For the first time in Russia, the Day of Remembrance of the Victims political repression celebrated in 1991. The date October 30 was chosen to commemorate the hunger strike of camp prisoners in Mordovia, which began on October 30, 1974.
The very process of rehabilitation of victims of political repression began in part in the USSR in 1954. In the mid-1960s, this work was curtailed and resumed only in the late 1980s. In 1992, a Presidential Commission for the Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repressions was established; on March 14, 1996, a Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On Measures for the Rehabilitation of Priests and Believers Who Became Victims of Unjustified Repressions” was issued.
As early as October 18, 1991, the Law of the RSFSR “On the rehabilitation of victims of political repressions” was adopted. With a number of amendments, it is still valid today. The law says that deprivation of life or freedom, forced treatment in a psychiatric hospital, expulsion from the country and deprivation of citizenship, exile, forced labor, etc. are recognized as repressions.
Monument to the victims of political repressions in the USSR: a stone from the territory of the Solovetsky Special Purpose Camp, installed on Lubyanka Square on the Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions, October 30, 1990. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
It is almost impossible to establish the exact number of victims of repression. Are called different numbers. According to the Memorial movement, from 1921 to 1985 from 5 to 5.5 million people were convicted only on political charges by the authorities. state security and sentenced to death penalty, to various terms of imprisonment in camps and prisons or to exile. The verdict was often handed down without trial or investigation. IN different periods Soviet history repressions were carried out along several ideological lines.
Atheism versus faith
Since 1917, the persecution of clergy and believers began. Many temples were destroyed, blown up and plundered. Many priests were shot without trial or investigation. At the same time, Orthodox, Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, Buddhists were declared equally “dangerous”. In 1923-1924, about 1.5 thousand clergymen were arrested, and in 1931-1932 - already about 20 thousand. Demonstrative group trials were periodically held, often priests and believers were executed.
A stone of sorrow in memory of those killed on Tomsk land during the years of the Bolshevik terror Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
Decossackization
In the years civil war the Bolsheviks set themselves the goal of destroying the Cossacks as a class, since many Cossacks, professional soldiers in the service of the Tsar, took the side of the Whites. Although there were Cossacks who went over to the side of the Red Army. The Bolsheviks and Red Army soldiers burned the Cossack villages, shot the inhabitants (especially the male population), confiscated weapons, bread and agricultural products. The resettlement of non-residents to the lands where the Cossacks lived was also carried out. The Cossacks were rehabilitated only in 1991.
dispossession
Dispossession is the forced deportation of wealthy peasant families and "middle peasants", who were declared "kulaks", to remote regions of the USSR with the transfer of their property, equipment and farms to collective farms. According to various estimates, from 3 to 4.5 million people were dispossessed. Some of them were shot or sent to camps, 1.8 million were exiled to uninhabited regions of the country, many of them did not reach the place of exile and died on the way. The rest were settled within their own regions. Places of exile: Novosibirsk, Tyumen, Tomsk, Arkhangelsk regions, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Ural and Kazakhstan. Many peasants gave away and sold their property and fled to the cities to escape repression and starvation.
Party purges
In the 1930s, Stalin carried out a severe purge of party ranks. About 20% of the members were expelled from the party. Most of the party members who held high positions in the country's leadership were executed or killed. This fate befell all the former associates of Stalin - Kamenev, Zinoviev, Bukharin, Trotsky. In addition, on charges of preparing a military coup in 1937-1938 (this is the peak of Stalin's purges), the highest ranks of the Red Army were repressed, including the execution of Marshal Tukhachevsky.
Deportation of peoples
Under the Stalinist regime, entire nations were deported to Siberia, Central Asia and Kazakhstan. Germans, Koreans, Finns, Romanians, Hungarians, Greeks, Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, peoples of the Caucasus, Meskhetian Turks and other nationalities. Basically, the deportation was carried out during the Great Patriotic War. Representatives of some peoples were considered potential accomplices of the Nazis, others were directly accused of assisting them. According to experts, a total of about 2.5 million people were deported.
Prisoners of war
During the Great Patriotic War German troops captured several million Soviet soldiers. Some prisoners of war went over to the side of the Nazis, participated in punitive operations and guarded the occupied territories. And although a small part of collaborator prisoners of war were engaged in such activities, after the war in the USSR they began to be suspicious of everyone who had been in German captivity. Part of the prisoners of war ended up in filtration camps - high-security military prisons, and another part - in work battalions engaged in the restoration of objects destroyed during the war.
dissidents
In the 1950s under Khrushchev, the victims Stalinist repressions partially rehabilitated, the "thaw" came, and the Soviet citizens had hope for a softening of the regime and reforming the existing system. There were those who began to openly declare their political views and disagreement with the accepted ideology. They became known as "dissidents". In the 1960s, the fight against "dissent" began with renewed vigor. Under pressure from the state, some had to leave, they were deprived of Soviet citizenship. Notable dissidents include Academician Andrey Sakharov, poet Joseph Brodsky, musician Mstislav Rostropovich, writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn.
Exiles, executions, burials: memorable places on the territory of Russia
Gulag camps
Millions of those repressed in the USSR went through labor camps run by the Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Detention (GULAG). The labor of prisoners was used at industrial construction sites, and many did not live to see their release. The labor camps that were part of the Gulag system were located in all regions of the country, including the North, Siberia, and the Far East.
The building of the state security organs (Moscow, Lubyanskaya Square)
Lubyanka, 2, 2013. Photo: AiF
In the building currently occupied by the FSB, in Soviet time there was an internal prison in which the highest officials of the state, politicians, artists and other "dissidents" were serving their sentences or were shot. In particular, he was shot there People's Commissar of the OGPU-NKVD Genrikh Yagoda and spent a year in prison writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn.
Firing ground "Kommunarka" (Moscow region)
Former dacha of the People's Commissar of the OGPU-NKVD Heinrich Yagoda. After he was shot in 1938, the dacha turned into a training ground, where from 10 to 14 thousand people were shot, the names of about 4.5 thousand of them are known. High-ranking officials and military leaders, diplomats, Chekists and intelligence officers were shot here.
Butovsky polygon (Moscow region, Leninsky district)
A poster with photographs of the victims of the Great Terror, who were shot at the Butovo firing range near Moscow. Photos taken after the arrest and taken from the archives of state security Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
This is a tract in which more than 20 thousand people were shot in 1937-1938. The names of the executed have been established. Most of those shot were workers, peasants, priests of various confessions.
Sukhanovskaya prison (Moscow region)
The former monastery, which became the object of the NKVD, where high-ranking officials who fell into disgrace were kept. The idea of creating this prison belongs to head of the NKVD Nikolai Yezhov, who was subsequently shot in it.
Text of the CEC resolution Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
Levashovskaya Pustosh (St. Petersburg)
47 thousand victims are buried here mass repression in USSR. Burying the executed in this place began in 1937. This cemetery was a secret object of the KGB until 1989.
Katyn forest (Smolensk region)
Near Katyn in 1940, the NKVD shot more than 21,000 Polish prisoners of war. The USSR denied this fact for a long time and stated that German troops were to blame for the tragedy, but in the 1990s the country's leadership officially recognized that the responsibility for the execution lay with the NKVD.
Sandarmokh (Karelia, Medvezhyegorsk region)
In this tract in 1937-1938 more than 9.5 thousand people were buried and shot - residents of Karelia, prisoners of the White Sea-Baltic Canal and the Solovetsky Special Purpose Camp. Among them are representatives of 58 nationalities and various confessions - peasants, workers, clergymen, scientists, politicians, people of art. The burial was discovered in 1997.
Golden Mountain (Chelyabinsk region)
The Golden Mountain is an abandoned gold mines, where more than 11 thousand people were buried in the 1930s - victims of Stalinist repressions. The burial was discovered in 1989. Academician Andrei Sakharov attended the opening of the monument to the repressed.
Lipovchik tract (Oryol region)
More than 400 people were shot at this place in the 1930s. Burial in 1963 accidentally discovered school teacher and his students. Today there is a memorial at this place.
2.Individuality of a person and the problem of an individual approach in professional music education.
Individuality is often equated with the brightness of personality, which is especially appreciated in art. Individuality cannot be described simply by listing the special qualities of a person - in any psychological portrait necessarily there are not at all individual, but typical features inherent in many people. The individuality of a person is often correlated with the type of temperament, character, personality (during the study of mankind, many typologies have been created, many of which contradict each other).
Individuality is manifested in the peculiarity of the connections between the properties of a person, but the properties themselves can be inherent in many people. The type is the most likely combination of these properties. It is believed that certain traits are heritable, but research has disproved this hypothesis.
Signs of a person's personality:
- external expressiveness. We call an individual a person who looks unusual, who has a vivid speech, expressive gestures, that is, according to the external picture.
- A special bond between traits common to all people. Many people have traits such as kindness, greed, generosity, etc., and individuality lies in how these traits are interconnected. They are always interconnected in a unique way.
- A unique life story. mental warehouse and life experience Each person is unique, even if they belong to the same family, generation, culture. The formation of personality is influenced primarily by such environmental factors that a person is able to perceive, to realize and to which he attaches any importance.
- The ability to express yourself or what is called "be yourself"
This is the parameter that a person defends daily in social life, because. life averages us and the ability to express oneself is the highest indicator of individuality.
The second approach to the definition of individuality: this is the psychological individuality that is associated with such concepts as temperament, character, abilities.
Temperament- sustainable association individual characteristics personalities associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity. Temperament is the basis of character development. From a physiological point of view, it is due to the type of higher nervous activity person.
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Do not look for a clear and objective personality. Just as one can endlessly talk about the essence and purpose of a person, and still not come to a single conclusion, the dialogue that arose between the philosophers of antiquity about the nature and essence of personality continues to this day. In the course of this long-standing discussion, a large number of possible definitions were proposed, each of which singled out its own characteristics that form the personality.
Don't get caught up in non-scientific ideas about personality. Everyday people's reasoning about personality and what its main characteristics contain a lot of the original meaning of this concept and, unfortunately, are very far from the view modern science to these questions. The word itself comes from lat. "persona", which originally referred to the masks used by the actors of ancient Greek drama during the performance itself. Gradually, it began to be used not only in relation to the theatrical field of activity, it came into active use in everyday life. However, the original meaning of this word is still partly preserved: now it was "", or "game", a kind of superficial social image that takes on individuality when it plays certain life roles.
Such an understanding of personality is outside the scope of science and significantly narrows possible options interpretation of this phenomenon. In such a "everyday" view, the essence of personality lies in how a person manifests himself in society. What he demonstrates, what others can directly observe by interacting with him - this will be the "personality". Such an interpretation suggests the possibility of a value judgment. You can often hear: “Petya Ivanov is a strong personality”, “Masha is an unpleasant personality”, etc. Such assessments are usually made according to the criteria of socially desirable characteristics, for example, the ability to behave in society, charm or popularity.
Try to use scientific ideas about personality in judgments. The content of the definition of personality from the standpoint of various scientific theories much more multifaceted than in the original concept of "external social appearance". Philosophy, theology, literature, sociology, psychology - these are just some of the areas in which various aspects of personality are studied. In some ways they are similar and in some ways they are completely opposite. scientific ideas, however, explain the same object. But the area of personality manifestations is so rich and diverse that it turns out to be practically impossible to cover and enclose it in the narrow framework of the only possible definition. However, most theoretical definitions agree on some key aspects in understanding personality.
First of all, it is the recognition of the key importance of individuality or individual differences. The personality expresses such qualities, thanks to which each person differs from all other people. But do not equate the concept of personality and individuality. Personality, as a phenomenon, is possible only in the conditions of the existence of society. It is thanks to interaction with society that a person develops in himself those unique qualities that will then form part of his individuality. In addition, personality is considered in relation to a person's life history or development prospects. It is characterized as a subject of influence of internal and external factors, acting as an interaction of genetic and biological predispositions, social experience and changing circumstances. environment. From such positions, a person is a subject included in the system of sociocultural relations, in which
