Carthage: from greatness to fall. Who destroyed Carthage briefly Masinissa and Carthage

to Favorites to Favorites from Favorites 0

Good day, colleagues. Today I am publishing the 10th and final part of my historical series of articles about Carthage, its founding, rise and fall under the heel of Rome. In the future, various sofa-analytical articles on this topic are planned, as well as the publication of the actual alternative associated with Carthage. Like last time, the material is published without an introduction.

Revenge of the vanquished

One of the drawings of Carthage from a bird's eye view. Coton also correctly conveys the radial layout of the Old City, but the size of the city is greatly underestimated, there are no city walls and Megara (suburbs) as such.

20 years have passed since the defeat in the Second Punic War, and in the meantime Carthage has been transformed. Its main source of income had always been not the direct exploitation of territories, but trade - but now, without imperial ambitions and huge expenditures on the armed forces, the city received colossal profits. An indemnity that was exorbitant by the standards of that time, which had to be paid over 50 years, Carthage offered to pay Rome ahead of schedule 10 years after the end of the war - the Romans, however, refused. Agriculture also strengthened significantly - using probably the most advanced scientific base of that time, the Carthaginians began to cultivate the lands of Africa, and they began to produce huge harvests. A year after the end of the Second Punic War, Carthage supplied the Roman army with 400 thousand bushels of grain; in 191 BC The Romans, fighting with Antiochus Seleucid, received 500 thousand bushels of grain and 500 thousand bushels of barley as a gift from the Carthaginians, while continuing to actively trade in these same goods. And in 171, the Roman army already received 1 million bushels of Carthaginian grain and 500 thousand bushels of Carthaginian barley. It should be noted that while Carthage was rebuilding its economy and growing rich, Rome was waging exhausting wars with the Hellenistic world - a sign of the strain of forces is that the army received salaries in bronze coins, occasionally in silver, and did not see gold coins at all. Another sign of the city's prosperity is the construction of Coton, an extensive trading harbor, the construction of which required a significant amount of engineering work.

But the Carthaginians at this time did not live peacefully. They were annoyed by Massinissa - the same one who helped Scipio defeat Hannibal at Zama. Taking advantage of the fact that the Romans, who were still hostile towards him, actually decided for Carthage, Massinissa began to gradually occupy the fertile lands of the Carthaginians. At the same time, he actively used the myth of the insidious purchase of land by Elissa, who, by cunning, acquired significant territories for next to nothing. Having occupied another part of the fertile territories, the Numidian king sent envoys to Rome, and Carthaginian ambassadors also went there with complaints about the Numidians. However, the Senate always took the side of the Numidians - as a result of which the territories of the Carthaginian state decreased without losing wars. In addition, Carthage had no friends left - the Romans at that time were fully promoting their own heroism and greatness, and the Carthaginians, who were able to shake Rome itself, were seen as forces of evil that needed to be gotten rid of. This attitude became a direct development of the ideas that were once popular among the Greeks about their exclusivity and the threats of the barbarians, to which Carthage undoubtedly belonged - however, even in their most secret dreams, the Greeks did not intend to destroy one of the largest cities in the Western Mediterranean, and the Romans even thought of this during the course of Second Punic War. At this time, the final stereotype of the Punics was also formed as treacherous and cruel people, unworthy of living in a civilized society. The Numidians did not have any personal conflicts with the Carthaginians - however, there was a territorial conflict, which was quite enough. Even the controlled Libyans, no, no, yes, rebelled - as a result, Carthage became a clear example that money is not everything: despite the improvement in the well-being of the city, its position became increasingly precarious. After the Third Macedonian War, Rome already openly discussed questions about the “final solution to the Carthage issue.”

Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder. The presence of a prosperous Carthage upsets him, as does many other things.

In 162 BC. Massinissa captured the fertile regions of Lesser Sirte. At the same time, he showed even more impudence than usual and claimed his rights to the Carthaginian trading posts off the coast, which were well defended and could not be acquired by him without significant military efforts. The Romans again took his side - and in addition to territories and trading posts, the Carthaginians were also obliged to pay an indemnity of 500 talents to the Numidians. From this turn of events, anti-Roman and anti-Numidian sentiments were finally established in Carthage - there was no guarantee that the Numidians would not get the city itself in the same way. Ten years later, history repeated itself, and at the Roman embassy, ​​which was supposed to judge both sides, Cato the Elder, who fiercely hated the Carthaginians, was present - and the sight of a prosperous, rich city with a large population finally convinced him that Carthage should be destroyed. However, in the Senate he did not receive unequivocal support- his main opponent and defender of Carthage was Scipio Nazica, son-in-law of Scipio Africanus, winner of the Second Punic War. However, the Senate could break spears as much as it wanted in political battles, trying to resolve the issue of Carthage, but the only thing that so far stopped the Romans from war was the lack of a worthy reason.

But the Carthaginians provided Rome with a reason. The opinion prevailed in the city that they would have to fight for their own interests on their own, after which an army was assembled, and a war began, which went on with varying success until the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal Boetarchus prevented the Numidians from encircling his army. As a result, the list of lost land battles of Carthage was replenished with one more item; Hasdrubal himself barely escaped by taking refuge in Carthage. Massinissa again expanded his possessions, and Carthage was waiting for a showdown - after all, they had violated the terms of the peace treaty of 201. This happened at an extremely advantageous time for Rome, when it did not wage any wars and could throw all its forces against the Carthaginians. As a result, when a commission was sent to Carthage to investigate, the Romans were already gathering an army. The Carthaginians tried to convince the Romans of their submission by expelling the initiators of the war with the Numidians and sentencing Hasdrubal to death, but this did not help. Cato, meanwhile, encouraged the senators in every possible way, citing examples of violations of treaties by the Carthaginians, accusing them of hypocrisy, duplicity, deceit and betrayal. Meanwhile, they gradually began to conclude an agreement with Carthage. His first condition was to hand over 300 children of noble families as hostages, which the Carthaginians did readily. After the arrival of the Roman army (80 thousand foot and 4 thousand cavalry) to Utica from Sicily, the Carthaginians were demanded to hand over all the weapons and throwing machines that they had - and they fulfilled this requirement, handing over 20 thousand sets of heavy armor and weapons to the Romans , as well as 4 thousand throwing machines of various sizes and powers. And only after all this, the Romans voiced their final demand - to move all residents deep into Africa to a distance of at least 16 km from the coast, destroying Carthage in the process. For a city dependent on maritime trade, this was a death sentence. No entreaties from the ambassadors not to do this had any effect on the Romans - even accusations of treachery in the negotiations were brushed aside. The elders who negotiated returned to the city and announced the Roman decree - but the people refused to obey and killed the envoys. Choosing between slow extinction and death in battle, the Carthaginians chose the latter.

Agony

Map of the defense of Carthage

While the leaders of Carthage tried in every possible way to gain time, Hasdrubal Boetarch returned to the city, and under his leadership preparations for the siege began. The whole city worked on creating weapons, fortifications, and armor. The slaves were released to fight alongside their former masters for the city. Women cut their hair, giving it to the construction of throwing machines. All the gold that could be found was given to the merchants, who now had the responsibility of supplying the city with provisions - and their ships actually became blockade runners, since the Roman fleet was at sea. This single impulse did honor to the Carthaginians, and it also saved them from quick death - the Romans, when trying to take possession of the city, met resistance, and the major assault ended in complete failure. Allied cities of Carthage like Utica went over to the side of the Romans - however, this did not break the spirit of the besieged. Hasdrubal left the city with part of his troops and acted in the rear of the Romans, constantly reminding of his existence with raids and raids.

And the siege itself dragged on. In 147, the Romans again decided on a decisive assault, but that too ended in complete failure; the consul Lucius Hostilius Mancinus, who commanded the assault, was almost captured, being rescued by the detachment of the young Scipio Aemilianus. The latter then became the commander of the army in Africa - the Senate was very dissatisfied with the protracted war, and the adopted grandson of Scipio Africanus showed himself to be a fairly competent commander, unlike the others. Under him, things began to improve for the Romans - after capturing the outskirts of the city, he forced Hasdrubal to return to Carthage, thus securing his rear, and then decided to completely block the city's trading port, thus depriving the Carthaginians of outside support and trying to cause famine. The Carthaginians decided to dig a secret entrance to the harbor in order to fend off Scipio's actions - and they finished doing this at the same time as the completion of the dam. The Carthaginian fleet of light and hastily assembled ships was brought to sea, but there was no way to greatly interfere with the Romans - the ships did not carry a sufficient number of troops. The next day, a major naval battle took place, and success was more likely to accompany the Carthaginians, who easily avoided the attacks of the heavy Roman penteras, but when returning to the harbor, many ships ran aground in the passage, after which they were captured or sunk by the Romans. After this, the Carthaginian fleet almost never went to sea.

Meanwhile, Scipio's dam had a dual purpose - not only to block the exit from the harbor, but also to place throwing machines against the less protected section of the city walls, which began to throw stones and burning pots at the city. The Carthaginians made a desperate sortie - at night, with torches, naked, they captured the positions of the Roman artillery and burned it. However, the Romans soon recovered these losses, and shelling of the city resumed. The Carthaginians were forced to abandon the dilapidated port complex, through which the Romans could easily enter the city itself. In the city itself, the situation was catastrophic - epidemics were raging, the dead were often not even buried, food supplies were running out. Hasdrubal himself added to the problems, whom the Carthaginians declared a dictator - and he began to deal with his political enemies with particular cruelty. In addition, he seems to have tried to boost the morale of the city by torturing prisoners - which had a different effect: the Romans did not intend to leave anyone alive during the assault. Finally, in the spring of 146 BC. The Romans launched an assault, taking advantage of the abandoned port complex.

Carthage destroyed

Street fighting for Carthage, Scipio's legionnaires advance across the rooftops, killing everyone in their path

Carthage withstood the siege for almost three years, until the spring of 146, when the Roman commander Scipio Aemilianus finally took possession of the suffering and exhausted city. But it was not easy for the Romans to conquer even a city brought to the point of complete exhaustion. It was located on a peninsula formed by sandstone hills. In the northeast and southeast, like two fangs, narrow protrusions extended into the sea, with the southeastern cape cutting off the sea and creating a large lagoon, which has now turned into Lake Tunisia. The northern part of the peninsula was protected by steep sandstone cliffs, and on the southern plain, fortress walls, ditches and ramparts were erected.

On the sea side, two harbors were hidden behind a high wall. Due to the lack of living space, the Carthaginians had to sacrifice security. If previously nothing was built between the wall and the nearest buildings, then Lately the entire area up to the wall was filled with houses. This allowed the Romans to set them on fire and helped during the assault. Although the walls themselves were almost impregnable: they were built from huge sandstone blocks weighing more than 13 tons. The blocks were faced with white plaster, which not only protected them from the weather, but also created the famous marble shine that amazed sailors when approaching the city’s harbors.

All that remained of the harbors - commercial and military - was a reminder of the former greatness of Carthage as a maritime power. They occupied an area of ​​about 13 hectares. For their construction, 235,000 cubic meters of rock were removed by hand. The rectangular trading harbor had numerous piers and warehouses that received goods from all over the Mediterranean. The boathouses of the round military harbor could accommodate 170 warships at the same time. Now the piers and slipways were inactive. The Romans blocked the harbors by blocking the entrance with a dam.

After the Romans locked Carthage on the mainland side, the supply of food stopped and famine began in the city. Material evidence of the plight of its inhabitants has been preserved. At some point, the city stopped collecting waste and garbage (a nightmare for residents and a blessing for archaeologists). It seems that only the corpses of those who died from hunger and disease were removed. At the same time, no one mourned the dead; the bodies of both rich and poor were buried in common graves not far from the place where they lived.

Scipio took the defenders of the city by surprise. The Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal expected an attack on the trading port, but the Romans first attacked the military harbor. From here they quickly took possession of the famous agora of Carthage, the market square, where, by order of Scipio, they camped for the night. The Roman soldiers, anticipating victory, began looting and stole all the gold from the temple of Apollo.

Carthage was divided into two interconnected parts. The lower city was a rectangle filled with a grid of streets. Along the slopes of Birsa, the streets were located radially. Having captured the outskirts on the plain, Scipio brought fresh troops to storm the citadel. The soldiers moved carefully, fearing ambushes. Three narrow streets led up the steep slopes. Six-story buildings rose on them, from the roofs of which the townspeople threw stones at the legionnaires. Then Scipio ordered the soldiers to storm every house, climb to the roofs and eliminate the stone throwers. Here the legionnaires built bridges from planks and used them to move from one house to another. Fierce hand-to-hand fighting now broke out not only on the streets, but also on the roofs of buildings.

Having won the war on the roofs, Scipio ordered the houses to be set on fire. In order to facilitate and speed up the advance of the troops to the top of the hill, he also ordered the streets to be cleared of debris and ruins. Not only burning rafters or beams fell on the Romans from above, but also the bodies of children and old people hiding in the secret rooms of the buildings. Many of them, although maimed and burned, were still alive, and heartbreaking screams complemented the roar of fires and collapsing houses. Some were crushed by the cavalry moving through the streets to the top of Birsa, others suffered an even more terrible death: street cleaners with iron pitchforks threw them into burial pits along with the corpses.

This is how Carthage fell

For six days and nights the massacre continued on the streets of Carthage, and Scipio constantly changed his teams of murderers. On the seventh day, a delegation of Carthaginian elders came to him with olive branches from the temple of Eshmun and pleas to save the lives of their fellow citizens. The Roman general heeded their requests, and that same day 50,000 men, women and children went into slavery through a narrow gate in the wall.

Most of the citizens of Carthage surrendered to the mercy of the winner, but Hasdrubal and his family and nine hundred Roman deserters, whom Scipio would hardly have forgiven for desertion, continued to persist. They took refuge in the temple of Eshmun and, taking advantage of its special status and inaccessibility, could hold out for some time. Hunger, physical exhaustion and fear nevertheless forced them to climb to the roof and accept their voluntary death there.

However, Hasdrubal did not want to share the fate of his comrades. Abandoning them and his family, he fled secretly, surrendering to Scipio. The sight of the commander groveling at the feet of his worst enemy only strengthened the conviction of the surviving defenders of Carthage in the inevitability of suicide. Sending curses to Hasdrubal, they set fire to the temple only to perish in the fire.

Hasdrubal's own wife, surrounded by frightened children, pronounced a terrible sentence on him, condemning him to eternal shame: “Scoundrel, traitor, hare soul, let this fire bury me and the children, and you, leader of the great Carthage, decorate the triumph of the Roman. But you cannot escape the punishment of the one at whose feet you sit.”. After that, she killed the children, throwing their bodies into the fire, and she herself threw herself into the flames.

Thus ended the 700-year history of Carthage.

Notes

1) Probably the reason for this is the fact that a certain part of the indemnity, with gradual payment, went into the hands of the patricians, and in the event of its early repayment, they would generally receive less than with an annual contribution. However, this is just a theory.

2) Or the Romans simply decided to embellish the history of Massinissa’s claims. At least, we can say that Elissa bought only the territory for Carthage itself, but the surrounding fertile lands were acquired or conquered by her heirs - which means that the terms of the agreement between Elissa and Iarbantus did not apply to them.

3) Although the Romans at that time, apparently, had no problems with fabricating reasons. However, here we should understand the heterogeneity of the political elite of Rome - and if a very serious reason was required to fabricate a reason, then with the already available reason, war for the Romans became almost inevitable.

4) Most likely this is not a dynastic affiliation, but a military position as commander of auxiliary forces (although it could be both). This man is also known as Hasdrubal the Last.

5) It’s funny that many of these accusations were made by the Romans themselves, including last war Carthage.

6) We are not like that - life is like that!

7) There is a completely different version of military operations at sea - after completing the digging of the canal, the Carthaginian fleet went to sea, but for unknown reasons it only pranced in front of the Romans, and was later easily destroyed by the strongest Roman fleet. Which version to believe is up to you.

8) Apparently, they got to the dam by swimming, which is why the lack of armor and clothing that would interfere with swimming and pulled the warriors to the bottom.

9) This part is the introduction to the book Carthage Must Be Destroyed by Richard Miles. Here it is used as an epilogue because of its literary success and high degree of drama, worthy of the fall of a great city.

10) In the same year, the Romans destroyed the ancient city of Corinth. For the ancient world, such destruction, and especially the sale of citizens of free cities into slavery, were something like war crimes, but there could no longer be any consequences for Rome - it became the most powerful state in the Mediterranean, and there was simply no one to call it to account (more precisely , the last one destined to call Rome to account in full, has not yet been born).

21. Third Punic War. Destruction of Carthage.

(149...146 BC)

Until now, Rome tried to cover up its lawless seizures and its insatiable lust for power with some semblance of justice and imaginary selflessness, the insignificance of which shone through, however, very clearly. But now an unconcealed impudence was revealed in the system of Roman politics. The first victim of such a dishonest and soulless policy was Carthage.

The 50-year period of continuous, severe dependence of Carthage was expiring. It goes without saying that the Roman senators must have been occupied with the question of what should be done in relation to this still very strong power. They believed that it was necessary not only to leave Carthage in this dependence, but to find a plausible excuse to further strengthen this dependence. Some senators wanted the complete destruction of Carthage. The elderly Cato also belonged to them. He continually argued that as long as Carthage existed, Rome was in great danger. One day Cato showed early ripened figs in the Senate. When the senators admired their size and beauty, Cato said to them: “Do you know that these figs were picked in Carthage only three days ago? The enemy stands so close to our walls.” From that time on, Cato ended every speech in the Senate, no matter what the matter was about, with the words: “And in conclusion, I repeat to you that, in my opinion, Carthage should be destroyed.” Cato's opponent was Publius Cornelius Scipio Nazica. He argued how useful it was in the interests of Rome itself to preserve a dangerous enemy, which, forcing Rome to constant vigilance, would thereby protect it from a harmful sense of false security. But the majority shared Cato's opinion.

The pretext for the resumption of hostilities was presented by 80-year-old Masinissa. Counting on the support of the Romans, he continuously attacked Carthaginian territory and took one region after another from the Carthaginians. In vain did the Carthaginians appeal to the Romans with complaints about Masinissa. Although representatives from Rome were sent from time to time, they were more concerned with collecting information about the state of the military forces of Carthage than with their disputes with the Numidians. The Carthaginians resorted to their own defense. In 52, they set out on a campaign against Masinissa, but were defeated. Immediately after this, through ambassadors sent to Rome, they apologized for the forced campaign, but the Romans received this explanation with great coldness.

At the same time that the Romans were considering how best to take advantage of this opportunity, ambassadors from the city of Utica, allied to the Carthaginians, appeared and announced the unconditional submission of this city to Rome. This circumstance led the Romans to the decision to destroy Carthage, since Utica, located nearby, could serve as a convenient gathering place. The pretext for the war was the hostile actions of Carthage against the Roman ally Masinissa. Both consuls of 149 Marcius Censorinus and Manlius Manilius received orders to sail with 80,000 infantry and 4,000 horsemen to Africa and not end the war until Carthage was destroyed.

The departure of the Roman fleet from Italy caused general confusion in Carthage. In order to avert a terrible blow, while there was still time, the Carthaginian ambassadors hastened to Rome with an offer of unquestioning submission of Carthage to Rome. To this came the following answer: “The Senate promises the Carthaginians to preserve freedom, the inviolability of their rights, land and property, on the condition that within 30 days 300 hostages from the noblest families are sent to Rome and that they do everything that the consuls order them.” The latter condition raised new concerns. Meanwhile, the demanded hostages, despite the desperate sobs of their parents, were hastily sent to Rome. In the Sicilian city of Lily Bey, the consuls announced to the ambassadors that further orders of the Senate would be announced by them in Utica.

The Carthaginians awaited the arrival of the Roman fleet with increasing anxiety. The Carthaginian ambassadors came to the Roman camp to listen to the orders of the consuls. Consul Censorinus demanded the release of all weapons and all military supplies. Thousands of chariots loaded with weapons and military vehicles arrived in the Roman camp. Then the consul announced to the ambassadors: “I must praise you for the readiness with which you carried out the orders of the Senate. His last demand is that you leave Carthage and settle somewhere else in the interior of the country, at your discretion, but not closer than 80 stadia from the sea, for the proximity of the sea, thanks to the ease of acquisition, only gives rise to injustice. Therefore, Carthage must be destroyed."

This demand drove the Carthaginians into despair. Everyone cursed the Romans and called on the gods to take revenge for such a shameful deception. Revenge was now their slogan; they were animated by one thing: to resist to the last drop of blood. Although the Carthaginians had just been disarmed, they decided to exert all their strength to defend their ancient glorious city and the dear graves of their ancestors. The offensive demand was unanimously rejected, the gates of the city were sealed, the entrance to the harbor was blocked by a chain stretched across it, and the population awaited the siege with firm determination.

Soon the huge city, where there were 70,000 inhabitants, turned into one common weapons workshop. There was no shortage of iron, wood and leather. Young and old were busy day and night making weapons of defense. The houses were demolished and their beams were carried to build ships. All the metal in the city was collected in one place, and weapons were forged from it. In houses, on the streets, even in churches, all they did was forge, melt, and plane. Women donated their hair to make bow strings. Every day 100 shields, 300 swords, 500 darts, many bows and catapults were made. It seemed that the genius of the ancient Phoenicians was reborn in their descendants with redoubled force. To increase the number of those able to bear arms, slaves were called upon and now had their freedom. The city was ruled by Gazdrubal, the grandson of Masinissa. Outside the city, another Gazdrubal gathered an army of 20,000 people.

The Roman commanders believed that they had no reason to rush to attack what they believed was a defenseless city. When they finally set out from Utica, they saw that their expectations were deceived: the city appeared before them fully armed. The Romans soon became convinced of the futility of their attempt to take the city by storm. They had to start a siege. They stood near the city for a whole year and did not achieve success. Several of their attacks were repulsed, and in the open field the excellent cavalry commander Hamilkon inflicted very significant damage on them with his bold attacks. In view of such circumstances, the Romans were forced to resort to the help of the Numidians, which they, in the proud consciousness of their victorious happiness, had hitherto refused. To renew friendly relations with Numidia, the Senate elected the skilled Scipio Aemilianus. He arranged things in such a way that the Numidian king Masinissa, who had just died in the 90th year of his life, before his death authorized Scipio to establish the succession to the throne at his discretion. Scipio ordered that all three sons of Masinissa should rule together: Micipsa received royal dignity and internal management, Gulussa led the army, and Mastanabal was in charge of legal proceedings. Gulussa immediately set out with his horsemen on a campaign against Carthage. In addition, Scipio managed to lure the leader of the Carthaginian cavalry, Hamilcon, to the side of the Romans. However, even in 148, Carthage was not taken. In 147, Scipio began to aspire to the consular title. The rumor of his bravery, the influence of his family, the favorable omen associated with his name, led to the fact that in the eyes of the people he appeared as a man who had every right to such a title. Even the fact that he was only 37 years old and had not reached the required 43 years of age for this position was not taken into account. He was elected consul and received the main command of the troops in Africa.

In the spring of 147, Scipio landed in Utica. His first order was to remove incapable military leaders. Then discipline was restored: the camp was cleared of all the rabble that had gathered in it in hopes of rich booty, and it was introduced the strictest discipline. Then, with a skillfully executed false attack, he pushed Gazdrubal back from the suburbs into the city itself. Then Scipio built a double line of fortifications on the isthmus connecting Carthage with the mainland, and from that time on, supplying the city with food became possible only from the sea. It was necessary to block this path too. To this end, Scipio ordered the construction of a huge dam in front of the entrance to the harbor. But the Carthaginians secretly dug another entrance to the harbor, and the Carthaginian sailors managed to lead their transport ships to the city itself. At the same time, a fleet was launched, consisting of 50 three-tier galleys and many small ships, which brought great fear to the Roman sailors. The Roman fleet did not dare to attack, but the Carthaginians also felt too weak for a naval battle, so they retreated to the harbor. At the entrance to it, due to the many small ships crowded there, the warships could not pass and were forced to stand on the outside of the dam, between the old and new passages into it. In this unfavorable situation, the Carthaginian ships were attacked by the Romans, and many of them were destroyed.

Scipio firmly established himself on the dam. Here he placed battering machines to make a breach in the walls of the city. At night, the Carthaginians burned these cars, so they had to start all over again. Winter was approaching. The Romans used the remaining time to strengthen their position against the attack of the Carthaginians. In winter, they managed to capture an important fortification in the vicinity of Carthage, Nefer, through which food was transported to the city. The Romans now dominated both land and sea, and could starve the city into surrender. Horrible scenes took place in the ill-fated city. Bloody strife arose between citizens over the question of whether to resist or surrender. The resistance party, led by Gazdrubal, prevailed. He and his army retired to the old city, to the fortified castle of Birsa. A few days later in the ranks heroic defenders Hunger and disease began to rage. This weakened the courage of the defenders, but there was no question of surrender. The Romans launched an assault. First they took the trading harbor. Then a Roman detachment under the command of Gaius Laelius managed to climb the walls of the military harbor, and from there penetrate the old city. A bloody battle ensued in the narrow streets. Every house had to be taken by storm; fought on flat roofs; The Romans threw beams and boards from one roof to another and walked along them, fighting the enemy. On the seventh day of the assault, 50,000 Carthaginians, men, women and children, who took refuge in the castle, surrendered. They were released through the gates and taken away prisoners. Only one detachment, consisting of 900 Roman deserters, fully aware that death awaited them, still held out in the temple of Aesculapius. Among them was Gazdrubal with his wife and children. Seeing that any further resistance was useless, he ran to the winner and, throwing himself at his feet, begged for mercy. His wife, standing on the roof of the temple, cursed him and first threw her children into the flames, and then rushed there herself. After this, the city was subjected to all the horrors of fire, robbery and destruction. The fire raged for 17 days; Scipio himself felt compassion, looking from the height of the hill at the crimson glow rising to the sky over the crumbling city, which for 700 years had dominated the sea, and was now turned into ashes. With a gaze that seemed to penetrate into the future fate of his native city, Scipio recited the verses of Homer:

There will never be a day when lofty Troy perishes,

The ancient Priam and the people of the spearman Priam will perish.

Carthage's most implacable enemy, Cato, did not live to see its fall. He died back in 149 BC. The news of the final victory aroused extreme joy in Rome. Only now Rome breathed freely, as if having lifted a heavy mountain from itself, getting rid of eternal fear and no longer tormented by the envy that devoured it. Several days were devoted to thanksgiving celebrations in honor of the gods. Scipio celebrated a magnificent triumph. He, like his ancestor who won at Zama, was given the honorary title of African and, unlike the first, called Younger.

The place occupied by Carthage was razed to the ground, cursed by the priests and doomed to remain an eternal desert. The land surrounding Carthage, together with all the cities remaining in it, was included in the Roman province of Africa, and Utica was proclaimed its capital.

CHAPTER ONE The First Punic War (264–241 BC). - Rise of the Carthaginian mercenaries; Istrian and Gallic wars. - Second Punic War (218–201 BC)

First Punic War (264–241 BC) Beginning of the war This struggle of peoples over the beautiful island, which lay right in the middle between their states, lasted 24 years. As soon as the Romans decided to intervene in Sicilian affairs, the new Syracusan ruler immediately

Second Punic War (218–201 BC) Hannibal's campaign in Italy On Hannibal's side in relation to his opponents there was a great advantage: the power in his hands was monarchical, the plan of action had long been thought out, as if ready for the army already in action. He had an ally in Italy,

CHAPTER THREE General state of affairs: Gnaeus Pompey. - War in Spain. - Slave war. - War with sea robbers. - War in the East. - Third war with Mithridates. - Conspiracy of Catiline. - Return of Pompey and the first triumvirate. (78–60 BC) General