcher foresaw it, and the other is not understood because he did not know what they wanted to tell him.

However, Broadbent's theory does not explain why a shift in attention occurs if the person does not know what information is in front of the filter. In addition, the experiments performed have demonstrated partial processing of information that is not actively attended to. In one of these studies, it turned out that with sufficiently careful monitoring of some signals, the subject can give some information about the information that should have been ignored. A person who dichotically perceives unequal information in the presence of an instruction requiring attention to some specific stimuli on one channel will give detailed answers on them on this channel. At the same time, he will be able to determine whether the voice turned out to be male or female on the ignored channel and whether it sounded at all, to notice some features of the signal. However, the subject will not be able to remember the specific content of the information or report whether the voice changed over time, what language the message was in, distinguish coherent speech from nonsense (Lindsay, Norman, 1975). To test the hypothesis D.E. Broadbent, a large number of studies have been undertaken. S. Cherry (Cherry, 1953) proposed an experimental procedure called shading. The subject was presented orally with a certain text, which had to be repeated exactly. It turned out that. if the message was pronounced quickly, the subject did not have time to reproduce it in full.

Later, S. Cherry's experiment was complicated: different information was given to each ear at the same time. Although both texts were read by the same speaker, the subjects easily coped with the task, reproducing the message only from the ear into which, according to the instructions, significant information was received. The ignored message was remembered worse, although the subjects could remember whether there was speech on this channel or not, but could not notice the moment when English was replaced by German. However, in cases where the name of the subject was pronounced on the ignored channel, he remembered the information that followed the name (Maugey, 1959). Similar results were obtained in the experiment on the perception of visual information. The subjects were presented with a text in which two messages alternated, typed in different colors. The participants of the experiment easily read the information of the desired color without remembering the text typed by others. At the same time, all subjects perceived their own name printed in ignored color (Neisser, 1976).

Similar results were also shown for figurative information (Neisser and Besclen, 1975). The subjects were presented with a film consisting of frames of two different films superimposed on each other (Fig. 10.4), and asked to trace the significant events of only one of them. Just like in other

Rice. 10.4 Superposition of frames of two films in an experiment to study the mechanisms of attention. A - a frame from the film "The Game of Hands", B - a frame from the film "Basketball", C - the resulting frame created by superimposing the two previous ones (Neisser, Becklen, 1975). In other experiments, the subjects could not tell anything about what happened in the ignored film.

Despite all these results, the hypothesis of D.E. Broadbent was called into question by the experiment of J.A. Gray and A.A. Wedderburn (Gray, Wedderburn, 1960). These authors dichotically presented the phrase in such a way that its individual parts were sent to different ears, and it was possible to compose the whole sentence only after listening to all the information. For example:

Information submitted to the right ear:

Information given to the left ear:

T Information submitted

! Jane .

All subjects reproduced the sentence in full without difficulty, although information from the ignored channel was necessary to compose it. It should be noted that, in an effort to understand the meaning, the participants in the experiment, of course, quickly switched their attention from one ear to another. This was the hook for D.E. Broadbent, who refuted the possibility of testing his own hypothesis using this experiment.

In some studies, individual tag words applied to the uncontrolled ear were accompanied by an electric shock. When they were repeatedly presented to the subject in a stream of other words, it was on them that a large GSR value was found, which also indicated the possibility of semantic processing of information that was not paid attention to (and not only its physical properties, as postulated by Broadbent) (Moray, 1970). It was found that changes in the amplitude of the GSR occurred even upon presentation of a synonym for the word, which in the previous experiment was reinforced by an electric current.

The proof of the existence of semantic processing of information that does not fall into the circle of attention is also priming effect. Priming - the impact of an unconscious stimulus on cognitive activity performed at a conscious level (Schacter e. A., 1993) (see Chapter 11). All this together indicates that the model of D.E. Broadbent cannot cover all the data related to the problem of attention.

Rice. 10.6. Model of an attenuator that only reduces the flow of information, but does not completely turn it off (Lindsay, Norman, 1974).

Other models of attention

The available data allow us to state that although the analysis is ignored/! information and stops at a fairly early stage, it is still carried out to one degree or another. In this regard, the assumption arose that all signals are processed, which then enter the brain, but some (to which attention is paid) reach the central nervous system completely, others are preliminarily attenuated. Such a hypothesis was put forward by A.M. Treisman (1964). He suggested that all sensory stimuli enter the structure - a logical analyzer, where they are processed. Some signals have a low threshold of awareness, so even in a weakened form they are able to activate the input (Treisman, 1964).

To confirm this concept, the experiment was improved. The subjects were asked to follow the message that came in one ear, while the semantic part came in the same, then the other ear. In this situation, the subjects preferred to follow the meaning, rather than the side of the presentation.

Modeled after A.M. Treisman, before starting a detailed analysis of the signal, a decision arises on the need to process its characteristics. At the same time, information is first analyzed on the basis of the general physical properties of phenomena, and later the meaning is processed. The filter can be located in two possible places (Fig. 10.5).

J. and D. Deutsch (Deutch, Deutch, 1963) suggested that almost all signals reach the logical analyzer, where, in accordance with the subject's previous experience, they are distributed in terms of significance, regardless of the strength of their impact in currently. Thus, the analysis of signals occurs at an unconscious level, while its result is realized.

Rice. 10.5. Model A.M. Treisman. The filter is located in this case in two possible places (Treisman, Gefien, 1967).

Subsequently, this model was revised by D.A. Norman (1968; 1976). According to his ideas, all signals go to some switch of attention, i.e., there is no preliminary selection of information at the level of perception. Norman believed that the attention switch in this case works like attenuator - a device that reduces the amount of information, but does not completely turn it off. The processing of information takes place at the level of short-term memory (Fig. 10.6,10.7).

Rice. 10.7. A model incorporating short-term memory into sensory analysis (Lindsay and Norman, 1974).

This model has been called the model active synthesis process. It puts a lot of emphasis on context and syntax, which can alert perceptual mechanisms of expected cues and allow the right cues to be selected when they occur, even

if it is not clear enough. Norman believes that the process of analysis by synthesis is straightforward (Lindsay, Norman, 1974), that is, only one channel is fully processed, and a situation is possible when a non-working channel is not considered at all (Fig. 10.8).

Rice. 10.8. Model of active synthesis with unconnected idle channel (Lindsay, Norman, 1974).

At the same time, experimental data indicate that if the information is significant for a person, it is processed in any case. From Norman's point of view, there are limits only to active synthesis, since it requires conscious perception. Passive processes are automatic and may possibly be accompanied by continuous signal analysis. The passive part of the analysis is not able to eliminate deviations and distortions of the signal and extract the complex meaning contained in it. From the signals received on non-working

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channels, only those recognized

which correspond to the expectations of active synthesis. A complete analysis of these signals requires information supplied by the active mechanism (Figure 10.9).

Both Norman's and Broadbent's models recognize the brain's limited ability to process information. However, they disagree on where the filter is located that cuts off meaningful information from non-significant information (Fig. 10.10).

U.A. Johnston and J. Wilson (Johnston, Wilson, 1980) proposed a more complex model that provides for several levels of analysis and the start of primary processing immediately after the signal arrives.

Rice. 10.9. The final active synthesis model (Lindsay and Norman, 1974).

An attempt was made to test the effectiveness of several theories at once (Johnston and Heinz, 1978). The subject in the process of military *

Rice. 10.10. Arrangement of filters in Broadbent and Deutsch-Norman models in the context of generalized information (Massaro, 1975).

accepting information, they were asked to respond to certain words, called target words. In one experimental series, both sets of dichotically presented words were read by the same male speaker, in the other, all non-target words were read by a man, target words were read by a woman. The results showed that in the first case, the identification of target words was more difficult. Treisman, which involves some analysis of all signals without exception.

Donald Eric Broadbent(May 6, 1926 - April 10, 1993) was an influential British experimental psychologist, most famous for his work on attention. Broadbent helped nurture what was then the infant field of psychology in England, becoming famous worldwide for his groundbreaking theories and experimental work. His 1958 publication Perception and communication was radical in its approach, taking the new field of information processing to model unobservable mental processes in a time when Behaviorism was dominant. His career and research work bridged the gap between the pre-Second World War approach of Sir Frederic Bartlett and its wartime development into applied psychology, and what from the late 1960s became known as cognitive psychology.

Broadbent's influence continues not just through his theories, which as he expected have been modified greatly through further research, but through his influence on numerous students and colleagues. His philosophy, scientific rigor, and good character impressed and inspired many to work towards the solution to real human problems even when they appear intractable.

content

life

Donald Broadbent was born on May 6, 1926 in Birmingham, England. His family was quite well off financially. However, this changed when he was 13 and his parents divorced and his home moved to Wales. He won a scholarship to the prestigious Winchester College, an English independent school and completed his schooling there.

As a boy he was fascinated by flying, and at age 17 he volunteered to join the Royal Air Force (RAF). During his time in the RAF, he observed communication difficulties often arose from psychological, not physical, causes. In particular, he noticed that inefficient processes of attention , perception , and memory led to problems, rather than failures of technical equipment. An anecdote he often told to illustrate the importance of psychological processes in practice was recounted by his long-time colleague, Dianne Berry:

The AT6 planes had two identical levers under the seat, one to pull up the flaps and one to pull up the wheels. Donald told of the monotonous regularity with which his colleagues would pull the wrong lever while taking off and crash land an expensive airplane in the middle of a field (Berry 2002).

Having made this observation, Broadbent's interests began to zero in on psychology, rather than his previous interest in the physical sciences. Psychology had the "concrete" quality of the physical sciences but it could also shed light on human problems.

Broadbent spent a short time after the war working in the personnel selection branch of the RAF before beginning his studies at Cambridge "s psychology department. Due to its natural sciences orientation and emphasis on practical application, Broadbent found Cambridge ideal. The department was headed by Sir Frederick Bartlett and was eager to apply newfound cybernetic ideals towards understanding human behavior, especially in terms of control systems, practical problems, and psychological theory in general. in 1944, by the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) on Bartlett's persuasion.

In 1958, Broadbent became director of the Unit, a position he held for 16 years. Although much of the work of the APU was directed at practical issues of military or industrial significance, Broadbent rapidly became well known for his theoretical work. His theories of selective attention and short-term memory were developed as digital computers were beginning to become available to the academic community, and were among the first to use computer analogies to make a serious contribution to the analysis of human cognition. His 1958 book, became one of the classic texts of cognitive psychology.

In 1974, Broadbent became a fellow of Wolfson College, Oxford University and returned to applied problems. There, together with his colleague Dianne Berry, he developed new ideas about implicit learning from consideration of human performance in complex industrial processes (Berry 2002). He continued this work until his retirement in 1991.

Donald Broadbent died on April 10, 1993.

work

Donald Broadbent is best known for his contribution to the development of cognitive psychology. His 1958 book, perception and communication, has been rated "the single most influential book in the history of cognitive psychology" (Parasuraman 1996). Broadbent was the first person to bring together the work on information processing with the problem of attention , a radical move at a time when Behaviorism was the dominant paradigm in psychology . Broadbent used data from behavioral experiments and inferred (unobservable) functional stages of processing and their order of occurrence from these data. In so doing, he invented the modern study of attention (Berry 2002).

In all his work, Broadbent never abandoned practical problems. For example, he studied problems caused by communication with gunnery and air control systems, in which many channels of communication were delivered at one time. His work effectively bridged the gap between the laboratory and the field, constantly working on topics that had significance for people and society.

Broadbent contributed both experimental methods and theory to the world of psychology. His best known, and still widely used, method is the dichotic listening experiment, and his filter model of attention is his best known theory. Both were developed during his time at the Applied Psychology Unit at Cambridge University .

Dichotic listening experiments

Although most people spend their lives surrounded by many different types of stimuli, they cannot respond to or describe the majority of them. A practical example of this is found in the "cocktail party effect," described by Colin Cherry (1953) as the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations. Cherry conducted experiments in which subjects were asked to listen to two different messages from a single loudspeaker at the same time and try to separate them, repeating one but not the other, known as a "shadowing" task. sounds from background noise is based on the characteristics of the sounds, such as the gender of the speaker, the direction from which the sound is coming, the pitch, or the speaking speed. complete the task successfully.

Broadbent extended this work by devising what is known as the "dichotic listening" experiment. In these studies, subjects were asked to listen to and separate different speech signals presented to each ear simultaneously (using headphones). For example, in one experimental setup, three pairs of different digits were presented simultaneously, three digits in one ear and three in the other. Most participants in the study recalled the digits ear by ear, rather than pair by pair. Thus, if 496 were presented to one ear and 852 to the other, the recall would be 496-852 rather than 48-95-62.

From the results of such experiments, Broadbent suggested that "our mind can be conceived as a radio receiving many channels at once." The brain separates incoming sound into channels based on physical characteristics (such as location).

Other experiments were concerned with the subject's ability to answer one of two questions posed at the same time. Subjects with advance knowledge of which question they should attend to score around 48 percent accuracy. Those informed after the questions had been given had almost no success:

The present case is an instance of selection in perception (attention). Since the visual cue to the correct voice is useless when it arrives towards the ends of the message, it is clear that process of discarding part of the information contained in the mixed voices has already taken place…It seems possible that one of the two voices is selected for response without reference to its correctness, and that the other is ignored… If one of the two voices is selected (attended to) in the resulting mixture there is no guarantee that it will be the correct one, and both call signs cannot be perceived at once any more than both messages can be received and stored till a visual cue indicates the one to be answered (Broadbent 1952).

Filter model of attention

Broadbent developed his theory of selective attention based on his and other researchers" experimental findings using the information processing model. The major points of his filter theory can be summarized as follows:

• Stimuli presented at the same time are held in a short-term sensory buffer. Information can be retained there for a short period before being processed; after that it disappears from the processing system.
• A filter selects one of the inputs on the basis of its physical characteristics, passing it through a limited capacity channel for further processing.
• The input selected by the filter is analyzed for semantic content (meaning) and comes into conscious awareness.
• Any stimuli not selected by the filter do not receive this semantic analysis and never reach conscious awareness.

This theory provides an explanation of the "cocktail party" phenomenon, since the voice that a person is attending to has different physical characteristics from those of other people in the room. No semantic analysis is necessary to differentiate them. It also explains both Cherry's and Broadbent's experimental findings-unattended messages are rejected by the filter and thus receive very little processing.

Later findings, however, raised problems for this "all-or-nothing" filter model. In terms of the cocktail party, hearing one's name spoken by anyone in the room leads to a switching of attention to that speaker. This implies that the content of the message was analyzed prior to the filtering, which was supposed to occur before such analysis. This paradox did not deter Broadbent, and he accepted such data as reason to revise his theory (Craik and Baddeley 1995). decision and stress(1971) began with his filter model and was modified "to accommodate new findings that the model itself had stimulated" (Massaro 1996). This was typical of Broadbent's approach to scientific research—he regarded all theories as temporary accounts of the current information, likely to need revision and improvement when new data emerged.

Legacy

A lecture in Broadbent's honor is given every year at the annual conference of the British Psychological Society. Broadbent gave the inaugural lecture in 1991. After his death in 1993, tributes and biographical acknowledgments were written in his honor. A special issue of Applied Cognitive Psychology, edited by his long time colleague, Dianne Berry, was written to commemorate his contributions (Berry 1995).

Broadbent is credited with being a major force in the development of cognitive psychology, particularly the study of attention. His 1958 book, perception and communication, is a classic that continues to inform the area today.

Broadbent’s contributions to experimental psychology were noteworthy not only for research on attention, but because they also contributed to belief in the need for societal relevance in research—that is, practical application. He believed wholeheartedly that research should not be driven solely by theory but should be guided by important practical problems, and conversely that experimental results should be used to modify theories (Parasuraman 1996). In addition, his informal speaking style and use of commonplace analogies to represent complicated ideas made him memorable to society as a whole, allowing people of all walks of life access to his theories. As noted by Craik and Baddeley (1995), Broadbent's "psychology was intended for society and its problems, not merely for the dwellers in ivory towers."

His influence continues not just through his work but through the influence he had on numerous students and colleagues. He is remembered for the unmistakable image that he projected of himself, as “the man, the scholar, the scientist, the philosopher of science, and of his commitments to empirical psychology, to explicit models or theories, and to the application of psychological knowledge to real-word problems” (Massaro 1996). Unfailingly polite, helpful, and tolerant of the most naive questions posed by students, Broadbent was always approachable and generous with his time (Berry 2002). Yet he made a powerful impression on those who knew him, inspiring in them the conviction that good science would lead to solutions to real human problems.

Major works

• Broadbent, Donald E. 1952. Listening to one of two synchronous messages. Journal of Experimental Psychology 44: 51-55.
• Broadbent, Donald E. 1958. perception and communication. Elsevier Science Ltd. ISBN 0080090907.
• Broadbent, Donald E. 1961. Behavior. Basic Books. ISBN 0465005993.
• Broadbent, Donald E. 1962. Attention and the perception of speech Scientific American 206: 143-51.
• Broadbent, Donald E. 1971. decision and stress. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0121355500
• Broadbent, Donald E. 1973. In Defense of Empirical Psychology. Methuen young books. ISBN 041676780X.
• Broadbent, Donald E. 1993. The Simulation of Human Intelligence (Wolfson College Lectures). Blackwell. ISBN 0631185879.
• Broadbent, Donald E., and James T. Reason (eds.). 1990. Human Factors in Hazardous Situations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019852191X.
• Pribram, Karl H., and Donald E. Broadbent (eds.). 1970. Biology of Memory. Academic Press, 1970. ISBN 0125643500.

References

• Baddeley, Alan, and Lawrence Weiskrantz (eds.). 1995. Attention: Selection, Awareness and Control. A Tribute to Donald Broadbent. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198523742.
• Berry, Dianne C. (ed.). 1995. Special Issue: Donald Broadbent and Applied Cognitive Psychology. Applied Cognitive Psychology 9(7): S1-S215.
• Berry, Diane. 2002. Donald Broadbent. The Psychologist(15)(8) (August 2002): 402-405. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
• Cherry, Colin E. 1953. Some experiments on the recognition of speech with one and two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 25: 975-979.
• Craik, Fergus I. M. 2000. Broadbent, Donald E. Encyclopaedia of Psychology 1: 476-477.
• Craik, Fergus I. M., and Alan Baddeley. 1995. Donald E. Broadbent (1926-1993). American Psychologist 50(4): 302-303.
• Hotsall, David. 2003. History of Psychology. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0072849657.
• Massaro, D. W. 1996. Attention: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. 109(1): 139-150.
• Moray, N. 1995. Donald E. Broadbent: 1926-1993. American Journal of Psychology 108: 117-121.
• Parasuraman, Raja. 1996. Profiles in Psychology: Donald Broadbent. C S L Notes 20. Retrieved September 8, 2008.

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Donald Eric Broadbent

Broadbent Donald Eric (1926-1993) English psychologist. Biography. Educated at Cambridge. Since 1958 - Director of the Research Center for Applied Psychology at the Council for Research in Medicine. In 1965 he defended his doctoral dissertation in natural sciences at the University of Cambridge. Research. Dealt with problems of psychology of perception and decision-making. Refusing to use the stimulus-response scheme, he began to actively use cybernetic concepts. The author of one of the early theories of selective attention, which was called the "filtered model". Methods. To analyze the selectivity of attention, he developed the method of dichotic listening.

Kondakov I.M. Psychology. Illustrated dictionary. // THEM. Kondakov. - 2nd ed. add. And a reworker. - St. Petersburg, 2007, p. 82.

Compositions:

perception and communication. L., 1958; Behavior. L., 1961; Human response to classes of stimuli // Nature. 1962. No. 193 (et Gregory M.); Advanced Science. L., 1967; decision and stress. L., 1971; Attention and speech perception // Perception: Mechanisms and models: Translations / Ed. N. 10. Alekseenko. Moscow: Mir, 1974; Stimulus Set and Response Set: Two Types of Selective Attention: An Attention Reader / Ed. A. N. Leontiev, A. A. Puzyreya. V. Ya. Romanova. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1976.

Literature:

D. E. Broadbent // Psychology: Biographical Bibliographic Dictionary / Ed. N. Sheehy, E. J. Chapman, W. A. ​​Conroy. St. Petersburg: Eurasia, 1999.

Experimental confirmation of the early breeding model

A 1980 experiment by Francolini and Egeth, a variation of the Stroop effect test, confirmed the early breeding model. The test participants were given symbols of two different colors, they had to concentrate on the symbols of one color, and ignore the symbols of the other color. At the same time, at the first stage, the symbols of a different color did not have any correlation with the symbols to which attention was drawn, in the second case, the symbols of a different color correlated, superimposed in their meaning on the symbols of a different color, but contained incorrect information, for example, they contained a number that was close, but not corresponding to the number of symbols of the first color (for example, five red letters and a blue number 6). Thus, the symbols of a different color (blue number 6) probably should have formed in the subjects a tendency to answer incorrectly the question about the number of symbols of the controlled color, naming the number that was among the symbols of the ignored color (blue number 6). As the tests showed, there were no errors associated with the imposition of characters of a different color. This suggests that the subjects had no knowledge of the ignored color series. The results of this experiment contradict the late selection model.

Criticism and development of Broadbent's ideas

Further research has shown that non-attention symbols are not completely ignored during the test, they create a negative fixation of the setting for the symbols of the control color row.

Neville Moray suggested that some stimuli are so strong that they are able to overcome selective filter mechanisms to reach the level of perceptual processing. So, in experiments with dichotic listening, part of the information (for example, the name of a person) that entered the ear, not associated with perceptual processing, was still recognized by the person.

Notes

Links

• Dianne Berry Obituary: Donald Broadbent // The Independent. - April 16, 1993.

Categories:

• Personalities in alphabetical order
• Scientists alphabetically
• May 6
• Born in 1926
• Born in Birmingham
• Deceased April 10
• Deceased in 1993
• Deceased in Buckinghamshire
• Attention
• cognitive sciences
• UK Psychologists
• Members of the Royal Society of London

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Great Psychological Encyclopedia

Broadbent Donald Eric

(05/06/1926 Birmingham, England - 1993, Oxford, England) - English psychologist.

Biography.

Educated at Cambridge. Since 1958 - Director of the Research Center for Applied Psychology at the Council for Research in Medicine. In 1965 he defended his doctoral dissertation in natural sciences at the University of Cambridge.

Research.

Dealt with problems of psychology of perception and decision-making. Refusing to use the stimulus-response scheme, he began to actively use cybernetic concepts. The author of one of the early theories of selective attention, which was called the "filtering model".

Literature.

Exceltion and Communication. L., 1958;

Behavior. L., 1961; Human response to classes of stimuli // Nature. 1962, No. 193 (et Gregory M.) Advancement Science. L., 1967; decision and stress. L., 1971; Setting to a stimulus and setting to a response: two types of selective attention // (Ed.) Leontiev A.N., Bubbles A.A., Romanova V.Ya. Reader for attention. M. Ed. Mos. Univ., 1976

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Donald Trump

From the book of 20 great businessmen. People ahead of their time author Apanasik Valery

Donald Trump Donald Trump is first and foremost a celebrity. And he did it himself. Trump always, everywhere and in every possible way talks about himself - in his words, “it is important to make others aware of your achievements. This is one of my main

Donald John Trump

From the book 1000 wise thoughts for every day author Kolesnik Andrey Alexandrovich

Donald John Trump (b. 1946) businessman, writer... Always remember one simple rule: dress for the job you want to have, not the one you have. ... For billionaires, work and pleasure are one and the same. ... There is nothing more criminal for

25. Donald Trump. How it all began

author Kiyosaki Robert Toru

25. Donald Trump. How It All Began Too many people have seen, or at least heard of, Donald Trump's The Apprentice television show. Once, when we were writing the book Why We Want You to Be Rich with him, I also had a chance to test myself in the role of such

26. Donald Trump Jr., Eric Trump. What is the most important real estate lesson you learned from your father?

From the book Investing in real estate author Kiyosaki Robert Toru

26. Donald Trump Jr., Eric Trump. What is the most important real estate lesson you learned from your father? Donald Jr.'s father and I are the same age. The famous Donald Trump, one of the greatest figures in the real estate world, is my friend, mentor and collaborator.

Donald Trump

From the book Why We Want You to Be Rich author Kiyosaki Robert Toru

Donald Trump Chairman and President of The Trump Organization Donald Trump is an American success story, constantly raising the bar for excellence and pushing the boundaries of his interests in real estate, gaming, sports and entertainment.

Donald Trump

From The Gift of Midas author Kiyosaki Robert Toru

Donald Trump Chairman of the Board and President of the Trump Organization, Donald Trump is the living embodiment of the American success story. It sets the standard for excellence and continually expands its interests in real estate, sports and entertainment.

INTRODUCTION by Neil Donald Walsh

From the book Law of Attraction by Hicks Esther

INTRODUCTION by Neil Donald Walsh Neil Donald Walsh, best-selling author of Conversations with God and Going Home with God in the Life That Never Ends series. Here it is! You can search no further. Put away all other books, refuse to participate in symposiums and seminars, and say

Donald Factor INTRODUCTION

From the book Unfolding Meaning by Bom David

Donald Factor INTRODUCTION Ideas, concepts and theories are the substance of which thought is made, and thought affects the world penetratingly. What we think about reality can change our relationship with it - just like what we perceive about the world around us can change

DONALD MACLEAN

From the book of Aces of illegal intelligence author Shvarev Nikolai Alexandrovich

DONALD MAKLEAN The Soviet illegal spy Arnold Deutsch, who worked with D. McLean, reported about him to Moscow: "He came to us from honest motives." In the first half of 1941, McLean reported on Hitler's preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union. Since the beginning of the war from him

MJ-10- Donald Menzel

From the book The Roswell Mystery the author Shurinov Boris

MJ-10- Donald Menzel MJ-10 is already known to us Donald Menzel (1901-1976), astronomer and founder of theoretical astrophysics in the USA, specialist in solar physics and plasma processes. The presence of Donald Menzel in the list of twelve was the biggest surprise.

Donald Crowhurst (b. 1932)

From the book of 100 great adventurers author Muromov Igor

Donald Crowhurst (b. 1932) Exiled from the Air Force and the Army, an electronics engineer and failed businessman, decided to become famous and get rich by doing a single sea trip around the world. When it turned out that his adventure was doomed to failure, he went on an unprecedented forgery,

Crowhurst Donald

From the book Catastrophes of Consciousness [Religious, ritual, domestic suicides, methods of suicide] author Revyako Tatyana Ivanovna

Crowhurst Donald Donald Crowhurst (1932–1969) – English yachtsman The famous lone navigator Sir Francis Chichester called the story of Crowhurst the maritime drama of the century. Donald Crowhurst, an engineer, inventor, businessman, decided to take part in a round-the-world race

15. Donald Knuth

From the book Coders at work. Reflections on the craft of a programmer by Seibel Peter

15. Donald Knuth Of all the characters in this book, Donald Knuth probably needs the least introduction. For the past 40 years, he has been writing his multi-volume masterpiece The Art of Programming, the bible of fundamental algorithms and data structures. American magazine