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A spatial model of the DNA molecule was proposed in 1953 by American researchers, geneticist James Watson (b. 1928) and physicist Francis Crick (b. 1916). For their outstanding contribution to this discovery, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a biopolymer whose monomer is a nucleotide. Each nucleotide consists of a phosphoric acid residue connected to a sugar with deoxyribose, which, in turn, is connected to a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in the DNA molecule: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine.

The DNA molecule consists of two long chains woven together in the form of a spiral, most often right-handed. The exception is viruses that contain single-stranded DNA.

Phosphoric acid and sugar, which are part of the nucleotides, form the vertical base of the helix. Nitrogenous bases are arranged perpendicularly and form "bridges" between the helices. The nitrogenous bases of one chain are connected to the nitrogenous bases of the other chain according to the principle of complementarity, or correspondence.

The principle of complementarity. In the DNA molecule, adenine combines only with thymine, guanine - only with cytosine.

Nitrogenous bases optimally match each other. Adenine and thymine are connected by two hydrogen bonds, guanine and cytosine by three. Therefore, more energy is required to break the guanine-cytosine bond. The same size thymine and cytosine are much smaller than adenine and guanine. The thymine-cytosine pair would be too small, the adenine-guanine pore would be too large, and the DNA helix would be bent.

Hydrogen bonds are fragile. They are easily torn and just as easily restored. The chains of the double helix, under the action of enzymes or at high temperature, can diverge like a zipper.

5. RNA molecule Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

The ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule is also a biopolymer, which consists of four types of monomers - nucleotides. Each monomer of an RNA molecule contains a phosphoric acid residue, a ribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Moreover, the three nitrogenous bases are the same as in DNA - adenine, guanine and cytosine, but instead of thymine in RNA there is a uracil close to it in structure. RNA is a single stranded molecule.

The quantitative content of DNA molecules in cells of any kind is almost constant, but the amount of RNA can vary significantly.

RNA types

Depending on the structure and function performed, three types of RNA are distinguished.

1. Transfer RNA (tRNA). Transfer RNAs are mainly found in the cytoplasm of the cell. They carry amino acids to the site of protein synthesis in the ribosome.

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomal RNA binds to certain proteins and forms ribosomes, the organelles in which proteins are synthesized.

3. Messenger RNA (mRNA), or messenger RNA (mRNA). Messenger RNA carries information about protein structure from DNA to the ribosome. Each mRNA molecule corresponds to a specific section of DNA that encodes the structure of one protein molecule. Therefore, for each of the thousands of proteins that are synthesized in the cell, there is its own special mRNA.

The first evidence of the role of DNA as a carrier of the hereditary information of organisms attracted great attention to the study of nucleic acids. In 1869, F. Miescher isolated a special substance from the nuclei of cells, which he called nuclein. After 20 years, this name was replaced by the term nucleic acid. In 1924, R. Felgen developed a method for the cytological recognition of nucleic acids through their specific staining and showed that DNA is localized in the nuclei of cells, and RNA in the cytoplasm. In 1936 A.N. Belozersky and I.I. Dubrovskaya isolated pure DNA from the nuclei of plant cells. By the beginning of the 1930s. the basic chemical principles of the structure of nucleic acid sugars were elucidated, and in 1953 a structural model of DNA was created.

The main structural unit of nucleic acids is nucleotide, which consists of three chemically different parts connected by covalent bonds (Fig. 5.2).

Rice. 5.2. Structural formulas: A- nucleotides; b- DNA; V - RNA (see also p. 110)

Rice. 5.2. Ending. Structural formulas: A- nucleotides; 6 - DNA; V- RNA

The first part is a sugar containing five carbon atoms: deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA.

The second part of the nucleotide - a purine or pyrimidine nitrogenous base, covalently attached to the first carbon atom of the sugar, forms a structure called nucleoside. DNA contains purine bases - adenine(A) and guanine(D) - and pyrimidine bases - thymine(T) and cytosine(C). The corresponding nucleosides are called deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine, deoxythymidine and deoxycytidine. RNA contains the same purine bases as DNA, the pyrimidine base cytosine, and instead of thymine it contains uracil(U); the corresponding nucleosides are called adenosine, guanosine, uridine and cytidine.

The third part of the nucleotide is a phosphate group, which connects neighboring nucleosides into a polymer chain through phosphodiester bonds between the 5-carbon atom of one sugar and the 3 "-carbon atom of another (Fig. 5.2, b, V). Nucleotides are called nucleosides with one or more phosphate groups attached by ester bonds to 3 "- or 5-carbon atoms of the sugar. Nucleotide synthesis precedes the synthesis of nucleic acids, respectively, nucleotides are products of chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis of nucleic acids.

Nucleic acids are very long polymeric chains consisting of mononucleotides connected by 5- and 3'-phosphodiester bonds. An intact DNA molecule contains, depending on the type of organism, from several thousand to many millions of nucleotides, an intact RNA molecule - from 100 to 100 thousand or more nucleotides.

The results of analyzes of the nucleotide composition of DNA of various species by E. Chargaff showed that the molecular ratio of various nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine - varies widely. Consequently, it was proved that DNA is not at all a monotonous polymer consisting of identical tetranucleotides, as was assumed in the 1940s. XX centuries, and that it fully possesses the complexity necessary for the preservation and transmission of hereditary information in the form of a specific sequence of nucleotide bases.

Research by E. Chargaff also revealed a feature inherent in all DNA molecules: the molar content of adenine is equal to the content of thymine, and the molar content of guanine is equal to the content of cytosine. These equalities are called the Chargaff equivalence rule: [A] = [T], [G] = [C]; the number of purines is equal to the number of pyrimidines. Depending on the species, only the ratio ([A] + [T]) / ([G] + [C]) changes (Table 5.1).

The base ratio is called nucleotide(specific) specificity. Chargaff's discovery formulated an important structural feature DNA, which was later reflected in the structural model of DNA by J. Watson and F. Crick (1953), who actually showed that Chargaff's rules do not impose any restrictions on possible number combinations of different base sequences capable of forming DNA molecules.

The position on nucleotide specificity formed the basis of a new branch of biology - gene systematics, which operates by comparing the composition and structure of nucleic acids to build a natural system of organisms.

According to the Watson-Crick model, a DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide chains (strands, strands) connected to each other by transverse hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases according to the complementary principle (adenine of one chain is connected by two hydrogen bonds to thymine of the opposite chain, and guanine and cytosine of different chains are connected to each other by three hydrogen bonds). In this case, two Polynucleotide chains of one molecule are antiparallel, i.e. opposite the 3 "end of one chain is the 5" end of the other chain and vice versa (Fig. 5.3). However, it should be borne in mind the current data that the genetic material of some viruses is represented by single-stranded (single-stranded) DNA molecules. Based on the data of X-ray diffraction analysis of DNA, J. Watson and F. Crick also concluded that its double-stranded molecule has a secondary structure in the form of a spiral, twisted in the direction from left to right, which later became known as the 5-form (Fig. 5.4). To date, it has been proven that, in addition to the most common 5-form, it is possible to detect DNA segments that have a different configuration - as right-handed (forms A, C), and twisted from right to left (left-handed, or Z-shape) (Fig. 5.4). There are certain differences between these forms of the secondary structure of DNA (Table 5.2). So, for example, the distance between two adjacent pairs of nitrogenous bases in a double-stranded helix, expressed in nanometers (nm), for the 5-form and Z-form is characterized by different values ​​(0.34 and 0.38 nm, respectively). On fig. 5.5 shows modern three-dimensional models of "left-handed" and "right-handed" forms of DNA.

Rice. 5.3. schematic representation of the primary structure of a fragment of a double-stranded DNA molecule: A - adenine; G - guanine; T - thymine; C - cytosine

Rice. 5.4.

Table 5.2

Properties of different shapes of DNA double helixes

RNA molecules, depending on their structural and functional features, are divided into several types: informational (matrix) RNA (mRNA, or mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), etc. Unlike from DNA, RNA molecules are always single-stranded (single-stranded). However, they can form more complex (secondary) configurations due to the complementary connection of individual sections of such a chain based on the interaction of complementary nitrogenous bases (A-U and G-C). As an example, consider the clover-leaf configuration for the phenylalanine transfer RNA molecule (Fig. 5.6).

Rice. 5.6.

In 1953, D. Watson and F. Crick proposed a model of the DNA structure, which was based on the following postulates:

• 1. DNA is a polymer consisting of nucleotides connected by 3"- and 5"-phosphodiester bonds.
• 2. The composition of DNA nucleotides obeys Chargaff's rules.
• 3. The DNA molecule has a double helix structure resembling a spiral staircase, as evidenced by X-ray patterns of DNA strands, first obtained by M. Wilkins and R. Franklin.
• 4. The structure of the polymer, as shown by acid-base titration of native (natural) DNA, is stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Titration and heating of native DNA causes a noticeable change in its physical properties, in particular viscosity, converting it into a denatured form, and covalent bonds are not destroyed.

The DNA molecule consists of two strands forming a double helix. Its structure was first deciphered by Francis Crick and James Watson in 1953.

At first, the DNA molecule, consisting of a pair of nucleotide chains twisted around each other, raised questions about why it had such a shape. Scientists called this phenomenon complementarity, which means that only certain nucleotides can be located opposite each other in its threads. For example, adenine is always opposite thymine, and guanine is always opposite cytosine. These nucleotides of the DNA molecule are called complementary.

Schematically, this is shown as follows:

T - A

C - G

These pairs form a chemical nucleotide bond, which determines the order in which the amino acids are arranged. In the first case, she is a little weaker. The connection between C and G is stronger. Non-complementary nucleotides do not form pairs with each other.

About the structure

So, the structure of the DNA molecule is special. It has such a shape for a reason: the fact is that the number of nucleotides is very large, and a lot of space is needed to accommodate long chains. It is for this reason that chains are inherent in spiral twisting. This phenomenon is called spiralization, it allows the threads to be shortened by a factor of five or six.

Some molecules of such a plan are used by the body very actively, others rarely. The latter, in addition to spiralization, are also subjected to such a “compact packing” as supercoiling. And then the length of the DNA molecule decreases by 25-30 times.

What is the "packaging" of a molecule?

Histone proteins are involved in the process of supercoiling. They have the structure and appearance of a spool for thread or a rod. Spiralized threads are wound on them, which immediately become “compactly packed” and take up little space. When it becomes necessary to use one or another thread, it is unwound from a coil, for example, of a histone protein, and the helix unwinds into two parallel chains. When the DNA molecule is in this state, the necessary genetic data can be read from it. However, there is one condition. Obtaining information is possible only if the structure of the DNA molecule is untwisted. Chromosomes available for reading are called euchromatins, and if they are superspiralized, then these are already heterochromatins.

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids, like proteins, they are biopolymers. The main function is the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary (genetic information). They are of two types: DNA and RNA (deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic). Monomers in them are nucleotides, each of which has a residue in its composition. phosphoric acid, five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose/ribose) and a nitrogenous base. The DNA code includes 4 types of nucleotides - adenine (A) / guanine (G) / cytosine (C) / thymine (T). They differ in the nitrogenous base they contain.

In a DNA molecule, the number of nucleotides can be huge - from several thousand to tens and hundreds of millions. Such giant molecules can be viewed through an electron microscope. In this case, it will be possible to see a double chain of polynucleotide strands, which are interconnected by hydrogen bonds of the nitrogenous bases of nucleotides.

Research

In the course of research, scientists have found that the types of DNA molecules in different living organisms are different. It was also found that guanine of one chain can only bind to cytosine, and thymine to adenine. The arrangement of nucleotides of one chain strictly corresponds to the parallel one. Due to this complementarity of polynucleotides, the DNA molecule is capable of duplication and self-replication. But first, complementary chains, under the influence of special enzymes that destroy paired nucleotides, diverge, and then the synthesis of the missing chain begins in each of them. This is due to the presence in in large numbers in each cell of free nucleotides. As a result, instead of the “parent molecule”, two “daughter” ones are formed, identical in composition and structure, and the DNA code becomes the original one. This process is the precursor of cell division. It ensures the transfer of all hereditary data from mother cells to daughter cells, as well as to all subsequent generations.

How is the gene code read?

Today, not only the mass of a DNA molecule is calculated - it is also possible to find out more complex data that were not previously available to scientists. For example, you can read information about how the body uses its own cell. Of course, at first this information is in an encoded form and has the form of a certain matrix, and therefore it must be transported to a special carrier, which is RNA. Ribonucleic acid is able to seep into the cell through the nuclear membrane and read the encoded information already inside. Thus, RNA is a carrier of hidden data from the nucleus to the cell, and it differs from DNA in that it contains ribose instead of deoxyribose, and uracil instead of thymine. In addition, RNA is single-stranded.

RNA synthesis

A deep analysis of DNA showed that after RNA leaves the nucleus, it enters the cytoplasm, where it can be integrated as a template into ribosomes (special enzyme systems). Guided by the information received, they can synthesize the appropriate sequence of protein amino acids. About what kind organic compound needs to be attached to the nascent protein chain, the ribosome learns from the triplet code. Each amino acid has its own specific triplet, which encodes it.

After the formation of the chain is completed, it acquires a specific spatial form and turns into a protein capable of performing its hormonal, building, enzymatic and other functions. For any organism, it is a gene product. It is from it that all kinds of qualities, properties and manifestations of genes are determined.

Genes

First of all, sequencing processes were developed with the aim of obtaining information about how many genes the structure of a DNA molecule has. And, although research has allowed scientists to advance far in this matter, it is not yet possible to know their exact number.

A few years ago it was assumed that DNA molecules contain approximately 100,000 genes. A little later, the figure decreased to 80,000, and in 1998, geneticists stated that only 50,000 genes are present in one DNA, which are only 3% of the entire length of DNA. But they were struck by the latest conclusions of geneticists. Now they claim that the genome contains 25-40 thousand of the mentioned units. It turns out that only 1.5% of chromosomal DNA is responsible for encoding proteins.

The research didn't stop there. A parallel team of genetic engineering specialists found that the number of genes in one molecule is exactly 32,000. As you can see, it is still impossible to get a definitive answer. Too many contradictions. All researchers rely only on their findings.

Has there been an evolution?

Despite the fact that there is no evidence of the evolution of the molecule (since the structure of the DNA molecule is fragile and has a small size), scientists nevertheless made one assumption. Based on laboratory data, they voiced a version of the following content: a molecule on initial stage of its appearance had the form of a simple self-replicating peptide, which included up to 32 amino acids contained in the ancient oceans.

After self-replication, thanks to the forces natural selection, molecules have the ability to protect themselves from the effects of external elements. They began to live longer and reproduce in large quantities. Molecules that found themselves in the lipid bubble got every chance to reproduce themselves. As a result of a series of successive cycles, lipid bubbles took the form cell membranes, and already further - all known particles. It should be noted that today any part of the DNA molecule is a complex and well-functioning structure, all the features of which have not yet been fully studied by scientists.

Modern world

Recently, scientists from Israel have developed a computer that can perform trillions of operations per second. Today it is the fastest car on Earth. The whole secret lies in the fact that the innovative device functions from DNA. Professors say that in the near future such computers will even be able to generate energy.

Specialists from the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot (Israel) a year ago announced the creation of a programmable molecular computer, consisting of molecules and enzymes. They replaced silicon microchips with them. To date, the team has moved forward. Now only one DNA molecule can provide the computer with the necessary data and provide the necessary fuel.

Biochemical "nanocomputers" are not fiction, they already exist in nature and are manifested in every living being. But often they are not controlled by people. A person cannot yet operate on the genome of any plant in order to calculate, say, the number "Pi".

The idea of ​​using DNA to store/process data first hit the bright heads of scientists in 1994. Just then, to solve a simple mathematical problem molecule was involved. Since then, a number of research groups have proposed various projects related to DNA computers. But here all attempts were based only on the energy molecule. You cannot see such a computer with the naked eye; it looks like a transparent solution of water in a test tube. There are no mechanical parts in it, but only trillions of biomolecular devices - and this is just in one drop of liquid!

Human DNA

What is the type of DNA person, people became known in 1953, when scientists for the first time were able to demonstrate to the world a double-stranded model of DNA. For this, Kirk and Watson received Nobel Prize, since this discovery became fundamental in the 20th century.

Over time, of course, they proved that not only as in the proposed version, a structured human molecule can look like. After a more detailed DNA analysis, they discovered the A-, B- and left-handed form of Z-. Form A- is often an exception, since it is formed only if there is a lack of moisture. But this is only possible with laboratory research, for the natural environment, this is anomalous; in a living cell, such a process cannot occur.

The B- shape is classic and is known as the double right-handed chain, but the Z- shape is not only twisted backwards, to the left, but also has a more zigzag look. Scientists have also identified the G-quadruplex form. In its structure, not 2, but 4 threads. According to geneticists, this form occurs in those areas where there is an excess amount of guanine.

Artificial DNA

Today, artificial DNA already exists, which is an identical copy of the real one; it perfectly repeats the structure of the natural double helix. But, unlike the original polynucleotide, in the artificial one there are only two additional nucleotides.

Since dubbing was created on the basis of information obtained in the course of various studies of real DNA, it can also be copied, self-replicated and evolve. Experts have been working on the creation of such an artificial molecule for about 20 years. The result is an amazing invention that can use the genetic code in the same way as natural DNA.

To the four existing nitrogenous bases, genetics added an additional two, which were created by the method of chemical modification of natural bases. Unlike natural, artificial DNA turned out to be quite short. It contains only 81 base pairs. However, it also reproduces and evolves.

Replication of a molecule obtained artificially takes place due to polymerase chain reaction, but so far this is not happening on its own, but through the intervention of scientists. They independently add the necessary enzymes to the mentioned DNA, placing it in a specially prepared liquid medium.

Final result

The process and final outcome of DNA development can be influenced by various factors, such as mutations. This causes compulsory study samples of matter so that the result of the analyzes is reliable and reliable. An example is a paternity test. But one cannot but rejoice that such incidents as mutation are rare. Nevertheless, samples of matter are always rechecked in order to obtain more accurate information based on the analysis.

plant DNA

Thanks to high technology sequencing (HTS), a revolution has been made in the field of genomics - the isolation of DNA from plants is also possible. Of course, derived from plant material molecular weight DNA High Quality causes some difficulties due to a large number copies of mitochondria and chloroplasts DNA, as well as high level polysaccharides and phenolic compounds. In this case, a variety of methods are used to isolate the structure we are considering.

Hydrogen bond in DNA

The hydrogen bond in the DNA molecule is responsible for the electromagnetic attraction created between the positively charged hydrogen atom, which is attached to the electronegative atom. This dipole interaction does not fall under the criterion chemical bond. But it can be realized intermolecularly or in different parts of the molecule, that is, intramolecularly.

A hydrogen atom is attached to an electronegative atom that is the donor of this bond. An electronegative atom can be nitrogen, fluorine, oxygen. It - by decentralization - attracts an electron cloud from the hydrogen nucleus to itself and makes the hydrogen atom charged (partially) positively. Since the size of H is small compared to other molecules and atoms, the charge is also small.

Deciphering DNA

Before deciphering a DNA molecule, scientists first take a huge number of cells. For the most accurate and successful work, you need about a million of them. The results obtained during the study are constantly compared and recorded. Today, genome sequencing is no longer a rarity, but an affordable procedure.

Of course, deciphering the genome of a single cell is an inappropriate exercise. The data obtained in the course of such studies are of no interest to scientists. But it is important to understand that all existing on this moment decoding methods, despite their complexity, are not efficient enough. They will allow you to read only 40-70% of DNA.

However, Harvard professors recently announced a method by which 90% of the genome can be decoded. The technique is based on the addition of primer molecules to isolated cells, with the help of which DNA replication begins. But even this method cannot be considered successful; it still needs to be refined before being openly used in science.

15.04.2015 13.10.2015

Features of the structure and functionality of the "double helix"

It is difficult to imagine a person without genetic habits, characteristics, hereditary changes in the body of a newborn. It turns out that all information is encoded in the notorious genes that are carriers of the genetic chain of nucleotides.

History of the discovery of DNA

The structure of the DNA molecule was first known to the world in 1869. I.F. Misher deduced the well-known designation of DNA, which consists of cells, or rather molecules responsible for the transmission genetic code development of living organisms. Initially, this substance was called nuclein, for a long time no one could determine the number of chains of the structure, their ways of functioning.

Today, scientists have finally deduced the composition of DNA, which includes 4 types of nucleotides, which, in turn, contain:

Phosphorus residues H3PO4;

Peptose C5H10O4;

a nitrogenous base.

All these elements are in the cell and are part of the DNA and are connected into a double helix, which was bred by F. Crick, D. Watson in 1953. Their research has made a breakthrough in the world of science and medicine, the work has become the basis for many scientific research, opened the gates for the knowledge of the genetic heredity of each person.

Connection structure

The DNA molecule is located in the nucleus, performing many different functions. Despite the fact that the main role of the substance is the storage of gene information, compounds are responsible for the following types of work:

encode an amino acid

control the work of body cells;

produce a protein for the external expression of genes.

Each part of the connection forms spiral threads, the so-called chromatids. The structural units of the helix are nucleotides, which are located in the middle of the chain and allow DNA to duplicate. It happens like this:

1. Thanks to special enzymes in the cell of the body, the spiral is untwisted.

2. Hydrogen bonds diverge, releasing the enzyme - polymerase.

3. The parent DNA molecule is connected to a single-stranded fragment of 30 nucleotides.

4. Two molecules are formed, in which one thread is the parent, the second is synthetic.

Why are the nucleotide chains still wrapped around the thread? The fact is that the number of enzymes is very large, and thus, they fit freely on one axis. This phenomenon is called spiralization, the threads are shortened several times, sometimes up to 30 units.

Molecular genetic methods of using DNA in medicine

The DNA molecule made it possible for humanity to use the structure of nucleotide compounds in various directions. First of all, for the diagnosis of hereditary diseases. For monogenic diseases as a result of linkage inheritance. When identifying a history of infectious, oncological excesses. And also in forensic medicine for personal identification.

There are a lot of possibilities for using DNA, today there is a list of monogenic diseases that are out of the list of fatal ones, thanks to the concept of developing the structures of compounds and diagnosing a molecular biofield. In the future, we can talk about the "genetic document of the newborn", which will contain the entire list of common diseases of an individual nature.

All molecular genetic processes have not yet been studied; this is a rather complex and time-consuming mechanism. It is possible that many genetic diseases can be prevented in the near future by changing the structure of a person's nascent life!

What else is planned in the future based on this substance?

Computer programs based on nucleotide strands have bright prospects for creating ultra-smart computing robots. The ancestor of this idea is L. Adleman.

The idea of ​​the invention is as follows: for each thread, a sequence of molecular bases is synthesized, which mix with each other and form various options RNA. Such a computer would be able to execute data with 99.8% accuracy. According to optimistic scientists, this direction will soon cease to be exotic, and in 10 years it will become a visible reality.

DNA computers will be implemented in living cells, executing digital programs that will interact with the biochemical processes of the body. The first schemes of such molecules have already been invented, which means that their serial production will soon begin.

Amazing and Extraordinary Facts About DNA

Interesting historical fact evidence that Homo sapiens interbred with Neanderthals many years ago. The information was confirmed in the medical center of Italy, where the mitochondrial DNA of the found person, who was supposedly 40,000 years old, was determined. She inherited it from a generation of mutant people who disappeared from planet Earth many years ago.

Another fact tells about the composition of DNA. There are cases when pregnancies are conceived as twins, but one of the embryos "pulls in" the other. This means that there will be 2 DNA in the body of a newborn. This phenomenon is known to many of the pictures of history. Greek mythology when organisms possessed several body parts of different animals. Today, many people live and do not know that they are carriers of two structural compounds. Even genetic studies cannot always confirm these data.

Attention: there are amazing creatures in the world whose DNA is eternal, and persons are immortal. Is it so? The theory of aging is very complex. talking in simple words, with each division the cell loses its strength. However, if you have a permanent structural thread, then you can live forever. Some lobsters, turtles under special conditions can live for a very long time. But no one canceled the disease, it becomes the cause of many deaths of long-lived animals.

DNA gives hope to improve the life of every living organism, helping to diagnose serious illnesses, to become more developed, perfect personalities.