The most important and interesting stage in the history of Russia was the period from 1725 to 1762. During this time, six monarchs have changed, each of which was backed by certain political forces. very aptly called it that - the era of palace coups. The table presented in the article will help to better understand the course of events. The change of power, as a rule, took place through intrigues, betrayals, and murders.
It all started with the unexpected death of Peter I. He left behind the “Charter of Succession” (1722), according to which power could be claimed by a large number of Human.
The end of this troubled era is considered the coming to power of Catherine II. Many historians consider her reign to be the era of enlightened absolutism.
Prerequisites for palace coups
The main reason for all the previous events was the contradictions between the many noble groups regarding the succession to the throne. They were united only in the fact that a temporary stop should be made in the implementation of reforms. Each of them saw such a respite in his own way. Also, all groups of nobles equally zealously rushed to power. Therefore, the era of palace coups, the table of which is given below, was limited only to the change of the top.
We have already mentioned the decision of Peter I regarding the succession to the throne. He broke the traditional mechanism by which power was transferred from the monarch to the senior male representative.
Peter I did not want to see his son after him on the throne because he was an opponent of reforms. Therefore, he decided that the monarch himself would be able to name the applicant. However, he died, leaving on paper the phrase "Give it all ...".
The masses were alienated from politics, the nobles could not share the throne - the state was overwhelmed by the struggle for power. Thus began the era of palace coups. The scheme, the table will allow you to better trace the blood ties of all contenders for the throne.
Coup of 1725 (Ekaterina Alekseevna)
At this time, two opposing groups formed. The first consisted of A. Osterman and A. Menshikov. They sought to transfer power to the widow of Peter Alekseevna.
The second group, which included the Duke of Holstein, wanted to enthrone Peter II (son of Alexei and grandson of Peter I).
A. Menshikov had a clear predominance, who managed to gain the support of the guards and put Catherine I on the throne. However, she did not have the ability to govern the state, so in 1726 the Great Privy Council was created. He became the highest government body.
The actual ruler was A. Menshikov. He subjugated the Council and enjoyed the unlimited confidence of the Empress. He was also one of the leading figures when the rulers of the era of palace coups changed (the table explains everything).
Accession of Peter II in 1727
The reign lasted just over two years. After her death, the question of succession again hung over the state.
This time the "Holstein group" was headed by Anna Petrovna. She initiated a conspiracy against A. Menshikov and A. Osterman, which ended unsuccessfully. The young Peter was recognized as sovereign. A. Osterman became his mentor and educator. However, he failed to exert the necessary influence on the monarch, although he was still enough to prepare and carry out the overthrow of A. Menshikov in 1727.
The reign of Anna Ioannovna since 1730
He stayed on the throne for three years and died suddenly. And again the main question becomes the following: "Who will take the throne?". Thus continued the era of palace coups. The table of events is shown below.
Dolgoruky appear on the arena of events, who attempt the accession of Catherine Dolgoruky. She was the bride of Peter II.
The attempt failed, and the Golitsyns nominated their candidate. She became Anna Ioannovna. She was crowned only after the signing of the Conditions with the Supreme Privy Council, which had not yet lost its influence.
Conditions limited the power of the monarch. Soon the empress tears up the documents she signed and returns the autocracy. She decides the issue of succession to the throne in advance. Unable to have children of her own, she declared her niece's child to be the future heir. He will be known as Peter III.
However, by 1740, a son, John, was born to Elizabeth Petrovna and a representative of the Welf family, who became the monarch immediately after the death of Anna Ioannovna in two months. Biron is recognized as its regent.
1740 and Minich's coup
The reign of the regent lasted two weeks. The coup was organized by Field Marshal Munnich. He was supported by the guard, who arrested Biron and appointed the baby's mother as regent.
The woman was not able to govern the state, and Minich took everything into his own hands. He was subsequently replaced by A. Osterman. He also dismissed the field marshal. The era of palace coups (table below) united these rulers.
The accession of Elizabeth Petrovna from 1741
On November 25, 1741, another coup took place. It passed quickly and bloodlessly, the power was in the hands of Elizabeth Petrovna, daughter of Peter I. She raised the guard behind her with a short speech and proclaimed herself empress. Count Vorontsov helped her in this.
The young ex-emperor and his mother were imprisoned in the fortress. Munnich, Osterman, Levenwolde were sentenced to death penalty, but it was replaced by a link to Siberia.
rules for over 20 years.
The coming to power of Peter III
Elizaveta Petrovna saw her father's relative as the successor. So she brought her nephew from Holstein. He was given the name Peter III, he converted to Orthodoxy. The Empress was not happy with the character of the future heir. In an effort to rectify the situation, she assigned teachers to him, but this did not help.
To continue the family, Elizaveta Petrovna married him to the German princess Sophia, who would become Catherine the Great. They had two children - son Pavel and daughter Anna.
Before her death, Elizabeth will be advised to appoint Paul as her heir. However, she did not dare to do so. After her death, the throne passed to her nephew. His policy was very unpopular both among the people and among the nobles. At the same time, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was in no hurry to be crowned. This was the reason for the coup on the part of his wife Catherine, over whom the threat had long hung (this was often stated by the emperor). An era has officially ended. palace coup(table contains Additional information about the children's nickname of the empress).
June 28, 1762. The reign of Catherine II
Having become the wife of Peter Fedorovich, Catherine began to study the Russian language and traditions. She quickly absorbed new information. This helped her distract herself after two unsuccessful pregnancies and the fact that her long-awaited son Pavel was taken away from her immediately after birth. She saw him only after 40 days. Elizabeth was involved in his upbringing. She dreamed of becoming an empress. She had such an opportunity, since Pyotr Fedorovich did not pass the coronation. Elizabeth took advantage of the support of the guards and overthrew her husband. Most likely, he was killed, although the official version was called death from colic.
Her reign lasted 34 years. She refused to become regent for her son and gave him the throne only after her death. Her reign is attributed to the era of enlightened absolutism. More briefly, everything was presented by the table "Palace coups".
Summarized information
The coming to power of Catherine ended the era of the palace coup. The table does not consider the emperors who ruled after it, although Paul also left the throne due to a conspiracy.
In order to better understand everything that is happening, one should consider the events and the people who are associated with them through generalizing information on the topic “The era of palace coups” (briefly).
Table "Palace coups" |
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Ruler | Period of government | Support |
Catherine I, nee Marta Skavronskaya, wife of Peter I | 1725-1727, death associated with consumption or an attack of rheumatism | Guards regiments, A. Menshikov, P. Tolstoy, Supreme Privy Council |
Peter II Alekseevich, grandson of Peter the Great, died of smallpox | Guards regiments, Dolgoruky family, Supreme Privy Council |
|
Anna Ioannovna, niece of Peter the Great, died of her own death | Guards regiments, Secret Chancellery, Biron, A. Osterman, Minich |
|
(great-nephew of Peter the Great), his mother and regent Anna Leopoldovna | German nobility |
|
Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great, died of old age | Guards regiments |
|
Peter III Fedorovich, grandson of Peter the Great, died under unclear circumstances | Had no support |
|
Ekaterina Alekseevna, wife of Pyotr Fedorovich, nee Sofia Augusta, or simply Fouquet, died of old age | Guards regiments and Russian nobles |
|
The table of palace coups clearly describes the main events of that time.
The results of the era of palace coups
Palace coups were reduced only to the struggle for power. They did not bring changes in the political and social sphere. The nobles divided the right to power among themselves, as a result of which six rulers were replaced in 37 years.
Socio-economic stabilization was associated with Elizabeth I and Catherine II. They were also able to achieve certain successes in the foreign policy of the state.
Before that, for many years his life had been poisoned by the thought that his mother had illegally taken possession of the crown, which by right should have been his.
Therefore, there was an estrangement between the son and the mother. Catherine II did not allow Paul to participate in public affairs and planned to transfer the throne to her eldest grandson Alexander. Pavel secluded himself in Gatchina and, fearing for his life, surrounded himself with his own army, and the number of "Gatchins" was constantly increasing. He condemned the mores of Catherine's court and hated numerous
favorites of an aging mother. The ideal ruler for Paul was Frederick II, and the ideal of the state was little Prussia, where everything, in his opinion, was in exemplary order.
From the very beginning, the reign of Paul I took on the character of a denial of everything that was done during the life of his mother. Moreover, this denial was comprehensive and reckless. It also affected awards.
Paul I ignored the orders of St. George and St. Vladimir established by Catherine II. They did not receive awards, despite the requests received, in particular, for receiving the Order of St. George of the 4th degree for long service in officer ranks.
On one of these petitions, Paul I imposed the following resolution: "Not byhaving previously received the Order of St. George, now you can have it even less, for the reason that it is no longer given. The golden weapons “For Courage” were also forgotten, the issuance of crosses and medals for Ishmael and Prague ceased, and the rest were sent to be melted down. But in large quantities the awarding of the "personal" order of Paul - St. Anne, which has now acquired the status of a state award. Privates and non-commissioned officers for long service were awarded the Badge of St. Anne, which, among other benefits, gave exemption from corporal punishment, which was actually a noble privilege.
Having set out to streamline all aspects of public life, Paul I began to revise the previous legislation, including the order.
On the day of his coronation, April 5, 1797, he approved Ordinance on orders, which united the orders that existed by that time in Russia into a single Russian cavalier order, or the Cavalier Society of the Russian Empire.
It included, in order of seniority, Saint Catherine, Alexander Nevsky and Saint Anna (in three degrees). At the same time, the orders of St. George and St. Vladimir were not included in the Russian Cavalier Order. In the new order corporation, the orders lost their independent meaning and turned into only “names”, or classes, of the Russian Cavalier Order.
The establishment of 1797 for the first time gave a single organization to the award business, therefore, despite subsequent changes, it retained legislative significance in this area for more than a century, until the liquidation of the Russian monarchy in 1917.
Each of the orders, united by the Russian Cavalier Order, received its own statute, the day of the order holiday, a special church and a special ceremonial attire. The procedure for receiving orders by members was determined royal family, clerics, etc. Under the Russian Cavalier Order, an office was established (since 1798 - the Chapter of Orders) and the composition
officials (masters of ceremonies, treasurers, heralds, etc.) led by a chancellor from among the holders of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. Cavaliers had to pay charitable contributions when receiving orders, but at the same time, various kinds of income were established “in their favor”.
However, the idea of Paul I to return to the principle of the uniqueness of the order, with its centralized management, did not receive support after his death. Alexander I in 1801 restored the orders abolished by Paul I "in all their strength and space." While maintaining the Chapter of Orders, Order Dumas were also restored or re-established.
Awards Russia / St. Potrashkov.
Leading.
Ex dies unexpectedly Russian emperor Pyotr Fedorovich. A week ago, he was deposed from the throne and sent to the palace in the village of Ropsha. This is where he died. Many were quick to blame the death of the former emperor on his wife Empress Catherine, who overthrew her husband from the throne. However, the new empress herself categorically denies her involvement in the death of the former head of state.
Catherine.
My husband was a psycho, an idiot and a scoundrel. He often insulted me and even threatened me with physical violence. Once, back when he was heir, I entered our chambers and found him hanging a rat with a sadistic smile on his face. I'm not talking about the case when he publicly called me a fool, just because I refused to drink standing up for his completely idiotic toast. In general, I had no choice but to overthrow him from the throne. And by the way, I did this not for myself, but for Russia, which he would undoubtedly destroy. I, a weak woman, was forced to take over the management of a huge, non-native country that was hopelessly behind most European states. For what? Only to make it the greatest power in the world. Peter would never have coped with this task. That is why he was removed from power. But no one would harm this weak and confused creature. I am not responsible for his death. He himself died.
Leading.
Sergeant of the Preobrazhensky Regiment Alexei Orlov is considered the direct killer of the former emperor. He was one of the organizers of the conspiracy against Peter. However, Orlov himself, like Catherine, claims that the former sovereign died of natural causes.
Orlov.
Our freak was an alcoholic. He drank like a cab driver and did not know the measure at all. So he drank, villain, to convulsions. He suffered for a long time, from pain in his stomach, and, in the end, he died. We, the whole team, fervently prayed that he would stretch out at least a little, because we knew that we would certainly be accused of having killed him, the accursed one. Did not help. Dead. The doctor came, felt the deceased, said that our idiot had died from inflammation of the intestines and hemorrhoid colic.
Leading.
The favorite of Peter Fedorovich, Elizaveta Vorontsova, is convinced that the former sovereign was deliberately killed. In her opinion, the crime was committed on the orders of Catherine.
Elizabeth.
Ekaterina Alekseevna hated Petrusha from the first day of her stay in Russia. He was kind to her, trusted her and even affectionately called her Mrs. Help, and she did nothing but deceive him. This dissolute German woman led an immoral life. Out of a sense of revenge, she cheated on Petenka with all, without exception, the courtiers and the military. And at night she persuaded them all to strangle her husband. Even when he became emperor, she did not let up and continued to hate and humiliate him. As a result, Petrusha kindest soul man, was completely pissed off and even wanted to arrest her. But I forgave, out of the goodness of my heart. And you should have seen his eyes when she overthrew him from the throne. He was completely crushed by the meanness and meanness of his treacherous fury wife.
Leading.
Who is to blame for the death of Pyotr Fedorovich does not matter, Field Marshal Christopher Munnich is convinced. In his opinion, the former emperor would not have lasted long on the throne. Now Russia has received a strong ruler who can bring her many benefits.
Minich.
Pyotr Fyodorovich showed me incredible generosity. He brought me back from Siberia, where I spent 20 long years. In gratitude, I tried to save his freedom at the time of the coup, but he rejected my advice. Then his indecisiveness and inability to manage manifested itself in all its glory. Having learned that the rebellious guards were approaching Peterhof, the sovereign ordered to defend himself, locking himself in a toy fortress. Can you imagine what would have happened if he had remained in power? Not to mention his strange decisions that could have serious consequences for the country. Why suddenly, for example, he decided to declare war on Denmark? Why did he make peace with the defeated Prussia? Now we are ruled by a very powerful politician. The new empress is able to unite society around her, unite it and make our country the leading power in Europe. I am sure positive changes in domestic politics and brilliant military victories will not keep you waiting.
Leading.
The death of Pyotr Fedorovich caused a stormy international reaction. Swedish king Adolf Fredrik, who belonged to the deceased great uncle, strongly condemned the new empress and her supporters.
Adolf Fredrik.
A week ago, I demanded that Russian usurpers give up power to a legitimate monarch. The overthrow of the legitimate emperor is a completely unacceptable and illegal act. The so-called Empress of Russia, like her husband, is my niece. I hoped for her prudence and was sure that she would soon come to her senses and return the throne to its rightful owner. And then I find out about his death. This mess. The Emperor has been overthrown, so be kind enough to at least keep him alive. This is a disgrace to the whole of Europe. And it will fall not only on Russia, but also on our family. They will poke fingers at us and say that we, the noble representatives of the Oldenburg dynasty, raised a snake and a regicide in our house.
Leading.
Pyotr Fedorovich ruled Russia for only 186 days. During this time, he signed almost 200 decrees state significance. Experts are convinced that the new Empress will not cancel them.
Everyone knows that before the sole power gave unlimited opportunities. Many wanted to overthrow the rulers in order to get her. But sometimes they turned out to be the closest people - the spouses of kings. This review presents 5 examples of the wives of rulers who did not want to remain on the sidelines
Byzantine Empress Irene
The very first autocratic ruler, became Byzantine Empress Irene. She was in power at the end of the 9th century AD. e. The arranged marriage was not a happy one. Irina even tried to make a coup against her husband Leo IV Khazar, but failed. Her husband forgave her, and then suddenly died. The widow became regent under her son Constantine VI. When he grew up and began to claim the throne, the mother simply blinded her son and remained an autocratic ruler until the end of her days.
Isabella of France - Queen of England
At the beginning of the 14th century, the English king Edward II was also unlucky with his wife, who wanted to overthrow him. The king's policy was not successful: the war with Scotland was lost, the feudal lords were not satisfied with centralized power. His wife Isabella of France forced her husband to abdicate in favor of her son, under whom she was regent. After the deposition, Edward II was killed, and Isabella of France got all the power.
Maria Medici
Maria Medici became the second wife of the French king Henry IV. Despite the fact that she was very pretty, the Medici had an unbearable character. She constantly arranged scenes of jealousy for her husband, and he, in turn, did not want to see his wife for weeks. Henry IV was assassinated the day after the coronation of Marie de Medici. The queen did not care that all suspicions fell on her, because she became regent with her young son, and this meant almost autocratic power. The princes of the blood and the aristocracy tried several times to overthrow Marie de Medici, but each time she managed to stay afloat. Only Cardinal Richelieu managed to remove the queen from business and send her away from the court.
Catherine the Great
A striking example of the overthrow of her husband and the seizure of power in Russia are Catherine II and Peter III. Due to the conduct of the "wrong" foreign policy Peter III had fewer and fewer supporters at court. Catherine, on the contrary, gathered a coalition around herself. After the palace coup in 1762, the emperor was arrested, and his wife was elevated to the throne. The reign of Catherine the Great lasted more than 30 years.
Chinese Empress Cixi
History of the Chinese Empress cixi It could very well be the plot of a movie. The girl got to the emperor in the harem, being in fact lowest level according to the then hierarchy of concubines. But she managed to do what all the slaves aspired to - to give birth to an heir. Cixi was very prudent and far-sighted. After the death of the emperor under unclear circumstances, Cixi quietly got rid of his numerous relatives and began to rule alone. Her era is compared with decline and ruin. Unfortunately, after coming to power, women were not distinguished by compassion and kindness. These
In the photo: portrait of Emperor Peter III (copy from the original by F. S. Rokotov of the 1750s) (Photo: Russian Look / Global Look Press)
Peter III was not as scary as he was painted
There were three tsars of Peter in Russia. ABOUT first it is known very well and a lot - many of his reforms were beneficial years and even decades later. Second Peter died at a fairly young age and simply did not have time to leave behind a noticeable trace. The hardest thing with Third- he has a story in the person of his own wife Catherine let go even less time. He reigned for just over half a year before falling victim to a palace coup.
And now we can only guess how and in what direction the policy of Russia would develop, if his lady did not betray him in the literal and figurative sense. But she not only took away the throne from him, but also, to strengthen her own authority, presented the deposed emperor as almost an idiot, and all his political moves as a manifestation of mental retardation, as well as kowtowing to Prussia, King Frederick.
Dominance was not enough
Understand Catherine and her bosom friend and namesake Dashkov it is possible - they, of course, wanted to convince contemporaries and descendants that they allegedly fought for power not only for the sake of their own interests, but also in the name of Russia, as well as common sense, which Peter III trampled on with his oddities. But what were these “weird things”? The fact that Peter loved to play with soldiers as a child is an absolutely normal hobby for a boy. The fact that he was already older liked to arrange amusing fights, and there is nothing of the kind in this. Peter the Great in his youth was fond of exactly the same, and the result of these amusements of his eventually became legendary guards regiments Russian army.
The oddity was also attributed to the fact that Pyotr Fedorovich, as they began to call him in Russia, did not love his wife too much. Yes, she probably didn't like him. But, as you know, he, like many princes, was not free to choose his girlfriend in life. His aunt, the queen, did it for him Elizaveta Petrovna.
By the way, no one ever reproached her for the lack of intelligence and foresight - she certainly was a worthy daughter of her great father. So with a high degree of probability, if Peter's nephew really would have serious problems with the psyche, she certainly would have done everything so that the throne went to a more reliable person. However, nothing of the kind happened - she did not deprive Peter of the throne. And she had such an opportunity - to make, for example, the heir to her grandson Paul.
What Pyotr Fyodorovich was really deeply and fatally wrong about was that he underestimated his wife - he did not think that she was driven by a thirst for power. He actually removed her from the court, but did not achieve, as was customary, tonsure as a nun. It is accepted, including in order to avoid just such a situation, in which the unlucky emperor fell.
He clearly did not possess the like of Catherine's lust for power. Fortunately for our country, did not possess. Otherwise, on June 28, 1762, a full-scale war between the emperor and the empress could well have begun in Russia. But Peter III did not dare to turn to the army, as the old and highly experienced Field Marshal Munnich. It is a paradox, but the “feeble-minded” sovereign, unlike the wise wife, did not put peace in the state at stake, even at the cost of defeat.
Not all done
If the Catherine-Oryol coup had failed, then with a high degree of probability we would now consider not Peter the Great, but his grandson, to be the main reformer tsar. But history, we have to repeat it again and again, has no subjunctive mood.
Although even during the six months that Peter III sat on the throne, he managed to introduce so many innovations that another sovereign-emperor would have more than enough for the entire period of his reign.
First of all, he abolished what seemed unshakable and seemed absolutely necessary in the toolkit of the state - the Secret Chancellery. True, this step, which looks, of course, very democratic on the outside, is hard not to call it reckless, especially when it is well known what happened to those who decided on it as a result.
Peter III acquired a very influential opposition by issuing a decree on freedom of religion - now this does not seem to be something supernatural. But then it looked downright revolutionary step. The effect of this decree was strengthened by another, directly related to internal church affairs - it eliminated the monastic land ownership. Moreover, the peasants who belonged to the monasteries received not only freedom, but also those allotments that they cultivated.
The logical next step could be the liberation of the entire peasant class from serfdom. Moreover, Pyotr Fedorovich decided to cruelly punish the feudal monsters - for the murder of serfs, he ordered them to be sent to eternal penal servitude. It seemed that there was one step left before the elimination of serfdom, more precisely, only one decree, but it did not follow until June 28, 1762.
So to say with 100% probability that the liberation of the peasants could have happened a century earlier, the author of these lines would not. It is possible, but not certain. Moreover, Peter III transferred, so to speak, many thousands of state peasants to private soul owners. Nevertheless, there was a strong belief among the people that things would indeed have developed in this way. This was one of the reasons for the Pugachev uprising. It was Peter III, as you know, that his leader was hiding behind.
However, to understand that the Cossack Emelyan Pugachev not at all the one for whom he pretended to be, it was not difficult even for the peasants, who were mostly illiterate. The real Peter III did not persecute the nobles; on the contrary, he gave them freedom. Before him, the aristocracy had to necessarily serve the state - thanks to the tsar-transformer, its representatives were able to choose what to do with them.
Most likely, by issuing this Manifesto, Peter III hoped to please the nobility. Perhaps he liked it, but not the elite of this class, which for the most part rejected all his innovations as a whole. No wonder the privileged guardsmen wove a plot. Only in this way could they stop Peter's reforms 2.0.
Brest PeaceXVIII century
Only lazy contemporaries, and indeed many historians of subsequent eras, did not stigmatize Peter III for surrendering all the gains of the Seven Years' War. Actually, this was the key reason for the support of a significant part of the elite regiments of Catherine's coup.
And you can understand the dashing guards - seven years of heavy fighting, numerous casualties - and as a result of a sharp change in the course of foreign policy, all this went Friedrich under boots. One can understand the historians of the pre-revolutionary time - it was impossible to cast a shadow on the "golden age" of Catherine. But after all, both later, and in the Soviet and post-Soviet years, there were practically no meaningful attempts to finally give an objective assessment of the turn made by Peter III from war to peace.
Yes, in the actions of the unlucky emperor there was, as they say, a fad - the desire brought up in him by his father to take away Prussia from Denmark, together with the former enemy, allied Russia, occupied by her Schleswig. Without these plans joint operation the recent enemy could well have been dispensed with.
Actually, Catherine, having seized the throne, did just that - she refused adventures, but did not resume Seven Years' War. On the contrary, two years later she entered into an alliance with Frederick. Its purpose was to ensure the interests of two states in Poland, which began in fact anarchy and anarchy. That is, Catherine, without batting an eyelid, did exactly the same thing as her husband, deceived by her in various senses, only directed his idea in a slightly different direction - preparations for the partition of Poland.
On the other hand, the idea of Peter III was also original. He almost created in the very center of the future twice united Germany a full-fledged Russian military base. But Catherine did not allow.
But could Russia, in principle, bring the Seven Years' War to a victorious end? Quite. Actually, she has already achieved this triumph, even our troops entered Berlin, as in 1945, but immediately left. And it was not the eccentricities of the emperor that interfered, but the intrigues of the allies. At the end of the war, according to the actions of Austria, it was already difficult to understand what she feared more - that Frederick would turn out, or that Russia would squeeze him. There is practically no doubt that, as after Napoleonic Wars and the liberation of Bulgaria in 1877-1878. it seems like the warring countries of Europe would hastily unite in order to leave the Russian army with a nose.
Peter III and his hostile wife broke this scenario, preferring to negotiate with Frederick. Something similar was then done already in the 20th century. Lenin with the Brest Treaty and Stalin with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. In all these cases, an attempt was made to save or withdraw Russia from a major European war. Stalin, however, only managed to delay entry into it, but there's nothing to be done - a demoniac Hitler not like the cunning and dexterous Friedrich. Here, one's prudence, like Catherine, was not enough.
And the son was not lucky
Paradoxically, the emperor Pavel I actually ended up repeating tragic fate my father. He made the same mistakes, setting the army against himself by participating in the war for the interests of not only Schleswig, but Malta. He also tried to change the foreign policy course, agreeing in his case with the eternal enemy Napoleon. And he was meanly betrayed as a result - only not by his wife, but by his own son. And after death, he is also presented, as a father, somehow not quite adequate. History has repeated itself in a surprising way.
