Battle of Alexander the Great with Darius mosaic. Secrets of the Mosaic of Ancient Pompeii. Plutarch's story and paintings by old masters

Many of the most interesting Pompeii mosaics are now kept in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. But even in Pompeii itself you can see extraordinary paintings made of colored stone. In many compositions, the careful selection of colors and the size of the mosaic elements are striking - just a few millimeters.

Alexander the Great and Darius at the Battle of Issus

The most famous Pompeii mosaic is the Battle of Issus from the House of the Faun. The mosaic was made famous not only by the image of Alexander the Great, but also by the artistic depth of the images, the dynamics of the whole picture, the emotionality and drama carried through the millennia.
The plot of the mosaic is one of the key moments of the story ancient civilization. The battle of the army of Alexander the Great with the army of the Persian king Darius opened the way for the great commander to the east, to India. And dealt a stunning blow to the Persian Empire. The authors of the mosaic managed to convey not only the experiences of the main actors but also the general intensity of passions.

Mosaic from Pompeii. Battle of Issus.

It is assumed that the mosaic was made in the 1st century AD after a painting original by the Greek artist Philoxenus from Eritrea. Philoxenus was a contemporary of Alexander, so it is very likely that the sharp, intense, slightly angular features of Alexander's face are much closer to the original than the idealized portraits of later times. The face of Darius, although it reflects a complex range of feelings, most likely also has a portrait resemblance to the king of the Persians.

Alexander on the mosaic.
The picture as a whole is striking in its versatility and integrity. The complexity of the composition is formed by numerous figures of warriors, horsemen, who are in motion. At the same time, faces and details are written out with accuracy and realism.

In the mosaic of the Battle of Issus, the color scheme is limited - black, white and yellow-red colors are used. This limitation is by no means due to the lack of materials of a different color, but is an artistic concept, probably subordinated to some general interior interests. It is difficult to judge, perhaps the pictorial original was originally made in such colors.

Darius.

Currently, the original mosaic is in the Archaeological Museum of Naples, but it originally decorated the floor in the House of the Faun in Pompeii (now there is an exact copy of the mosaic, made by craftsmen from Ravenna). The size of the composition is 5.84 by 3.17 meters (the area is over 15 square meters), the number of mosaic elements - more than one and a half million

Reconstruction of the painting.

pompeian cat

The second replicated mosaic from Pompeii is an image of a leopard (some, however, believe that this is a cat). The characteristic spotted coloring is conveyed quite accurately, leaving no doubt about the rapacity of the beast and pronounced clawed paws. But the grin on the face can hardly be considered aggressive - the cat is more likely to play, preparing to jump for a toy, than seriously going to attack.

Pompeian cat.

One of the typical techniques of Roman mosaics is clearly visible on this mosaic - the silhouette of the picture is emphasized not only by colored cubes, but also by background white elements laid out along the line. The volume of the animal's body itself is well conveyed in the mosaic, and the shadows from the paws are designed to emphasize the realism of the image.
Good pussy, good...

Cave Canem - Be afraid of the dog

Another "hit" of the Pompeii mosaics is the guard dog. In Pompeii, the image of a dog at the entrance to the house served as a kind of security talisman and a warning to guests. The inscription Cave Canem (Fear the dog) on one of them has become a common noun for such images. Most watchdogs are made in black and white - the dog guarding the house is usually lined with small black cubes on a light background. The sizes and plots of mosaics with dogs are individual - there are large and very realistic dogs, as well as smaller ones, which are more marked than drawn in detail. Ferocious and wary dogs are more characteristic, but on some the guards peacefully curl up and sleep.

Mosaic. Be afraid of the dog.

On the example of the above mosaics, differences in the style and shape of the images are noticeable. There are several periods in the art of Pompeii, because the city developed and grew over several centuries. Without going into subtleties of art history, we will simply draw the attention of visitors to a noticeable difference in the presentation of images and the form of execution of mosaics.

In ancient mythology, there is one very pronounced image of a guard dog - this is a Cerberus guarding the entrance to another world. Who knows, maybe, depicting a dog at the entrance, the inhabitants of Pompeii hoped that she would protect them from the troubles and hardships of the outside world and keep peace and tranquility in the house? It is a pity that the beautiful mosaics ultimately did not fulfill this purpose.

Guard dog.

PLATO'S ACADEMY.

Plato's Academy -

A mosaic in a villa in Pompeii is believed to depict a group of philosophers from the classical period. Second from the left - Lysias, third from the left - Plato. The picture itself is concise and almost schematic in depicting details. The antique temple, tree, capitals of the column are marked, but not traced, although the folds on the clothes are accurate and realistic. The composition and manner of execution suggest that the mosaic was made after a painting of the Greek school.

But by the time the mosaic was made, a different style reigned in Pompeii - a chic frame with a magnificent decorative interlacing of fruits, ribbons, leaves and eight comic masks was added to the plot image of the mosaic master. Each mask is original, they are not repeated, and their funny grotesque grimaces seem to laugh at the pathos of the central plot.
Some historians believe that the mosaic depicts not Plato at all and not his Academy at all, but a meeting of scientists from the Alexandria Museum (which was not at all a museum in our understanding, but something like an academy of sciences and a university in one bottle). In the grand scheme of things, does it really matter? People are sitting, talking about important things, and masks are laughing around - how many times will world art repeat such a collision ...

The material for the mosaic was marble cubes with the addition of smalt. Now the mosaic is in Naples, in the National Archaeological Museum.

PEOPLE AND FATE.

In Pompeian painting and mosaics, mythological and genre scenes are often found. Sometimes to separate where the legend is depicted, and where - real life is simply impossible. For us, the whole world of Ancient Rome is a big legend, with its established images, clichés, and delusions.

Battle with the Minotaur (Labyrinth). Mosaic. Pompeii

Comedians. Mosaic. Pompeii

Our polls educated world sometimes too obsessed with predestination. But the Pompeians, judging by this picture, great importance attached to Fortune, Chance, Luck. (Something like - do not renounce the bag). Wheel, skull, scales, measure - the symbolism is understandable even after a couple of millennia. Two dresses, two worlds - and sometimes it's so easy to be on the other side.

Fortune. Mosaic. Pompeii

Animals, birds, fish

The art of mosaic was so widespread that among the plots of mosaic paintings and panels there are a wide variety of animals, birds, fish - in their native habitat, in interaction or simply in the form of a still life (and before the famous hunting "collapses" of Snyders, there are still centuries and centuries .. .).

Hippopotamus. Mosaic. Pompeii

Crocodile. Mosaic. Pompeii

Fish and ducks. Mosaic. Pompeii.

Cat with quail, birds and fish. Mosaic. Pompeii.

underwater kingdom

Mosaic depicting the inhabitants of the deep sea is also known under the names "Fish", "Seabed" and - even - "Sea reptiles". On a black background, an encyclopedia of fish and animals that lived in the deep sea and is well known to the authors of the mosaic is presented, since most of the creatures (more than twenty different inhabitants of the sea) are not only recognizable, but also transmitted with amazing accuracy. With the help of color nuances, the artist reproduced the characteristic coloration of fish, including even small details - fins, gill lines, octopus suckers, etc.

The compositional center of the picture is an octopus wrapped around a lobster with tentacles. The close-set and accentuated eyes of the octopus seem to be directed directly at the viewer of the picture. The octopus seems to be conducting a dialogue with the viewer through the glass of a modern aquarium, while the rest of the fish are busy with their own business. However, there is no doubt that all the presented species of fish, mollusks, crustaceans made up a significant part of the diet of the Pompeians, so the mosaic is a kind of illustration of the culinary habits of two thousand years ago.

Underwater Kingdom (Seabed)

It would be unfair not to pay attention to the surviving examples of the interior decoration of the courtyards and villas of Pompeii. Inhabitants ancient city knew a lot about not only fine arts, but also knew how to equip their homes with grace and luxury.

Alexander the Great and Darius at the Battle of Issus. House of the Faun. Pompeii, c. 100 BC e.
Mosaic. 313; 582 cm, National Archaeological Museum, Naples

The plot of the mosaic is one of the key moments in the history of ancient civilization. The battle of the army of Alexander the Great with the army of the Persian king Darius opened the way for the great commander to the east, to India. And dealt a stunning blow to the Persian Empire. The authors of the mosaic managed to convey not only the experiences of the main characters, but also the general intensity of passions.

Alexander on the mosaic.

The picture as a whole is striking in its versatility and integrity. The complexity of the composition is formed by numerous figures of warriors, horsemen, who are in motion. At the same time, faces and details are written out with accuracy and realism.

pompeian cat
The second replicated mosaic from Pompeii is an image of a leopard (some, however, believe that this is a cat). The characteristic spotted coloring is conveyed quite accurately, leaving no doubt about the rapacity of the beast and pronounced clawed paws. But the grin on the face can hardly be considered aggressive - the cat is more likely to play, preparing to jump for a toy, than seriously going to attack.

Cave Canem - Be afraid of the dog

The sizes and plots of mosaics with dogs are individual - there are large and very realistic dogs, as well as smaller ones, which are more marked than drawn in detail. Ferocious and wary dogs are more characteristic, but on some the guards peacefully curl up and sleep.

In ancient mythology, there is one very pronounced image of a guard dog - this is a Cerberus guarding the entrance to another world. Who knows, maybe, depicting a dog at the entrance, the inhabitants of Pompeii hoped that she would protect them from the troubles and hardships of the outside world and keep peace and tranquility in the house? It is a pity that the beautiful mosaics ultimately did not fulfill this purpose.

PLATO'S ACADEMY.

Some historians believe that the mosaic depicts not Plato at all and not his Academy at all, but a meeting of scientists from the Alexandria Museum (which was not at all a museum in our understanding, but something like an academy of sciences and a university in one bottle). In the grand scheme of things, does it really matter? People are sitting, talking about important things, and masks are laughing around - how many times will world art repeat such a collision ...

The material for the mosaic was marble cubes with the addition of smalt. Now the mosaic is in Naples, in the National Archaeological Museum.

PEOPLE AND FATE.

In Pompeian painting and mosaics, mythological and genre scenes are often found. Sometimes it is simply impossible to separate where the legend is depicted and where real life is depicted. For us, the whole world of Ancient Rome is a big legend, with its established images, clichés, and delusions.

Our universally educated world is sometimes too obsessed with predestination. But the Pompeians, judging by this picture, attached great importance to Fortune, Chance, Luck. (Something like - do not renounce the bag). Wheel, skull, scales, measure - the symbolism is understandable even after a couple of millennia. Two dresses, two worlds - and sometimes it's so easy to be on the other side.

The compositional center of the picture is an octopus wrapped around a lobster with tentacles. The close-set and accentuated eyes of the octopus seem to be directed directly at the viewer of the picture. The octopus seems to be conducting a dialogue with the viewer through the glass of a modern aquarium, while the rest of the fish are busy with their own business. However, there is no doubt that all the represented species of fish, mollusks, crustaceans made up a significant part of the diet of the Pompeians, so the mosaic is a kind of illustration of the culinary habits of two thousand years ago.

It would be unfair not to pay attention to the surviving examples of the interior decoration of the courtyards and villas of Pompeii. The inhabitants of the ancient city knew a lot about not only the fine arts, but also knew how to equip their homes with elegance and luxury.

Probably, most of the floors in the houses of the aristocracy and wealthy families were decorated with geometric and floral ornaments, lined with black and white elements. But huge colored floor compositions are not uncommon (like the already mentioned Battle of Issus).

The history of Roman mosaics is far from exhausted by the artistic paintings found in Pompeii. However, it was the city covered with ashes that gave an idea of how extensively mosaic was used in the art of exterior and interior decoration of public buildings and residential buildings in the ancient Roman world. After dying, Pompeii became a monument to itself and to an ancient civilization that paid so much attention to the beauty and aesthetics of its daily life.

To see the gallery of Pompeian mosaics, follow the link. Many of the pictures I took in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. http://maxpark.com/community/6782/content/2229683

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Baseball and football commentators sometimes point out a turning point in a game. But now we have before us an image not of a sports, but of a real battle. One of the most important in history. It was at this decisive moment that the great ruler of Persia took to flight under the onslaught of the great Greek commander Alexander. Darius, king of the Persians, had just given the order to the soldiers to retreat. Here you can feel the extreme tension and multidirectional impulses. On the one hand, the movement goes from right to left: the spears of the Persian soldiers are still directed at the Greeks. And at the same time, the largest object on the canvas - the chariot - turns back. And it is this tension, a sharp turn, that gives the mosaic an amazing dynamism. A wounded man lies on the ground, he dies. One of my favorite pieces of the mosaic is the reflection of one of the Persians in his own shield. He sees himself there, defeated in battle, possibly dying. And my favorite detail is, perhaps, one of the horses harnessed to Darius' chariot. Look, she almost got off the ground with all her hooves! She is pulled to the left, and she turns her head to the right. In this mosaic there is a feeling of some violence. The face of Alexander, who rushes to Darius, is filled with determination. And Darius looks scared. He stretches his hand to Alexander, as if begging to spare the Persian soldiers. Surprise, anxiety, and a plea for compassion are read in his eyes. Yes, I think it is. Alexander was famous for his generosity, at least towards the family of Darius. He was a great Greek commander, the founder of a vast empire. Yes, he not only unified Greece, but also moved south into Egypt, moved east into Persia, and took possession of the entire Indus Valley. In a word, he subordinated to Greece a huge part of the world known at that time. Please note: all these details are transferred using pebbles and pieces of glass. So, we have a mosaic, which we believe is a copy of a Greek painting. We hope that this is a copy of a Greek work, because ancient Greek paintings have practically not survived to us, and according to Pliny, Greek painting was beautiful. Indeed, speaking of Greek art, we first of all remember sculptures, architecture, or, perhaps, painting on vases. Although ancient written sources claimed that the Greeks were best at wall painting. But we don't have samples. And this mosaic can give an idea about it. It is interesting that the upper part of the mosaic is almost empty, and the main content is concentrated at the bottom. Especially when you consider that the original canvas, apparently, was on the wall, and it had to be viewed vertically. At least we assume so. Historians associate this mosaic with the work of the artist Philoxenus, which was described by Pliny. According to him, Philoxenus depicted the battle between Alexander and Darius. The problem is that there were probably many paintings on this subject. It is known that among the ancient Greek artists who chose this plot, there was even one woman. It was an incredibly significant clash between two commanders, between two civilizations. I'm sure there were many more pictures. But that's all we have. All that was found, and then only because after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e. the whole city of Pompeii was buried under a layer of ash... ...and with it the mosaic. She was found on the floor between two peristyles - open courtyards surrounded by columns - in one of the largest and most luxurious mansions in Pompeii. According to a bronze statuette found there, it is often called the house of the Faun. The mosaic itself is simply amazing quality, so it is not surprising that it was found in such a luxurious house. As you know, the mosaic consists of one and a half million pieces of glass and stone. The quality lies not only in the subtlety of the material, but also in the incredible realism of the image, which the ancient Greek masters were famous for. Even with the help of such tiny pebbles, they managed to depict the play of light and shadow, to create a sense of volume. Look at the horses or the faces of the warriors. What a turn of the head, anatomical accuracy. Just look at the angle in which the horses are depicted. Here, the knowledge of anatomy and body movements, which the ancient Greeks were famous for, is clearly manifested. And, of course, this mosaic testifies to the respect of the Romans for the achievements of ancient Greek art. Sometimes it seems that all the inhabitants of Pompeii wanted to imitate the Greeks, to have copies of ancient Greek sculptures or paintings. In Pompeii, as in Rome, everyone was just crazy about ancient Greek culture.

Discovery and preservation

The mosaic was discovered on October 24, 1831 during excavations of ancient Pompeii in Italy on the floor of one of the premises of the house of the Faun and was transferred in 1843 to the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, where it is kept to the present. First, the mosaic was laid out on the floor, as in its original form; about the mosaic was placed on the wall for better view. A copy of the mosaic was laid out on the floor of the Faun's house. The dimensions of the grandiose painting are 313 × 582 cm, but some of the fragments have not been preserved.

The royal armor of Alexander depicted on the mosaic was reconstructed in Oliver Stone's film "Alexander". The armor is decorated on the chest with a gorgonion, an image of the head of a gorgon Medusa. Part of the mosaic depicting Alexander's bodyguards from the hetairoi has not survived, and only the Boeotian helmet of the hetaira with a gilded wreath conveys appearance famous ancient horsemen. A fragment depicting the standard of the Persian troops was also damaged.

Iconography

The mosaic depicts a battle between Alexander the Great and Persian king Darius III. In compositional terms, Darius dominates in the center of the picture. His gaze, wide with horror, is directed to the left, where Alexander's spear pierces one of the bodyguards of the Persian king. With his right hand, the dying man is still trying to grasp the deadly weapon, as if he wants to take it out of his body, but his legs are already giving way, and he sinks onto his bleeding black horse. Darius himself, with a bewildered face, unarmed, is trying to turn his chariot around. His outstretched sympathetic but vain right hand and desperate look are addressed to the mortally wounded warrior who threw himself between him and the attacking Alexander. However, both the look and the gesture of Darius equally apply to the approaching Alexander. The Persian king himself has already ceased to fight and therefore becomes a passive victim in an atmosphere of all-encompassing horror.

The portrait of Alexander corresponds to the so-called Lysippus type, to which, for example, the statue of the head of Alexander from the Louvre is also attributed. There is no traditional idealization of Alexander, who was often depicted with long locks and full, soft features as the embodiment of the image of Zeus, the sun god Helios, or Apollo.

Around Alexander, only a few Macedonians can be recognized by cap-like helmets - also due to the destruction of the mosaic. However, the predominant part of the picture - about three-quarters of the entire area - is given to the Persians. The Persians are wearing armor typical of Central Asia, similar to scales or shells made of plates. They cover the entire body and consist of rectangular iron or bronze sticks, tied together at the top, bottom or sides with cords. Depicted from a very bold angle, one of the Persians is trying to curb a frightened horse right in front of Darius; this horse probably belonged to one of the fallen warriors. The face of the dying man, who is just being run over by Darius' chariot, is reflected in his shield; this is the only face on the mosaic whose gaze is fixed on the viewer.

Graphic means in the mosaic reflected the turning point of the battle. On the one hand, the superiority of Alexander is shown. His regal posture and composure, which is reflected in his wide eye and in the spear that pierces the body of the enemy, has such a stunning and overwhelming effect on his opponents that they turn in panic. On the other hand, the position of the body of Darius, the three Persians fighting in front of him, numerous spears directed at an angle to the left and upwards, still reflect the original line of attack of the Persians, which does justice to the enemy of the Macedonians. At the same time, three spears at the right edge of the mosaic indicate movement in opposite side. The counter-movement of these enemy lines is repeated, by the way, in many respects in the trunk and branches of a bare tree.

The interpretation of the battle in the mosaic coincides with the historical information we have: in both general battles of the campaign in Asia (at Issus and at Gaugamela, Alexander decided the outcome of the battle through a decisive tactical maneuver. In each case, he rushed into the enemy offensive lines, surrounded by his horse hetairos, broke resistance to such a sudden attack and quite unexpectedly appeared before Darius, who then fled.

Evidence that the plot of the battle at Issus is depicted on the mosaic has not been found (except for similar descriptions of the battle at Arrian and Curtius). Perhaps the symbolic battle is not tied to any particular battle, but is intended to glorify the exploits of Alexander in the Asian campaign, to present the typology of his victory.

Cassandra by Philoxenus of Eretria, a late 4th-century Greek artist. BC e. The time reference of the creation of the picture, made from literary data, is confirmed by the manner of execution with a limited set of colors used and the method of drawing, characteristic of the early Hellenistic period.

Discovery and preservation

The mosaic was discovered on October 24, 1831 during excavations of ancient Pompeii in Italy on the floor of one of the premises of the House of the Faun and transferred in 1843 to the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, where it is kept to the present. First, the mosaic was laid out on the floor, as in its original form; near the mosaic was placed on the wall for a better view. A copy of the mosaic was laid out on the floor of the Faun's house. The dimensions of the grandiose painting are 313 × 582 cm, but some of the fragments have not been preserved.

The royal armor of Alexander depicted on the mosaic was reconstructed in Oliver Stone's film "Alexander". The armor is decorated on the chest with a gorgonion, an image of the head of the Gorgon Medusa. Part of the mosaic depicting Alexander's bodyguards from the hetairoi has not been preserved, and only the Boeotian helmet of the hetaira with a gilded wreath conveys the appearance of the famous ancient horsemen. A fragment depicting the standard of the Persian troops was also damaged.

Iconography

The mosaic depicts a battle between Alexander the Great and the Persian king Darius III. In compositional terms, Darius dominates in the center of the picture. His gaze, wide with horror, is directed to the left, where Alexander's spear pierces one of the bodyguards of the Persian king. With his right hand, the dying man is still trying to grasp the deadly weapon, as if he wants to take it out of his body, but his legs are already giving way, and he sinks onto his bleeding black horse. Darius himself, with a bewildered face, unarmed, is trying to turn his chariot around. His outstretched sympathetic but vain right hand and desperate look are addressed to the mortally wounded warrior who threw himself between him and the attacking Alexander. However, both the look and the gesture of Darius equally apply to the approaching Alexander. The Persian king himself has already ceased to fight and therefore becomes a passive victim in an atmosphere of all-encompassing horror.

The Macedonian king, on the contrary, most actively predetermines events on the battlefield. Alexander without a helmet, in luxurious linen armor, riding his Bucephalus, he pierces the body of the enemy with a spear, without even glancing at his victim. His wide eye is focused on Daria; even the Gorgon's gaze on his gorgoneion is directed towards the frightened enemy, as if trying to further strengthen this powerful hypnotic effect. The portrait of Alexander corresponds to the so-called Lysippus type, to which, for example, the statue of the head of Alexander from the Louvre is also attributed. There is no traditional idealization of Alexander, who was often depicted with long locks and full, soft features as the embodiment of the image of Zeus, the sun god Helios, or Apollo.

Graphic means in the mosaic reflected the turning point of the battle. On the one hand, the superiority of Alexander is shown. His regal posture and composure, which is reflected in his wide eye and in the spear that pierces the body of the enemy, has such a stunning and overwhelming effect on his opponents that they turn in panic. On the other hand, the position of the body of Darius, the three Persians fighting in front of him, numerous spears directed at an angle to the left and upwards, still reflect the original line of attack of the Persians, which does justice to the enemy of the Macedonians. At the same time, three spears at the right edge of the mosaic indicate movement in the opposite direction. The counter-movement of these enemy lines is repeated, by the way, in many respects in the trunk and branches of a bare tree.

Evidence that the plot of the battle of Issus is depicted on the mosaic has not been found (except for similar descriptions of the battle at Arrian and Curtius). Perhaps the symbolic battle is not tied to any particular battle, but is intended to glorify the exploits of Alexander in the Asian campaign, to present the typology of his victory.

prototype

In terms of iconography, the relief on the royal Sidon sarcophagus (4th century BC), which also depicts the battle of Alexander with the Persians, has a similarity with the mosaic; probably, both monuments go back to a common source. The Pompeian work is considered to be a copy of the masters of the Alexandrian school of mosaic from a picturesque ancient Greek canvas, executed in a different technique. The Greek original is apparently mentioned by the ancient Roman writer Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 35.110) as a work commissioned by the Macedonian king Cassander, made by Philoxenus of Eretria, a Greek artist of the late 4th century. BC e. The time reference of the creation of the picture, made from literary data, is confirmed by the manner of execution with a limited set of colors used and the method of drawing, characteristic of the early Hellenistic period.

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Literature

Kleiner, Fred S. Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Global History. - Cengage Learning, 2008. - P. 142. - ISBN 0495115495.
Bernard Andrew: Das Alexandermosaik. Reclam, Stuttgart 1967.
Michael Pfrommer: Untersuchungen zur Chronologie und Komposition des Alexandermosaiks auf antiquarischer Grundlage. von Zabern, Mainz 1998 (Aegyptiaca Treverensia. Trierer Studien zum griechisch-römischen Ägypten 8), ISBN 3-8053-2028-0.
Klaus Stahler: Das Alexandermosaik. Über Machterringung und Machtverlust. Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-596-13149-9.
Paolo Moreno, La Bataille d'Alexandre, Skira/Seuil, Paris, 2001.

An excerpt characterizing the Battle of Issus (mosaic)

“Where did he go? Where is he now?..”

When the dressed, washed body lay in a coffin on the table, everyone came up to him to say goodbye, and everyone wept.
Nikolushka wept from the pained bewilderment that tore at his heart. The Countess and Sonya wept with pity for Natasha and that he was no more. The old count wept that soon, he felt, he was about to take the same terrible step.
Natasha and Princess Mary were weeping now too, but they were not weeping from their own personal grief; they wept from the reverent tenderness that seized their souls before the consciousness of the simple and solemn mystery of death that took place before them.

The totality of the causes of phenomena is inaccessible to the human mind. But the need to find causes is embedded in the human soul. And the human mind, not delving into the innumerability and complexity of the conditions of phenomena, each of which separately can be represented as a cause, grabs at the first, most understandable approximation and says: here is the cause. In historical events (where the subject of observation is the actions of people), the most primitive rapprochement is the will of the gods, then the will of those people who stand in the most prominent historical place - historical heroes. But one has only to delve into the essence of each historical event, that is, in the activity of the entire mass of people who participated in the event, in order to make sure that the will of the historical hero not only does not direct the actions of the masses, but is itself constantly guided. It would seem that it is all the same to understand the meaning of a historical event one way or another. But between the man who says that the peoples of the West went to the East because Napoleon wanted it, and the man who says that it happened because it had to happen, there is the same difference that existed between people who said that the land stands firmly and the planets move around it, and those who said that they did not know what the earth was based on, but they knew that there were laws governing the movement of both her and other planets. There are no and cannot be causes of a historical event, except for the single cause of all causes. But there are laws that govern events, partly unknown, partly groping for us. The discovery of these laws is possible only when we completely renounce the search for causes in the will of one person, just as the discovery of the laws of the motion of the planets became possible only when people renounced the representation of the affirmation of the earth.

After the battle of Borodino, the occupation of Moscow by the enemy and burning it, historians recognize the movement of the Russian army from the Ryazan to the Kaluga road and to the Tarutino camp - the so-called flank march behind Krasnaya Pakhra as the most important episode of the war of 1812. Historians attribute the glory of this brilliant feat to various persons and argue about who, in fact, it belongs to. Even foreign, even French, historians recognize the genius of the Russian generals when they speak of this flank march. But why military writers, and after them all, believe that this flank march is a very thoughtful invention of some one person that saved Russia and ruined Napoleon is very difficult to understand. In the first place, it is difficult to understand what is the profoundness and genius of this movement; for in order to guess that the best position of the army (when it is not attacked) is where there is more food, no great mental effort is needed. And everyone, even a stupid thirteen-year-old boy, could easily guess that in 1812 the most advantageous position of the army, after retreating from Moscow, was on the Kaluga road. So, it is impossible to understand, firstly, by what conclusions historians reach the point of seeing something profound in this maneuver. Secondly, it is even more difficult to understand in what exactly historians see this maneuver as saving for the Russians and harmful for the French; for this flank march, under other, preceding, accompanying and subsequent circumstances, could be detrimental to the Russian and saving for the French army. If from the time this movement was made, the position of the Russian army began to improve, then it does not follow from this that this movement was the cause.
This flank march not only could not bring any benefits, but could ruin the Russian army, if other conditions did not coincide. What would have happened if Moscow had not burned down? If Murat had not lost sight of the Russians? If Napoleon had not been inactive? What if, on the advice of Bennigsen and Barclay, the Russian army had fought near Krasnaya Pakhra? What would happen if the French attacked the Russians when they were following Pakhra? What would have happened if later Napoleon, approaching Tarutin, attacked the Russians with at least one tenth of the energy with which he attacked in Smolensk? What would happen if the French went to St. Petersburg?.. With all these assumptions, the salvation of the flank march could turn into pernicious.
Thirdly, and most incomprehensibly, is that people who study history deliberately do not want to see that the flank march cannot be attributed to any one person, that no one ever foresaw it, that this maneuver, just like the retreat in Filiakh, in the present, was never presented to anyone in its integrity, but step by step, event after event, moment by moment, it followed from an innumerable number of the most diverse conditions, and only then presented itself in all its integrity when it was completed and became past.
At the council at Fili, the dominant thought of the Russian authorities was the self-evident retreat in a direct direction back, that is, along the Nizhny Novgorod road. Evidence of this is the fact that the majority of votes at the council were cast in this sense, and, most importantly, the well-known conversation after the council of the commander-in-chief with Lansky, who was in charge of the provisions department. Lanskoy reported to the commander-in-chief that food for the army was collected mainly along the Oka, in the Tula and Kaluga provinces, and that in the event of a retreat to Nizhny, the provisions would be separated from the army by the large river Oka, through which transportation in the first winter is impossible. This was the first sign of the need to deviate from the direct direction to the Lower, which had previously seemed the most natural. The army kept to the south, along the Ryazan road, and closer to the reserves. Subsequently, the inaction of the French, who even lost sight of the Russian army, concerns about the protection of the Tula plant and, most importantly, the benefits of approaching their reserves, forced the army to deviate even further south, to the Tula road. Having crossed in a desperate movement beyond Pakhra to the Tula road, the commanders of the Russian army thought to remain at Podolsk, and there was no thought of the Tarutino position; but countless circumstances and the reappearance of French troops, who had previously lost sight of the Russians, and the plans for the battle, and, most importantly, the abundance of provisions in Kaluga, forced our army to deviate even more to the south and move into the middle of their food routes, from the Tulskaya to the Kaluga road, to Tarutino. Just as it is impossible to answer the question when Moscow was abandoned, it is also impossible to answer when exactly and by whom it was decided to go over to Tarutin. Only when the troops had already arrived at Tarutino as a result of innumerable differential forces, only then did people begin to assure themselves that they wanted this and had long foreseen it.

The famous flank march consisted only in the fact that Russian army, retreating straight back in the opposite direction of the offensive, after the French offensive stopped, deviated from the direct direction taken at first and, not seeing persecution behind him, naturally leaned in the direction where the abundance of food attracted him.

IN Ancient Rome mosaics were widely used to decorate the interiors of public buildings and private houses. The demand for it was very high, so the quality could be different.

The mosaic was made from natural stone...

Or smalt - colored glass.

Unlike ancient egypt, Mesopotamia and other ancient civilizations, in Ancient Rome, as in Ancient Greece, used the volume-spatial principle of the image.

In ancient Roman painting, including mosaics, almost all genres are used.
The most popular were mythological and everyday genres.

Odysseus. Mosaic from the House of Odysseus and Dionysus in Dougga. 3rd century

This mosaic can be attributed both to the everyday genre and to the group portrait.

Philosophers. Mosaic from the Naples Archaeological Museum.

The historical genre is much rarer, but what a quality!

Battle of Ise. Pompeii.

Portraits, especially those of women, are often idealized.

Still life is one of the most popular genres. Seafood is especially loved.

II century. Museum of the Vatican.

Roman artists depicted birds and animals very often.
They are always recognizable and very expressive.
Mosaic from the Naples Archaeological Museum.

Mosaic paintings were often surrounded by a wide ornamental frame.
Mosaic from the British Museum.

Ornamental mosaics proper were also not uncommon. The variety of ornaments is amazing.

Battle of Alexander the Great with Darius mosaic. Secrets of the Mosaic of Ancient Pompeii. Plutarch's story and paintings by old masters

underwater kingdom

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An excerpt characterizing the Battle of Issus (mosaic)

Collection of ideal social studies essays

Anti-Soviet rebellion in Hungary (1956)