The iron column is so firmly planted in the ground,
that the cannonball fired at her by the conqueror
Nadir Shah in 1739 could not be knocked down,
nor even damage it, just leaving a small cavity.
Just half an hour from the center of the Indian capital, on one of the squares, there is an iron column more than one and a half thousand years old.
Since ancient times, crowds of pilgrims flocked to her - it was believed that whoever leaned his back against the column and wrapped his arms around her would be happy.
The column was erected in 415 in honor of King Chandragupta II, who died in 413. Initially, it was located in the east of the country, was crowned with the image of the sacred bird Garuda and stood in front of the temple. In 1050, King Anang Pola brought her to Delhi.
The column weighs about 6.5 tons, its height is 7.3 m, the diameter at the base is 41.6 cm, at the top it is 29.5 cm. It is made of almost pure iron (99.720% iron) and contains only minor impurities, which explains its corrosion resistance.
Guides often tell legends about its exclusivity. According to one of them, stainless steel was used to create this monument. However, an analysis made by the Indian scientist Chedari shows that the Delhi column does not contain alloying elements leading to increased corrosion resistance.
Chemical composition of the column material:
Carbon - 0.08
Silicon - 0.046
Sulfur - 0.006
Phosphorus - 0.114
Nitrogen - 0.032
Iron - 99,722
The top of the iron pillar in Delhi,
Scientists from Institute of Technology Kanpur found that the column contained an unexpected amount of phosphorus, which, by reacting with iron, water and oxygen, created a kind of protective anti-corrosion surface layer. Scientists believe that the ancient blacksmiths did not have unique knowledge of the chemistry of alloys, but selected the composition of iron empirically.
Ancient India was generally famous for the art of its metallurgists. In many ancient temples, there are iron beams up to 6 m long. Historians report that those used in the construction Egyptian pyramids iron tools for stone processing were made in South India, which had a brisk trade with Rome, Egypt and Greece. India was so famous in the East for its steel products that the Persians, when talking about something superfluous and unnecessary, had a saying: "To bring steel to India."
How was this column made?
Some even say that modern metallurgists have not yet learned how to do anything like this. This is wrong. Nowadays, they have learned to make both stainless steel and iron of such purity as the ancient metallurgists never dreamed of. And yet the art of the ancient masters is admirable.
There is still no consensus on the method of manufacturing the famous column. Some authors claim that it was cast, which is the least likely. Others believe that when smelting "by eye", as happened in antiquity, very large deviations in the quality of the metal are possible. Here, they say, one of these exceptions could be a column. Still others suggest that the column was made by welding individual 36 kg blocks and then forging them.
According to one author, in order to obtain pure iron, ancient metallurgists ground a sponge of wrought iron into powder and sieved it. And then the resulting pure iron powder was heated to a red heat, and under the blows of a hammer, its particles stuck together into one whole - now this is called the powder metallurgy method. From such pieces of iron, perhaps, they blinded a huge column in Delhi.
An inscription dedicated to Vishnu and King Chandragupta II remained on the column.
The Sanskrit inscription indicates that the pillar was made during the reign of Chandragupta II (376-415), emperor of the Gupta dynasty, who ruled much of northern India from Bihar.
The iron column in Delhi gained popularity among Europeans after the work of the English orientalist and Indologist Alexander Cunningham. They brought approx. 150 years ago, the information is currently being criticized by researchers. So, Cunningham claimed that the height of the column was at least 60 feet (18 m), and the weight was 17 tons. In addition, from its description it follows that the column is solid, not welded. These conjectures were picked up by historians, and even later Scientific research could no longer shake their faith in the miraculous properties of the "eternal" column.
A similar column of even larger size, made in the 3rd century, rises in the Indian city of Dhar.
Inquisitive scientists conducted a series of studies of iron columns in Dhar and Delhi. So, for example, British scientists took small pieces of metal from columns as samples for physical and chemical analysis in London. Upon arrival in London, it turned out that - the samples were covered with rust. Soon, the Swedish material scientist I. Vranglen and his colleagues discovered a zone of strong corrosion on the column. It turned out that in the area of embedding the column in the foundation, it rusted to a depth of 16 millimeters along the entire diameter.
Another mysterious monument of antiquity is the Buddha statue from Sultanganj, cast from pure copper and weighing more than a ton. According to scientists, this statue is at least 1500 years old and there is still no scientific explanation of how the ancient Indian blacksmiths were able to make such a work of art.
Now the statue of the copper Buddha is in the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, and a plaque describing it reads: "The statue of the Buddha, which is about 1500 years old, has been preserved virtually intact, which makes it a unique attraction in the world."
In Delhi - a historical monument that captivates with the mystery of its creation. It is made of iron that has not rusted since its construction - over 1600 years ago. Despite the fact that the column is in the open air, it still remains strong, which is an excellent confirmation of the scientific and technical knowledge in ancient india. The iron pillar is one of the world's oldest mysteries that archaeologists and materials scientists are still trying to solve.
You can see a photo of the iron column in Delhi in our article.
Location
The described object is located opposite the Quwwat-ul Islam mosque in the Qutb complex, where the famous Qutb Minar minaret is located, in the Mehrauli archaeological complex in Delhi.
The iron pillar rises majestically to a height of 24 feet (7.2 m). An ancient landmark was made from 6 tons of almost pure wrought iron.
Chemical composition
The researchers of this mysterious structure carried out chemical analysis its composition. In 1961, the iron used in the construction of the column was found to be of exceptional purity with a very low carbon content. In addition, scientists have found that the metal from which it was made does not contain sulfur or magnesium, but does include phosphorus. Iron itself accounts for about 99.4%. Among the impurities, phosphorus is the most (0.114%). The share of carbon is 0.08%, which makes it possible to classify the material as low-carbon steel. Other impurities are presented in the following quantities:
- silicon - 0.046%;
- nitrogen - 0.032%;
- sulfur - 0.006%.
scientific theories
Scientists conducting research in an attempt to uncover the secret of the iron pillar in Delhi came to a number of conclusions. All theories put forward to explain the amazing resistance of a structure to corrosion fall into two main categories:
- Material factors (these versions are put forward mainly by Indian researchers).
- Factors environment(they are preferred by foreign scientists).
It is believed that due to the high content of phosphorus, a protective layer is formed on the surface of the column, which, on the one hand, protects it from corrosion, on the other hand, causes metal fragility (this is clearly visible in the place where the cannonball hit the column).
According to other scientists, they weather in Delhi prevent rust. According to them, the key catalyst for rust is moisture. Delhi has a dry climate with little moisture. Its content, during most of the year, does not exceed 70%. This may be the reason for the lack of corrosion.
Indian scientists from the Institute of Technology in Kanpur in 2002 conducted a thorough study. They cited a protective layer formed by crystalline phosphate as the reason for the absence of metal corrosion. The process of its formation occurs in the presence of wetting and drying cycles. In fact, the corrosion resistance of this unique structure is due to its chemical composition and weather conditions.
In addition, according to Indian scientists, at that time blacksmiths did not have any special knowledge about the chemistry of alloys, and the composition of iron was selected empirically.
Therefore, this theory suggests that there is a relationship between the processing, structure, and properties of the iron pillar. Based scientific analysis these three factors have been shown to work together to form a protective passive rust layer on an iron pole in Delhi. As a result, it does not undergo further corrosion. Thanks to this property, one can really consider the iron column in India to be another wonder of the world.
However, this ability to resist corrosion is not unique to this structure. Studies have shown that other large ancient Indian objects have a similar property. These include iron poles at Dhara, Mandu, Mount Abu, Kodohadri Hill and ancient iron cannons. Therefore, it can be said that the ancient blacksmiths were highly skilled specialists in forging iron products. In a report published in the journal Current Science, R. Balasubramaniam of the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur stated that the pillar is "a living testament to the skill of the metallurgists of ancient India."
Preservation of historical value
Previously, numerous tourists, clinging to the column, tried to hug her, joining their hands. It was believed that if this succeeds, it will bring good luck to a person.
However, due to this rather popular custom, the lower part of the column began to change its color from constant friction. According to the researchers, the endless touches and movements of visitors erase the protective layer that protects it from corrosion. In order to avoid further damage to the lower part of the iron pole, a small fence was placed around it in 1997.
inscriptions
Although several inscriptions have been found on the pillar, the oldest is a six-line Sanskrit verse. Since the name Chandra is mentioned in the third verse, scholars have been able to date the column's construction to the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditi (375-415 BC), the Gupta king.
But today she is in Delhi. How this column got there, and where its original location was, is still a matter of scholarly debate.
Riddles of the column
The purpose of the iron pillar is one of the many mysteries of history. Some researchers say that this is a flagpole made for the king mentioned in the inscription. Others claim that it was a sundial in its supposed original location in Madhya Pradesh.
Why the column ended up in the capital of India is another mystery of the structure. There is no evidence of who exactly moved it over a thousand years ago, how it was moved, or even why it was moved. All that can be said for certain about this aspect of the pillar's history is that the mysterious iron pillar has been part of the landscape of the Indian capital for a very long time.
Versions and conjectures
The history of the iron pillar in Delhi is still being researched. There are many versions of its origin. However, despite the presence of various conjectures, scientists already have some information about this structure.
In 1838, an Indian antiquarian deciphered everything written on an iron pillar in Delhi. The inscriptions were then translated into English language and published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Before that, nothing was known about the iron column.
According to scientists, it was created in early period Gupta reign (320-495 AD). This conclusion was made based on the style of the inscription on the pillar and the peculiarities of the language. As already mentioned, in the third verse of the inscription on the iron pillar, scholars have found a mention of the name Chandra, which designates the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. However, there are different opinions on whether the word Chandra refers to King Samudragupta (340-375) or Chandragupta II (375-415), who was the son of King Samudragupta. It is also believed that the inscription could refer to the Hindu God Vishnu.
There is also a lot of speculation by historians about where the pillar was forged. According to one of the main theories, the iron pillar was created on top of the Udaigiri hill in Madhya Pradesh, from where it was taken to Delhi by King Iltutmish (1210-36) after his victory.
According to other researchers, the iron pillar was moved and installed in the main temple of Lal Kot ( ancient capital Delhi) by King Anangpal II in 1050 AD. However, in 1191, when King Prithviraj Chauhan, the grandson of Anangpal, was defeated by the army of Muhammad Ghori, Qutb-ud-din Aibak built the Kuvwat-ul-Islam mosque in Lal Kot. It was then that the column was moved from its original location to its current location in front of the mosque.
Iron column architecture in India
The structure is placed on a base decorated with artistic carvings. Part of the column, approximately 1.1 meters, is underground. The base rests on a lattice of iron rods soldered with lead. A layer of paving stone is laid on top of it.
The height of the iron column reaches seven meters. The bottom diameter of the post is 420 mm (17 in) and its top diameter is 306 mm (12 in). The column weighs over 5865 kg. Its top is also decorated with carvings. There are inscriptions carved on the iron stand. Some of them contain vague indications of its origin.
The researchers found that the column was made by molding and forging and welding from pieces of paste-like iron weighing about 20-30 kg. Hammer marks are still visible on the surface of the pillar. It was also found out that about 120 people worked for several weeks creating this column.
Annihilation attempt
At a height of about four meters from the ground, there is a noticeable depression on the surface of the column. The damage is said to have been caused by firing a cannonball at close range.
According to historians, Nadir Shah ordered the destruction of the iron column during his invasion in 1739. According to the researchers, he wanted to do this in order to find gold or jewelry. Which, as the invader believed, could be hidden inside the top of the pillar.
According to another version, they wanted to destroy the column as a Hindu temple pillar, which had no place on the territory of the Muslim complex. However, the iron column in Delhi could not be destroyed.
In India, in a small place not far from the capital of Delhi - Shimaikhalori, for the past sixteen centuries there has been a pillar of pure iron. The content of carbon in it and other impurities is negligible. The amount of pure iron is 99.5%, so the pole, despite the very humid climate of India, practically does not rust.
Pillar of Indra: the technology of creation is a great mystery
A stainless iron pole in India, the secret of the manufacturing technology of which has not been solved.
The “Pillar of Indra”, as this 7.5-meter structure with a diameter of 48 cm is also called, is puzzling: what technologies did the ancient masters use to smelt such a pillar? The riddle that cannot be unraveled is that even in modern conditions obtaining such perfectly pure atomic iron possible by sputtering only in space conditions and only in small quantities!
For several tens of meters, a column of pure iron goes into the ground - that is, its mass is huge! And it still had to be buried so deep! But there is another secret about this pillar: an inscription is made on it, which informs that the pillar was erected in honor of the victory over the peoples of Asia. The inscription says that the column was made during the reign of Chandragupta, which is 376-415 AD.
Make a similar writing on iron- you also need to be able to! What technology did the ancients use: maybe the letters were pressed out while the metal was warm, or maybe they were carved? Until now, scientists have not determined and no one can answer this question with greater certainty.
Versions and assumptions of creating a column of pure iron
According to one version, such a pillar in ancient times (and in ours too) could only be created by aliens from outer space (aliens). But the version with aliens carries uncertainty and elements of science fiction: after all, no one has officially proven the “presence” of aliens.
Another version: the pillar was made from an iron meteorite. But then tell me, where and when did a meteorite of such a mass fall to Earth? Indeed, after its collision with the surface of our planet, a significant crater should have remained. Significant natural disasters were also to occur. Nothing like this happened in ancient times near Delhi, and in general in India. That's for sure.
Like it or not, but the mystery of the stainless steel pillar remains one of the most amazing to this day. And the scientific and technical level of the ancient Aryans can now be judged at least by this metal column.
This seven-meter iron column is located just 20 kilometers from Old Delhi and was erected in 415. Now it is one of the most popular attractions in Delhi. And all due to the fact that for the entire time of its existence the column almost does not rust. On this occasion, scientists are still arguing, there are many different conjectures and theories. But the fact remains - the column really has an anti-corrosion ability.
They made and erected a column in honor of one of the influential kings of India - Chandragupta II, who died two years after the appearance of the iron pillar. Its original location was in the temple of the god Vishnu in Mathura. However, the column was later moved. And this despite the fact that its weight is almost seven tons.
The column has been very popular since ancient times. It was believed that if you stand with your back, hug the column from both sides with your hands and make a wish, it will certainly come true. People also believed that they could be cured of an illness in the same way. Although scientists later dispelled this fabulous legend. It turned out that it was not at all in the column, but in the pose. It is in this position that a person's energy field increases significantly. It nourishes the entire body, and people either recover or feel a surge of vigor and inner strength.
Regarding the method of manufacture, there are also several different assumptions. The first were versions that the column could be cast or forged from one whole piece of iron. But later it was found out that, most likely, it was made by forging individual pieces of iron. This can be seen in the traces of welding and impacts. As for the content of other metals in the column, the chemical analysis showed almost 100% iron content. Therefore, another assumption - that the column could be made of meteoric iron - was also dispelled in the same way. Meteoritic iron always contains nickel, which is not found in the Indian column.
But, of course, most amazing ability and, at the same time, the mystery of the iron column is still its property not to rust, being in the open air. And there are many possible explanations for this. Since scientists have not yet come to a consensus, tourists can choose the most plausible for themselves.
Due to the fact that not only ordinary residents of nearby cities, but also religious people came to the column, the iron pillar was plentifully anointed with various aromatic oils. From this came the theory that the column was very heavily saturated with oils. A thin protective film has formed on its surface, which does not allow moisture to pass to the iron pillar.
But in this theory there is one essential question - why does not the whole column rust? Indeed, at a height of 70 meters, no one has ever lubricated it with anything.
There is also an assumption that the pillar could have been made by representatives of some ancient, and possibly extraterrestrial civilization, possessing technologies, tools and materials unknown to us. The anti-corrosion qualities of the column were explained by the dryness of the Indian climate, and the high content of ammonia in the air, and the effect of radiation, and even the accidental creation of a protective film. Indeed, in ancient times, people could not intentionally change the properties of iron, for example, douse it with hot steam - now this is called steel burnishing.
Or also accidentally create a completely different alloy that would have weather-resistant properties. People are still looking for a definite answer to this question, but the column is still standing ... and does not rust.
Just half an hour from the center of the Indian capital, on one of the squares, there is an iron column more than one and a half thousand years old.
Since ancient times, crowds of pilgrims flocked to her - it was believed that whoever leaned his back against the column and wrapped his arms around her would be happy.
The column was erected in 415 in honor of King Chandragupta II, who died in 413. Initially, it was located in the east of the country, was crowned with the image of the sacred bird Garuda and stood in front of the temple. In 1050, King Anang Pola brought her to Delhi.
The column weighs about 6.5 tons, its height is 7.3 m, the diameter at the base is 41.6 cm, at the top it is 29.5 cm. It is made of almost pure iron (99.720% iron) and contains only minor impurities, which explains its corrosion resistance.
Guides often tell legends about its exclusivity. According to one of them, stainless steel was used to create this monument. However, an analysis made by the Indian scientist Chedari shows that the Delhi column does not contain alloying elements leading to increased corrosion resistance.
Chemical composition of the column material:
Carbon - 0.08
Silicon - 0.046
Sulfur - 0.006
Phosphorus - 0.114
Nitrogen - 0.032
Iron - 99,722
The top of the iron pillar in Delhi,
Scientists from the Kanpur Institute of Technology found that the column contained an unexpected amount of phosphorus, which, by reacting with iron, water and oxygen, created a kind of protective anti-corrosion surface layer. Scientists believe that the ancient blacksmiths did not have unique knowledge of the chemistry of alloys, but selected the composition of iron empirically.
Ancient India was generally famous for the art of its metallurgists. In many ancient temples, iron beams up to 6 m long are found. Historians report that the iron tools used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids for stone processing were made in South India, which conducted a brisk trade with Rome, Egypt and Greece. India was so famous in the East for its steel products that the Persians, when talking about something superfluous and unnecessary, had a saying: "To bring steel to India."
How was this column made?
Some even say that modern metallurgists have not yet learned how to do anything like this. This is wrong. Nowadays, they have learned to make both stainless steel and iron of such purity as the ancient metallurgists never dreamed of. And yet the art of the ancient masters is admirable.
There is still no consensus on the method of manufacturing the famous column. Some authors claim that it was cast, which is the least likely. Others believe that when smelting "by eye", as happened in antiquity, very large deviations in the quality of the metal are possible. Here, they say, one of these exceptions could be a column. Still others suggest that the column was made by welding individual 36 kg blocks and then forging them.
According to one author, in order to obtain pure iron, ancient metallurgists ground a sponge of wrought iron into powder and sieved it. And then the resulting pure iron powder was heated to a red heat, and under the blows of a hammer, its particles stuck together into one whole - now this is called the powder metallurgy method. From such pieces of iron, perhaps, they blinded a huge column in Delhi.
An inscription dedicated to Vishnu and King Chandragupta II remained on the column.
The Sanskrit inscription indicates that the pillar was made during the reign of Chandragupta II (376-415), emperor of the Gupta dynasty, who ruled much of northern India from Bihar.
The iron column in Delhi gained popularity among Europeans after the work of the English orientalist and Indologist Alexander Cunningham. They brought approx. 150 years ago, the information is currently being criticized by researchers. So, Cunningham claimed that the height of the column was at least 60 feet (18 m), and the weight was 17 tons. In addition, from its description it follows that the column is solid, not welded. These conjectures were picked up by historians, and even later scientific research could no longer shake their faith in the miraculous properties of the “eternal” column.
A similar column of even larger size, made in the 3rd century, rises in the Indian city of Dhar.
Inquisitive scientists conducted a series of studies of iron columns in Dhar and Delhi. So, for example, British scientists took small pieces of metal from columns as samples for physical and chemical analysis in London. Upon arrival in London, it turned out that - the samples were covered with rust. Soon, the Swedish material scientist I. Vranglen and his colleagues discovered a zone of strong corrosion on the column. It turned out that in the area of embedding the column in the foundation, it rusted to a depth of 16 millimeters along the entire diameter.
Another mysterious monument of antiquity is the Buddha statue from Sultanganj, cast from pure copper and weighing more than a ton. According to scientists, this statue is at least 1500 years old and there is still no scientific explanation of how ancient Indian blacksmiths were able to make such a work of art.
Now the statue of the copper Buddha is in the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, and a plaque describing it reads: "The statue of the Buddha, which is about 1500 years old, has been preserved virtually intact, which makes it a unique attraction in the world."
