For the first time, the American scientist Stanley Miller succeeded in obtaining organic molecules - amino acids - in laboratory conditions, simulating those that were on the primitive Earth, in 1952. Then these experiments became a sensation, and their author gained worldwide fame. He currently continues to do research in prebiotic (pre-life) chemistry at the University of California. The installation on which the first experiment was carried out was a system of flasks, in one of which it was possible to obtain a powerful electric discharge at a voltage of 100,000 V. Miller filled this flask with natural gases - methane, hydrogen and ammonia, which were present in the atmosphere of the primitive Earth. The flask below contained a small amount of water, simulating the ocean. An electric discharge was close to lightning in its strength, and Miller expected that under its action chemical compounds were formed, which, having then got into the water, would react with each other and form more complex molecules. The result exceeded all expectations. Turning off the installation in the evening and returning the next morning, Miller found that the water in the flask had acquired a yellowish color. What formed was a broth of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Thus, this experiment showed how easily the primary ingredients of the living could be formed. All that was needed was a mixture of gases, a small ocean and a small lightning bolt.
Other scientists tend to believe that the ancient atmosphere of the Earth is different from the one that Miller modeled, and most likely consisted of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Using this gas mixture and Miller's experimental setup, chemists tried to make organic compounds. However, their concentration in the water was as negligible as if a drop of food coloring had been dissolved in a swimming pool. Naturally, it is difficult to imagine how life could have arisen in such a dilute solution. If indeed the contribution of terrestrial processes to the creation of reserves of primary organic matter was so insignificant, then where did it come from? Maybe from space? Asteroids, comets, meteorites, and even interplanetary dust particles could carry organic compounds, including amino acids. These extraterrestrial objects could provide enough entry into the primary ocean or a small body of water for the origin of life. organic compounds. The sequence and time interval of events, starting from the formation of primary organic matter and ending with the appearance of life as such, remains and will probably forever remain a mystery that worries many researchers, as well as the question of what, in fact, is considered life.
The process of formation of the first organic compounds on Earth is called chemical evolution. It preceded biological evolution. The stages of chemical evolution were identified by A.I. Oparin.
I stage- non-biological, or abiogenic (from the Greek u, un - negative particle, bios - life, genesis - origin). At this stage, chemical reactions took place in the Earth's atmosphere and in the waters of the primary ocean, saturated with various inorganic substances, under conditions of intense solar radiation. In the course of these reactions, simple organic substances could form from inorganic substances - amino acids, simple carbohydrates, alcohols, fatty acids, nitrogenous bases.
Possibility of synthesis organic matter from inorganic in the waters of the primary ocean was confirmed in the experiments of the American scientist S. Miller and domestic scientists A.G. Pasynsky and T.E. Pavlovskaya.
Miller designed an installation in which a mixture of gases was placed - methane, ammonia, hydrogen, water vapor. These gases could be part of the primary atmosphere. In another part of the apparatus was water, which was brought to a boil. Gases and water vapor circulating in the apparatus under high pressure were subjected to electrical discharges for a week. As a result, about 150 amino acids were formed in the mixture, some of which are part of proteins.
Subsequently, the possibility of synthesizing other organic substances, including nitrogenous bases, was experimentally confirmed.
II stage- the synthesis of proteins - polypeptides that could be formed from amino acids in the waters of the primary ocean.
Stage III- the appearance of coacervates (from lat. coacervus - a clot, a bunch). Amphoteric protein molecules, under certain conditions, can spontaneously concentrate and form colloidal complexes, which are called coacervates.
Coacervate droplets are formed by mixing two different proteins. A solution of one protein in water is transparent. When mixing different proteins, the solution becomes cloudy; under a microscope, drops floating in water are visible in it. Such drops - coacervates could have arisen in the waters of the 1000 primary ocean, where there were various proteins.
Some properties of coacervates are outwardly similar to the properties of living organisms. For example, they "absorb" from environment and selectively accumulate certain substances, increase in size. It can be assumed that substances entered into chemical reactions inside the coacervates.
Because the chemical composition The “broth” in different parts of the primary ocean varied, the chemical composition and properties of the coacervates were not the same. Relationships of competition for substances dissolved in the “broth” could form between coacervates. However, coacervates cannot be considered living organisms, since they lacked the ability to reproduce their own kind.
IV stage- the emergence of nucleic acid molecules capable of self-reproduction.
Studies have shown that short chains of nucleic acids are able to double without any connection with living organisms - in a test tube. The question arises: how did it appear on Earth genetic code?
The American scientist J. Bernal (1901-1971) proved that minerals played an important role in the synthesis of organic polymers. It was shown that a number of rocks and minerals - basalt, clay, sand - have informational properties, for example, polypeptide synthesis can be carried out on clays.
Apparently, initially a “mineralogical code” arose on its own, in which the role of “letters” was played by cations of aluminum, iron, magnesium, alternating in various minerals in a certain sequence. In minerals, a three-, four- and five-letter code appears. This code determines the sequence of connecting amino acids in a protein chain. Then the role of the information matrix passed from minerals to RNA, and then to DNA, which turned out to be more reliable for the transmission of hereditary traits.
However, the processes of chemical evolution do not explain how living organisms arose. The processes that led to the transition from the inanimate to the living, J. Bernal called biopoiesis. Biopoiesis includes the stages that should have preceded the appearance of the first living organisms: the emergence of membranes in coacervates, metabolism, the ability to self-reproduce, photosynthesis, oxygen respiration.
The formation of cell membranes by lining up lipid molecules on the surface of coacervates could lead to the appearance of the first living organisms. This ensured the stability of their shape. The inclusion of nucleic acid molecules in coacervates ensured their ability to self-reproduce. In the process of self-reproduction of nucleic acid molecules, mutations arose that served as material for natural selection.
So, on the basis of coacervates, the first living beings could have arisen. They appear to have been heterotrophs and fed on energy-rich complex organic matter found in the waters of the primordial ocean.
As the number of organisms increased, competition between them intensified, as the supply of nutrients in the ocean waters decreased. Some organisms have the ability to synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances using solar energy or energy of chemical reactions. So there were autotrophs capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
The first organisms were anaerobes and obtained energy during oxygen-free oxidation reactions, such as fermentation. However, the advent of photosynthesis led to the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. As a result, respiration arose - an oxygenic, aerobic oxidation pathway that is about 20 times more efficient than glycolysis.
Initially, life developed in the waters of the ocean, as strong ultraviolet radiation had a detrimental effect on organisms on land. The appearance of the ozone layer as a result of the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere created the prerequisites for the emergence of living organisms on land.
Currently, there are several scientific definitions of life, but they are not all accurate. Some of them are so wide that inanimate objects such as fire or mineral crystals fall under them. Others are too narrow, and according to them, mules that do not produce offspring are not considered alive.
One of the most successful defines life as a self-sustaining chemical system capable of behaving in accordance with the laws of Darwinian evolution. This means that, firstly, a group of living individuals must produce descendants similar to themselves, who inherit the characteristics of their parents. Secondly, in the generations of descendants, the consequences of mutations should appear - genetic changes that are inherited by subsequent generations and cause population variability. And, thirdly, it is necessary that a system of natural selection operate, as a result of which some individuals gain an advantage over others and survive in changed conditions, giving offspring.
What elements of the system were necessary for it to have the characteristics of a living organism? A large number of biochemists and molecular biologists it is believed that RNA molecules possessed the necessary properties. Ribonucleic acids are special molecules. Some of them can replicate, mutate, thus transmitting information, and, therefore, they could participate in natural selection. True, they are not able to catalyze the replication process themselves, although scientists hope that in the near future an RNA fragment with such a function will be found. Other RNA molecules are involved in "reading" genetic information and transferring it to ribosomes, where protein molecules are synthesized, in which third-type RNA molecules take part.
Thus, the most primitive living system could be represented by RNA molecules that doubled, mutated and were subject to natural selection. In the course of evolution, on the basis of RNA, specialized DNA molecules arose - the keepers of genetic information - and no less specialized protein molecules, which assumed the functions of catalysts for the synthesis of all currently known biological molecules.
At some point in time, a "living system" of DNA, RNA and protein found shelter inside the sac formed by the lipid membrane, and this structure, more protected from external influences, served as the prototype for the very first cells that gave rise to the three main branches of life, which are presented in modern world bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. As for the date and sequence of the appearance of such primary cells, this remains a mystery. In addition, according to simple probabilistic estimates, there is not enough time for the evolutionary transition from organic molecules to the first organisms - the first simple organisms appeared too suddenly.
For many years, scientists believed that life could hardly have arisen and developed during the period when the Earth was constantly subjected to collisions with large comets and meteorites, and this period ended about 3.8 billion years ago. Recently, however, traces of complex cellular structures dating back at least 3.86 billion years have been found in the oldest sedimentary rocks on Earth, found in southwestern Greenland. This means that the first forms of life could have arisen millions of years before the bombardment of our planet by large cosmic bodies stopped. But then a completely different scenario is possible (Fig. 4). Organic matter has been brought to Earth from space along with meteorites and other extraterrestrial objects that have bombarded the planet for hundreds of millions of years since its formation. Today, a collision with a meteorite is a rather rare event, but even now from space, along with interplanetary material, exactly the same compounds continue to come to Earth as they did at the dawn of life.
Fallen to the ground space objects could have played a central role in the emergence of life on our planet, since, according to some researchers, cells like bacteria could originate on another planet and then get to Earth along with asteroids. One of the pieces of evidence in favor of the extraterrestrial origin of life was found inside a potato-shaped meteorite named ALH84001. This meteorite was originally a piece of the Martian crust, which was then ejected into space as a result of an explosion when a huge asteroid collided with the surface of Mars, which occurred about 16 million years ago. And 13 thousand years ago, after a long journey within solar system this fragment of Martian rock in the form of a meteorite landed in Antarctica, where it was recently discovered. A detailed study of the meteorite inside it revealed rod-shaped structures resembling fossilized bacteria in shape, which gave rise to heated scientific debate about the possibility of life in the depths of the Martian crust. It will not be possible to resolve these disputes until 2005, when the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America will carry out an interplanetary mission to Mars to take samples of the Martian crust and deliver samples to Earth. And if scientists manage to prove that microorganisms once inhabited Mars, then it will be possible to speak with a greater degree of certainty about the extraterrestrial origin of life and the possibility of bringing life from space.
M.: graduate School, 1991. - 350 p.
ISBN 5-06-001728-1
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IV Progressive complication of heterotrophic primitive organisms, the emergence of autotrophic nutrition and free oxygen (pre-nuclear organisms - bacteria, heterotrophs and phototrophs and blue-green)
Proterozoic From 0.5 to 2.6 billion years Nuclear organisms Emergence of nuclear autotrophic photosynthetic plants (green algae) and protozoa; enrichment of water with oxygen - habitat for animals
Multicellular organisms Progressive complication of animals and plants. Invertebrates: coelenterates, worms, mollusks; various algae
Organ organisms Progressive complication of the body of animals (chordates without a skull)
2. Where did the first inorganic compounds originate (in the bowels of the Earth, in the primary ocean, in the primary atmosphere)?
3. What was the prerequisite for the emergence of per-
27
primordial ocean (cooling of the atmosphere, subsidence of land, the appearance of underground sources)?
4. What were the first organic substances that arose in the waters of the ocean (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids)?
5. What properties did coacervates have (growth, metabolism, reproduction)?
6. What properties are inherent in the probiont (metabolism, growth, reproduction)?
7. What kind of nutrition did the first living organisms have (autotrophic, heterotrophic)?
8. What new way of nutrition appears in prokaryotes (autotrophic, heterotrophic)?
9. What organic substances arose with the advent of photosynthetic plants (proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids)?
10. The emergence of what organisms created the conditions for the development of the animal world (bacteria, blue-green, green algae)?
Section IL DOCTRINE ABOUT THE CELL
SUBJECT. CELL THEORY. PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
A cell is an elementary living system, the main structural and functional unit of plant and animal organisms, capable of self-renewal, self-regulation and self-reproduction.
Task 5. Repeat educational material. Answer questions for self-control. Run test № 4.
Questions for self-control
By whom, when and at what object was the cage discovered?
Give a modern definition of a cell.
What is the essence of the cell theory and who are its authors?
What instruments were used to study cells in the 19th and 20th centuries? What life forms first appeared on Earth?
Why are phages and viruses called precellular organisms?
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What life forms are bacteria and blue-greens? Which of the unicellular organisms have a separate nucleus?
What multicellular organisms are considered primary in the plant and animal world?
What is the difference between a colonial organism and a multicellular organism? What are the successive stages of evolution from probiont to multicellular nuclear organisms?
Test No. 4
1. Which of the following provisions form the basis of the cellular theory (all organisms consist of cells; all cells are formed from cells; all cells arise from inanimate matter)?
2. What is the body of precellular organisms (nucleus; cytoplasm; DNA or RNA molecule covered with a protein coat)?
4. What organisms are classified as cellular pre-nuclear (bacteria, phages, viruses, blue-green)?
5. What organisms are classified as unicellular nuclear (bacteria, malarial amoeba, chlamydomonas, infusoria shoe)?
6. What organisms are multicellular (coelenterates, brown algae, bacteria)?
SUBJECT. CHEMICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL
Task 6. Repeat educational material. Answer questions for self-control. Perform control work number 5-7. Analyze table. 7-9.
29
Questions for self-control (inorganic and organic substances)
What are the chemical elements in a cell?
What inorganic substances make up the cell? What is the importance of water for the life of the cell?
What salts are in the cell?
What is the significance for the cell of salts of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium; sodium?
What is the difference between organic and inorganic substances?
What organic matter is in the cell?
What are monomers and polymers?
Why is a protein molecule called a polymer?
What characterizes the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of a protein?
What is protein denaturation?
What are the functions of proteins?
How many types of amino acids are found in proteins?
What causes the diversity of proteins?
What are the functions of fats in the cell and in the body?
Where in the cell are fats broken down?
What are the successive steps in the breakdown of fats to final products?
Why are fats the most efficient energy source in the cell?
In which organisms and in which organelles are carbohydrates synthesized?
What storage carbohydrates are found in plant and animal cells?
includes4 test papers and 1 final test:
Verification work on this topic
"The Origin of Life on Earth"
Part A Write down the numbers of the questions, next to them write down the letters of the correct answers.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds; b) the presence of catalysts;
c) interaction of molecules with each other; d) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs; b) aerobic heterotrophs;
c) autotrophs; d) symbiont organisms.
3. The essence of the theory of abiogenesis is:
4. The experiments of Louis Pasteur proved not possible:
a) spontaneous generation of life; b) the appearance of the living only from the living; c) bringing "seeds of life" from the Cosmos;
d) biochemical evolution.
5. Of the listed conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity; b) presence liquid water; c) the presence of gaseous oxygen; d) the mass of the planet.
6. Carbon is the basis of life on Earth, because He:
a) is the most common element on Earth;
b) the first chemical elements began to interact with water;
c) has a small atomic weight;
d) is able to form stable compounds with double and triple bonds.
7. The essence of creationism is:
a) the origin of the living from the non-living; b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God; d) bringing life from space.
8. When did it start geological history Lands: a) over 6 billion; b) 6 million; c) 3.5 billion years ago?
9. Where did the first inorganic compounds originate: a) in the bowels of the Earth; b) in the primary ocean; c) in the primary atmosphere?
10. What was the prerequisite for the emergence of the primary ocean: a) cooling of the atmosphere; b) sinking land; c) the appearance of underground sources?
11. What were the first organic substances that arose in the waters of the ocean: a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates; d) nucleic acids?
12. What properties did the preservatives have: a) growth; b) metabolism; c) reproduction?
13. What properties are inherent in the probiont: a) metabolism; b) growth; c) reproduction?
14. What was the way of nutrition in the first living organisms: a) autotrophic; b) heterotrophic?
15. What organic substances arose with the advent of photosynthetic plants : a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates; d) nucleic acids?
16.
The emergence of what organisms created the conditions for the development of the animal world: a) bacteria; b) blue-green algae; c) green algae?
Part B Complete the sentences.
1. The theory postulating the creation of the world by God (Creator) - ....
2. Pre-nuclear organisms that do not have a nucleus limited by a shell and organelles capable of self-reproduction - ....
3. Phase-separated system interacting with the environment by type open system, – … .
4. The Soviet scientist who proposed the coacervate theory of the origin of life, - ....
Part C Answer the question.
List the main provisions of the theory of A.I. Oparina.
Why is the combination of nucleic acids with coacervate droplets considered the most important stage in the emergence of life?
Verification work on the topic "Chemical organization of the cell"
Option 1
Test "Test yourself"
2. What chemical elements contained in the cell are
macronutrients: a) oxygen; b) carbon; c) hydrogen; d) nitrogen; e) phosphorus; e) sulfur; g) sodium; h) chlorine; i) potassium; j) calcium; k) iron; l) magnesium; m) zinc?
3. What is the average proportion of water in a cell: a) 80%; b) 20%; in 1%?
Which vital compound contains iron: a) chlorophyll; b) hemoglobin; c) DNA; d) RNA?
Which compounds are monomers of protein molecules:
6. What part of amino acid molecules distinguishes them from each other: a) radical; b) amino group; c) carboxyl group?
7. Through what chemical bond interconnected amino acids in a protein molecule of primary structure: a) disulfide; b) peptide; c) hydrogen?
8. How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of protein: a) 17.6 kJ; b) 38.9 kJ?
9. What are the main functions of proteins: a) building; b) catalytic; c) motor; d) transport; e) protective; f) energy; g) all of the above?
10. Which compounds in relation to water include lipids: a) hydrophilic; b) hydrophobic?
11. Where fats are synthesized in cells: a) in ribosomes; b) plastids; c) EPS?
12. What is the importance of fats for the plant organism: a) the structure of membranes; b) energy source; c) thermoregulation?
13. As a result of what process organic substances are formed from
inorganic: a) protein biosynthesis; b) photosynthesis; c) ATP synthesis?
14. What carbohydrates are monosaccharides: a) sucrose; b) glucose; c) fructose; d) galactose; e) ribose; f) deoxyribose; g) cellulose?
15. What polysaccharides are characteristic of a plant cell: a) cellulose; b) starch; c) glycogen; d) chitin?
What is the role of carbohydrates in an animal cell:
17. What is included in the nucleotide: a) amino acid; b) nitrogenous base; c) a phosphoric acid residue; d) carbohydrate?
18. What kind of helix is a DNA molecule: a) single; b) double?
19. Which of the nucleic acids has the greatest length and molecular weight:
a) DNA; b) RNA?
Complete the sentences
Carbohydrates are divided into groups………………….
Fats are…………………
The bond between two amino acids is called……………
The main properties of enzymes are…………..
DNA performs the functions of……………..
RNA performs the functions of……………..
1. The content of which four elements in the cell is especially high: a) oxygen; b) carbon; c) hydrogen; d) nitrogen; e) iron; e) potassium; g) sulfur; h) zinc; i) honey?
2. What group of chemical elements is 1.9% of the wet weight
cells; a) organogens (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen); c) macronutrients; b) trace elements?
What vital compound contains magnesium: a) chlorophyll; b) hemoglobin; c) DNA; d) RNA?
What is the importance of water for the life of the cell:
5. What fats are soluble in: a) in water; b) acetone; c) air; d) petrol?
6. What is the chemical composition of a fat molecule: a) amino acids; b) fatty acids; c) glycerin; d) glucose?
7. What is the importance of fats for the animal organism: a) the structure of membranes; b) energy source; c) thermoregulation; d) source of water; e) all of the above?
How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of fat: a) 17.6 kJ; b) 38.9 kJ?
What is formed as a result of photosynthesis: a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates?
11. What polysaccharides are characteristic of an animal cell: a) cellulose; b) starch; c) glycogen; d) chitin?
12. What is the role of carbohydrates in a plant cell: a) building; b) energy; c) transport; d) component of nucleotides?
13. How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of carbohydrates: a) 17.6 kJ; b) 38.9 kJ?
How many of the known amino acids are involved in the synthesis of proteins: a) 20; b) 23; c) 100?
In which cell organelles proteins are synthesized: a) in chloroplasts; b) ribosomes; c) in mitochondria; d) in EPS?
17. What is a nucleic acid monomer:
a) an amino acid b) nucleotide; c) a protein molecule?
18. What substances does ribose belong to: a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates?
19. What substances are included in the composition of DNA nucleotides: a) adenine; b) guanine; c) cytosine; d) uracil; e) thymine; f) phosphoric acid: g) ribose; h) deoxyribose?
II
. Complete the sentences
1. Carbohydrates are divided into groups………………….
2. Fats are…………………
3. The bond between two amino acids is called……………
4. The main properties of enzymes are…………..
5. DNA performs the functions of……………..
6. RNA performs the functions of……………..
DECODER
Option number 1
I a: 2-d, e, g, h, i, k, l, m; 3-a; 4 GB; 5-d; 6-a; 7-6; 8-a; 9th; 10-6; 11-in; 12-a,b; 13-6; 14-b, c, d.e, f; 15-a,b; 16th century; 17-b, c, d; 18-6; 19-a.
Option number 2
1-a, b, c, d; 2-6; 3-a; 4-d; 5-b, c, d; 6-b, c; 7-d; 8-6; 9-in; 10-a, b; 11-c.g; 12-a.b., d; 13-a; 14-a; 15-b; 16-b, c, d; 17-6; 18-in; 19-a.b.c, e, f, 3.
1. monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides
2. esters glycerol and higher fatty acids
3. peptide
4. The specificity and dependence of the rate of catalysis depends on temperature, pH, substrate concentration and enzyme
5. storage and transmission of hereditary information
6. Messenger RNAs carry information about the structure of the protein from the RC to the site of protein synthesis, they determine the location of amino acids in protein molecules. Transfer RNAs deliver the amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNAs are part of ribosomes, determining their structure and functioning.
Verification work on the topic "Structure and vital activity of cells"
Option 1
I. What features of a living cell depend on the functioning of biological membranes:
a) selective permeability; b) absorption and retention of water; V) ion exchange; d) isolation from the environment and connection with it; e) all of the above?
2. Through which parts of the membrane does water pass: a) the lipid layer; b) protein pores?
3. Which organelles of the cytoplasm have a single-membrane structure: a) outer cell membrane; b) ES; c) mitochondria; d) plastids; e) ribosomes; f) Golgi complex; g) lysosomes?
4. What separates the cytoplasm of the cell from the environment: a) ES membranes (endoplasmic reticulum); b) outer cell membrane?
How many subunits does a ribosome consist of: a) one; b) two; c) three?
What is included in the composition of ribosomes: a) proteins; b) lipids; c) DNA; d) RNA?
What organelles are characteristic only for plant cells: a) ES; b) ribosomes; c) mitochondria; d) plastids?
Which plastids are colorless: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
11. Which organisms are characterized by a nucleus: a) prokaryotes; b) eukaryotes?
12. Which of the nuclear structures is involved in the assembly of ribosome subunits: a) nuclear envelope; b) nucleolus; c) nuclear juice?
13. Which of the membrane components determines the property of selective permeability: a) proteins; b) lipids?
14. How do large protein molecules and particles pass through the membrane: a) phagocytosis; b) pinocytosis?
15. Which organelles of the cytoplasm have a non-membrane structure: a) ES; b) mitochondria; c) plastids; d) ribosomes; e) lysosomes?
16. What organelle binds the cell into a single whole, carries out the transport of substances, participates in the synthesis of proteins, fats, complex carbohydrates: a) outer cell membrane; b) ES; c) Golgi complex?
17. In which of the nuclear structures is the assembly of ribosome subunits: a) in nuclear juice; b) in the nucleolus; c) in the nuclear envelope?
18. What is the function of ribosomes: a) photosynthesis; b) protein synthesis; c) fat synthesis; d) ATP synthesis; e) transport function?
19. What is the structure of the ATP molecule: a) biopolymer; b) nucleotide; c) monomer?
20. In what organelles is ATP synthesized in a plant cell: a) in ribosomes; b) in mitochondria; c) in chloroplasts?
21. How much energy is contained in ATP: a) 40 kJ; b) 80 kJ; c) 0 kJ?
22. Why is dissimilation called energy exchange: a) energy is absorbed; b) energy is released?
23. What does the process of assimilation include: a) synthesis of organic substances with energy absorption; b) the breakdown of organic substances with the release of energy?
24. What processes occurring in the cell are assimilation processes: a) protein synthesis; b) photosynthesis; c) lipid synthesis; d) ATP synthesis; d) breathing?
25. At what stage of photosynthesis is oxygen formed: a) dark; b) light; c) all the time?
26. What happens to ATP in the light stage of photosynthesis: a) synthesis; b) splitting?
27. What role do enzymes play in photosynthesis: a) they neutralize; b) catalyze; c) split?
28. What is the way of nutrition in a person: a) autotrophic; b) heterotrophic; c) mixed?
29. What is the function of DNA in protein synthesis: a) self-doubling; b) transcription; c) synthesis of tRNA and rRNA?
30. What does the information of one gene of a DNA molecule correspond to: a) protein b) amino acid; c) gene?
31. What corresponds to triplet and RNA: a) amino acid; b) protein?
32. What is formed in the ribosome during protein biosynthesis: a) protein of tertiary structure; b) secondary structure protein; a) a polypeptide chain?
Option 2
What molecules does a biological membrane consist of: a) proteins; b) lipids; c) carbohydrates; d) water; e) ATP?
Through which parts of the membrane do ions pass: a) the lipid layer; b) protein pores?
Which organelles of the cytoplasm have a two-membrane structure: a) ES; b) mitochondria; c) plastids; d) Golgi complex?
a) vegetable; b) animals?
Where are ribosome subunits formed, a) in the cytoplasm; b) in the core; c) in vacuoles?
What cell organelles contain ribosomes?
7. Why mitochondria are called energy stations of cells: a) carry out protein synthesis; b) ATP synthesis; c) synthesis of carbohydrates; d) breakdown of ATP?
8. What organelles are common for plant and animal cells: a) ES; b) ribosomes; c) mitochondria; d) plastids? 9. Which of the plastids have an orange-red color: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
10. Which of the plastids store starch: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
11. What nuclear structure carries the hereditary properties of the organism: a) the nuclear membrane; b) nuclear juice; c) chromosomes; d) nucleolus?
12. What are the functions of the nucleus: a) storage and transmission of hereditary information; b) participation in cell division; c) participation in protein biosynthesis; d) DNA synthesis; e) RNA synthesis; f) formation of ribosome subunits?
13. What are they called internal structures mitochondria: a) grana; b) cristae; c) matrix?
14. What structures are formed by the inner membrane of the chloroplast: a) thylakoids gran; b) stroma thylakoids; c) stroma; d) cristae?
15. Which of the plastids have green color: a) leukoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
16. Which of the plastids give color to flower petals, fruits, autumn leaves:
a) leukoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
17. With the appearance of what structure did the nucleus separate from the cytoplasm: a) chromosomes; b) nucleolus; c) nuclear juice; d) nuclear envelope?
18. What is the nuclear membrane: a) a continuous shell; b) porous shell?
19. What compounds are included in ATP: a) a nitrogenous base; b) carbohydrate; c) three molecules of phosphoric acid; d) glycerin; e) an amino acid?
20. In what organelles ATP is synthesized in an animal cell: a) ribosomes; b) mitochondria; c) chloroplasts?
21. As a result of what process, occurring in mitochondria, ATP is synthesized: a) photosynthesis; b) breathing; c) protein biosynthesis?
22. Why is assimilation called plastic exchange: a) organic substances are created; b) organic matter is broken down?
23. What does the process of dissimilation include: a) synthesis of organic substances with energy absorption; c) the breakdown of organic substances with the release of energy?
24. What is the difference between the oxidation of organic substances in mitochondria
from the combustion of these same substances: a) the release of heat; b) release of heat and synthesis of ATP; c) ATP synthesis; d) the oxidation process occurs with the participation of enzymes; e) without the participation of enzymes?
25. In what cell organelles does the process of photosynthesis take place: a) in mitochondria; b) ribosomes; c) chloroplasts; d) chromoplasts?
26. During the splitting of which compound, free oxygen is released during photosynthesis:
a) CO 2 ; b) H 2 0; c) ATP?
27. Which plants create the largest biomass and release most of the oxygen:
a) disputed; b) seed; c) algae?
28. Which components of the cell are directly involved in protein biosynthesis: a) ribosomes; b) nucleolus; c) nuclear envelope; d) chromosomes?
29. What structure of the nucleus contains information about the synthesis of one protein: a) a DNA molecule; b) triplet of nucleotides; c) gene?
30. What components make up the body of the ribosome: a) membranes; b) proteins; c) carbohydrates; d) RNA; d) fats?
31. How many amino acids are involved in the biosynthesis of proteins, a) 100; b) 30; in 20?
32. Where complex structures of a protein molecule are formed: a) in the ribosome; b) in the matrix of the cytoplasm; c) in the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Examination
Option 1:
1d; 2b; 3a,f,g; 4b; 5 B; 6a,d; 7b; 8g; 9a; 10b; 11b; 12b; 13b; 14a; 15g; 16b; 17b; 18b; 19b,c; 20b,c; 21b; 22b; 23a; 24a, b, c, d; 25b; 26 a; 27 a, b, c; 28b; 29b, c; 30a; 31a; 32c.
Option 2:
1a,b; 2a4 3b,c; 4a; 5 B; 6a,c,d,e; 7b; 8a,b,c; 9c; 10a; 11c; 12all; 13b; 14a,b; 15b; 16c; 17g; 18b; 19a,b,c: 20b; 21b; 22a; 23b; 24c, d; 25v; 26b; 26b; 28a,d; 29c; 30b,d; 31c; 32c.
Verification work on the topic "Reproduction and development of organisms"
"Wait a minute"
What is the cell life cycle?
What are the types of postembryonic development?
What is the structure of the blastula?
What are the functions of chromosomes?
What is mitosis?
What is cell differentiation?
What is the structure of the gastrula?
What germ layers are formed during embryonic development?
Name three Russian scientists who contributed huge contribution in the development of embryology.
List the stages of embryonic development of multicellular animals.
What is embryonic induction?
What are the advantages of indirect development over direct development?
What periods is divided into individual development organisms?
What is ontogeny?
What facts confirm that the embryo is an integral system?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in prophase 1 and prophase 2 of meiosis?
What is the reproductive period?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in metaphase 1 and metaphase 2 of meiosis?
What is the number of chromosomes and DNA in anaphase of mitosis and anaphase 2 of meiosis?
List the types of asexual reproduction.
List the stages of embryogenesis.
How many chromosomes and DNA will be in cells in the metaphase of mitosis and telophase of meiosis 2?
What is the autonomic pole in the blastula?
Name the types of chromosomes (by structure).
What are blastocoel and gastrocoel?
Formulate the biogenetic law.
What is cell specialization?
What is meiosis?
What is the number of chromosomes in cells at the beginning and at the end of mitosis?
What is stress?
List the phases of meiosis.
How many eggs and sperm are formed as a result of gametogenesis?
What are bivalents?
What are primary and secondary cavities animals?
What is a neurula?
What periods does interphase consist of?
What is the biological significance of fertilization?
How does the second division of meiosis end?
What is homeostasis?
What is sporulation?
What is the biological meaning of reproduction?
What is the importance of reproduction in nature?
What is a gastrula?
What are the parts of a bird egg?
What are the functions of a zygote?
How is regeneration expressed in highly organized animals and humans?
What germ layers are formed in multicellular animals at the gastrula stage?
List the phases of meiosis.
What stages do animals go through during development with metamorphosis?
What is direct and indirect development?
How is cleavage different from mitotic division?
What stages are distinguished in the postembryonic development of a person?
What is amitosis?
What organs develop in the human embryo from the mesoderm?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in anaphase 1 and anaphase 2 of meiosis?
List the phases of mitosis.
What is the embryonic development of animals?
What is the number of chromosomes and DNA in cells in the prophase of mitosis and anaphase 2 of meiosis?
What are the functions of the egg and sperm?
What is the structure of a chromosome?
How many chromosomes and DNA will be in a cell in anaphase of mitosis and metaphase 1 of meiosis?
What happens to a cell in interphase?
List the main stages of egg formation.
What is regeneration?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in telophase 1 and telophase 2 of meiosis?
Who created the biogenetic law?
What is conjugation?
What are crossover chromosomes?
What does crossing over lead to?
How can one explain the differences in the size of the eggs of birds and humans?
What is the structure of the blastula?
In what phase of meiosis does conjugation occur and what is it?
What are the stages of oogenesis called?
In what phase of meiosis does crossing over occur and what is it?
What is the biological significance of crossing over?
What germ layer forms the human heart?
How does the first division of meiosis end?
Test "Test yourself"
1. What type of cell division is not accompanied by a decrease in the set of chromosomes: a) amitosis; b) meiosis; c) mitosis?
2. What set of chromosomes is obtained during the mitotic division of the diploid nucleus: a) haploid; b) diploid?
3. How many chromatids are in the chromosome by the end of mitosis: a) two; b) one?
4. What kind of division is accompanied by a reduction (decrease) in the number of chromosomes in a cell by half: a) mitosis; 6) amitosis; c) meiosis? 5. In what phase of meiosis does chromosome conjugation occur: a) in prophase 1; 6) in metaphase 1; c) in prophase 2?
6. What method of reproduction is characterized by the formation of gametes: a) vegetative; b) asexual; c) sexual?
7. What set of chromosomes do spermatozoa have: a) haploid; b) diploid?
8. In which zone does meiotic cell division occur during gametogenesis:
a) in the growth zone; 6) in the breeding area; c) in the ripening zone?
9. What part of the sperm and egg is the carrier of genetic information: a) shell; b) cytoplasm; c) ribosomes; d) core?
10. The development of which germ layer is associated with the appearance of a secondary body cavity: a) ectoderm; b) mesoderm; c) endoderm?
11. Due to which germ layer the chord is formed: a) ectoderm; b) endoderm; c) mesoderm?
Option 2
1. What kind of division is typical for somatic cells: a) amitosis; b) mitosis; c) meiosis?
2. How many chromatids are in the chromosome by the beginning of prophase: a) one; b) two?
3. How many cells are formed as a result of mitosis: a) 1; b) 2; c) 3; d) 4?
4. What type of cell division results in four haploid cells:
a) mitosis; b) meiosis; c) amitosis?
What set of chromosomes does the zygote have: a) haploid; b) diploid?
What is formed as a result of oogenesis: a) sperm; b) egg; c) zygote?
7. Which of the methods of reproduction of organisms arose later than all in the process of evolution: a) vegetative; b) asexual; c) sexual?
9. Why is the stage of a two-layer embryo called a gastrula:
a) similar to the stomach; b) has an intestinal cavity; c) has a stomach?
10. With the appearance of which germ layer, the development of tissues and organ systems begins:
a) ectoderm; b) endoderm; c) mesoderm?
11. Due to what germ layer is formed spinal cord: a) ectoderm; b) mesoderm; c) endoderm?
Examination
Option number 1
1v ; 2b; 3b; 4c; 5a; 6c; 7a; 8c; 9g; 10b; 11c
Option number 2
1b; 2b; 3b; 4b; 5 B; 6b; 7c; 8a; 9b; 10v; 11a.
Final testing
VERIFICATION WORK FOR THE COURSE
"General biology" Grade 10
Option 1.
Instruction for students
The test consists of parts A, B, C. 60 minutes are allotted for completion. Read each question carefully and the suggested answers, if any. Answer only after you have understood the question and analyzed all possible answers.
Complete the tasks in the order in which they are given. If you have difficulty with any task, skip it and try to complete the ones for which you are sure of the answers. You can return to missed tasks if you have time.
One or more points are given for completing tasks of varying complexity. The points you get for completed tasks are summed up. Try to complete as many tasks as possible and score the largest number points.
We wish you success!
SYSTEM OF CONTROL OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN GENERAL BIOLOGY IN 10 GRADE
4 test papers and 1 final test:
Verification work on the topic "The origin of life on Earth"
Part A Write down the numbers of the questions, next to them write down the letters of the correct answers.
1. Living is different from non-living:
a) the composition of inorganic compounds;
b) the presence of catalysts;
c) interaction of molecules with each other;
D) metabolic processes.
2. The first living organisms on our planet were:
a) anaerobic heterotrophs; b) aerobic heterotrophs;
c) autotrophs; d) symbiont organisms.
3. The essence of the theory of abiogenesis is:
c) the creation of the world by God;
4. The experiments of Louis Pasteur proved the impossibility:
a) spontaneous generation of life;
b) the appearance of the living only from the living;
c) bringing "seeds of life" from the Cosmos;
d) biochemical evolution.
5. Of the listed conditions, the most important for the emergence of life is:
a) radioactivity;
b) the presence of liquid water;
c) the presence of gaseous oxygen;
d) the mass of the planet.
6. Carbon is the basis of life on Earth, because He:
a) is the most common element on Earth;
b) the first of the chemical elements began to interact with water;
c) has a small atomic weight;
d) is able to form stable compounds with double and triple bonds.
7. The essence of creationism is:
a) the origin of the living from the non-living;
b) the origin of the living from the living;
c) the creation of the world by God;
d) bringing life from space.
8. When did the geological history of the Earth begin:
a) over 6 billion;
b) 6 million;
c) 3.5 billion years ago?
9. Where did the first inorganic compounds originate:
A) in the bowels of the Earth;
b) in the primary ocean;
c) in the primary atmosphere?
10. What was the prerequisite for the emergence of the primary ocean:
a) cooling of the atmosphere;
b) sinking land;
c) the appearance of underground sources?
11. What were the first organic substances that arose in the waters of the ocean:
12. What properties did the preservatives have:
a) growth; b) metabolism; c) reproduction?
13. What properties are inherent in the probiont:
a) metabolism; b) growth; c) reproduction?
14. What was the way of nutrition in the first living organisms:
a) autotrophic; b) heterotrophic?
15. What organic substances arose with the advent of photosynthetic plants:
a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates; d) nucleic acids?
16. The emergence of what organisms created the conditions for the development of the animal world:
a) bacteria; b) blue-green algae; c) green algae?
Part B Complete the sentences.
1. The theory postulating the creation of the world by God (Creator) - ....
2. Pre-nuclear organisms that do not have a nucleus limited by a shell and organelles capable of self-reproduction - ....
3. A phase-separated system interacting with the environment as an open system, - ....
4. The Soviet scientist who proposed the coacervate theory of the origin of life, - ....
Part C Answer the question.
List the main provisions of the theory of A.I. Oparina.
Why is the combination of nucleic acids with coacervate droplets considered the most important stage in the emergence of life?
Verification work on the topic "Chemical organization of the cell"
Option 1
Test "Test yourself"
1. What group of chemical elements makes up 98% of the wet mass of the cell: a) organogens (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen); b) macronutrients; c) trace elements?
2. What chemical elements contained in the cell are
macronutrients: a) oxygen; b) carbon; c) hydrogen; d) nitrogen; e) phosphorus; e) sulfur; g) sodium; h) chlorine; i) potassium; j) calcium; k) iron; l) magnesium; m) zinc?
3. What is the average proportion of water in a cell: a) 80%; b) 20%; in 1%?
Which vital compound contains iron: a) chlorophyll; b) hemoglobin; c) DNA; d) RNA?
Which compounds are monomers of protein molecules:
a) glucose; b) glycerin; c) fatty acids; d) amino acids?
6. What part of amino acid molecules distinguishes them from each other: a) radical; b) amino group; c) carboxyl group?
7. By what chemical bond are amino acids connected to each other in a protein molecule of primary structure: a) disulfide; b) peptide; c) hydrogen?
8. How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of protein: a) 17.6 kJ; b) 38.9 kJ?
9. What are the main functions of proteins: a) building; b) catalytic; c) motor; d) transport; e) protective; f) energy; g) all of the above?
10. Which compounds in relation to water include lipids: a) hydrophilic; b) hydrophobic?
11. Where fats are synthesized in cells: a) in ribosomes; b) plastids; c) EPS?
12. What is the importance of fats for the plant organism: a) the structure of membranes; b) energy source; c) thermoregulation?
13. As a result of what process organic substances are formed from
inorganic: a) protein biosynthesis; b) photosynthesis; c) ATP synthesis?
14. What carbohydrates are monosaccharides: a) sucrose; b) glucose; c) fructose; d) galactose; e) ribose; f) deoxyribose; g) cellulose?
15. What polysaccharides are characteristic of a plant cell: a) cellulose; b) starch; c) glycogen; d) chitin?
What is the role of carbohydrates in an animal cell:
a) construction; b) transport; c) energy; d) component of nucleotides?
17. What is part of the nucleotide: a) amino acid; b) nitrogenous base; c) a phosphoric acid residue; d) carbohydrate?
18. What kind of helix is a DNA molecule: a) single; b) double?
19. Which of the nucleic acids has the greatest length and molecular weight:
A) DNA; b) RNA?
Complete the sentences
Carbohydrates are divided into groups………………….
Fats are…………………
The bond between two amino acids is called……………
The main properties of enzymes are…………..
DNA performs the functions of……………..
RNA performs the functions of……………..
Option 2
1. The content of which four elements in the cell is especially high: a) oxygen; b) carbon; c) hydrogen; d) nitrogen; e) iron; e) potassium; g) sulfur; h) zinc; i) honey?
2. What group of chemical elements is 1.9% of the wet weight
cells; a) organogens (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen); c) macronutrients; b) trace elements?
What vital compound contains magnesium: a) chlorophyll; b) hemoglobin; c) DNA; d) RNA?
What is the importance of water for the life of the cell:
a) it is a medium for chemical reactions; b) solvent; c) a source of oxygen during photosynthesis; d) chemical reagent; e) all of the above?
5. What fats are soluble in: a) in water; b)acetone; c) air; d) petrol?
6. What is the chemical composition of a fat molecule: a) amino acids; b) fatty acids; c) glycerin; d) glucose?
7. What is the importance of fats for the animal organism: a) the structure of membranes; b) energy source; c) thermoregulation; d) source of water; e) all of the above?
How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of fat: a) 17.6 kJ; b) 38.9 kJ?
What is formed as a result of photosynthesis: a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates?
10. Which carbohydrates are polymers: a) monosaccharides; b) disaccharides; c) polysaccharides?
11. What polysaccharides are characteristic of an animal cell: a) cellulose; b) starch; c) glycogen; d) chitin?
12. What is the role of carbohydrates in a plant cell: a) building; b) energy; c) transport; d) component of nucleotides?
13. How much energy is released during the breakdown of 1 g of carbohydrates: a) 17.6 kJ; b) 38.9 kJ?
How many of the known amino acids are involved in the synthesis of proteins: a) 20; b) 23; c) 100?
In which cell organelles proteins are synthesized: a) in chloroplasts; b) ribosomes; c) in mitochondria; d) in EPS?
16. What structures of protein molecules can be broken during denaturation and then restored again: a) primary; b) secondary; c) tertiary; d) quaternary?
17. What is a nucleic acid monomer:
a) an amino acid b) nucleotide; c) a protein molecule?
18. What substances does ribose belong to: a) proteins; b) fats; c) carbohydrates?
19. What substances are included in the composition of DNA nucleotides: a) adenine; b) guanine; c) cytosine; d) uracil; e) thymine; f) phosphoric acid: g) ribose; h) deoxyribose?
II. Complete the sentences
1. Carbohydrates are divided into groups………………….
2. Fats are…………………
3. The bond between two amino acids is called……………
4. The main properties of enzymes are…………..
5. DNA performs the functions of……………..
6. RNA performs the functions of……………..
DECODER
Option number 1
I a: 2-d, e, g, h, i, k, l, m; 3-a; 4 GB; 5-d; 6-a; 7-6; 8-a; 9th; 10-6; 11-in; 12-a,b; 13-6; 14-b, c, d.e, f; 15-a,b; 16th century; 17-b, c, d; 18-6; 19-a.
Option number 2
1-a, b, c, d; 2-6; 3-a; 4-d; 5-b, c, d; 6-b, c; 7-d; 8-6; 9-in; 10-a, b; 11-c.g; 12-a.b., d; 13-a; 14-a; 15-b; 16-b, c, d; 17-6; 18-in; 19-a.b.c, e, f, 3.
1. monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides
2. esters of glycerol and higher fatty acids
3. peptide
4. The specificity and dependence of the rate of catalysis depends on temperature, pH, substrate concentration and enzyme
5. storage and transmission of hereditary information
6. Messenger RNAs carry information about the structure of the protein from the RC to the site of protein synthesis, they determine the location of amino acids in protein molecules. Transfer RNAs deliver the amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNAs are part of ribosomes, determining their structure and functioning.
Verification work on the topic "Structure and vital activity of cells"
Option 1
I. What features of a living cell depend on the functioning of biological membranes:
a) selective permeability; b) absorption and retention of water; c) ion exchange; d) isolation from the environment and connection with it; e) all of the above?
2. Through which parts of the membrane does water pass: a) the lipid layer; b) protein pores?
3. Which organelles of the cytoplasm have a single-membrane structure: a) outer cell membrane; b) ES; c) mitochondria; d) plastids; e) ribosomes; f) Golgi complex; g) lysosomes?
4. What separates the cytoplasm of the cell from the environment: a) ES membranes (endoplasmic reticulum); b) outer cell membrane?
How many subunits does a ribosome consist of: a) one; b) two; c) three?
What is included in the composition of ribosomes: a) proteins; b) lipids; c) DNA; d) RNA?
7. What function of mitochondria gave them the name - the respiratory center of the cell: a) ATP synthesis; b) oxidation of organic substances to CO 2 and H 2 ABOUT; c) breakdown of ATP?
What organelles are characteristic only for plant cells: a) ES; b) ribosomes; c) mitochondria; d) plastids?
Which plastids are colorless: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
10. Which of the plastids carry out photosynthesis: a) leukoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
11. Which organisms are characterized by a nucleus: a) prokaryotes; b) eukaryotes?
12. Which of the nuclear structures is involved in the assembly of ribosome subunits: a) nuclear envelope; b) nucleolus; c) nuclear juice?
13. Which of the membrane components determines the property of selective permeability: a) proteins; b) lipids?
14. How do large protein molecules and particles pass through the membrane: a) phagocytosis; b) pinocytosis?
15. Which organelles of the cytoplasm have a non-membrane structure: a) ES; b) mitochondria; c) plastids; d) ribosomes; e) lysosomes?
16. What organelle binds the cell into a single whole, carries out the transport of substances, participates in the synthesis of proteins, fats, complex carbohydrates: a) outer cell membrane; b) ES; c) Golgi complex?
17. In which of the nuclear structures is the assembly of ribosome subunits: a) in nuclear juice; b) in the nucleolus; c) in the nuclear envelope?
18. What is the function of ribosomes: a) photosynthesis; b) protein synthesis; c) fat synthesis; d) ATP synthesis; e) transport function?
19. What is the structure of the ATP molecule: a) biopolymer; b) nucleotide; c) monomer?
20. In what organelles is ATP synthesized in a plant cell: a) in ribosomes; b) in mitochondria; c) in chloroplasts?
21. How much energy is contained in ATP: a) 40 kJ; b) 80 kJ; c) 0 kJ?
22. Why is dissimilation called energy exchange: a) energy is absorbed; b) energy is released?
23. What does the process of assimilation include: a) synthesis of organic substances with energy absorption; b) the breakdown of organic substances with the release of energy?
24. What processes occurring in the cell are assimilation processes: a) protein synthesis; b) photosynthesis; c) lipid synthesis; d) ATP synthesis; d) breathing?
25. At what stage of photosynthesis is oxygen formed: a) dark; b) light; c) all the time?
26. What happens to ATP in the light stage of photosynthesis: a) synthesis; b) splitting?
27. What role do enzymes play in photosynthesis: a) they neutralize; b) catalyze; c) split?
28. What is the way of nutrition in humans: a) autotrophic; b) heterotrophic; c) mixed?
29. What is the function of DNA in protein synthesis: a) self-doubling; b) transcription; c) synthesis of tRNA and rRNA?
30. What does the information of one gene of the DNA molecule correspond to: a) protein; b) amino acid; c) gene?
31. What does triplet and RNA correspond to: a) amino acid; b) protein?
32. What is formed in the ribosome during protein biosynthesis: a) protein of tertiary structure; b) secondary structure protein; a) a polypeptide chain?
Option 2
What molecules does a biological membrane consist of: a) proteins; b) lipids; c) carbohydrates; d) water; e) ATP?
Through which parts of the membrane do ions pass: a) the lipid layer; b) protein pores?
Which organelles of the cytoplasm have a two-membrane structure: a) ES; b) mitochondria; c) plastids; d) Golgi complex?
4. Which cells have a cellulose wall on top of the outer cell membrane:
a) vegetable; b) animals?
Where are ribosome subunits formed, a) in the cytoplasm; b) in the core; c) in vacuoles?
What cell organelles contain ribosomes?
a) in the cytoplasm; b) in a smooth ES; c) in rough ES; d) in mitochondria; e) in plastids; e) in the nuclear envelope?
7. Why mitochondria are called energy stations of cells: a) carry out protein synthesis; b) ATP synthesis; c) synthesis of carbohydrates; d) breakdown of ATP?
8. What organelles are common for plant and animal cells: a) ES; b) ribosomes; c) mitochondria; d) plastids? 9. Which of the plastids have an orange-red color: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
10. Which of the plastids store starch: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
11. What nuclear structure carries the hereditary properties of the organism: a) the nuclear membrane; b) nuclear juice; c) chromosomes; d) nucleolus?
12. What are the functions of the nucleus: a) storage and transmission of hereditary information; b) participation in cell division; c) participation in protein biosynthesis; d) DNA synthesis; e) RNA synthesis; f) formation of ribosome subunits?
13. What are the internal structures of mitochondria called: a) grana; b) cristae; c) matrix?
14. What structures are formed by the inner membrane of the chloroplast: a) thylakoids gran; b) stroma thylakoids; c) stroma; d) cristae?
15. Which plastids are green: a) leucoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
16. Which of the plastids give color to flower petals, fruits, autumn leaves:
a) leukoplasts; b) chloroplasts; c) chromoplasts?
17. With the appearance of what structure did the nucleus separate from the cytoplasm: a) chromosomes; b) nucleolus; c) nuclear juice; d) nuclear envelope?
18. What is the nuclear membrane: a) a continuous shell; b) porous shell?
19. What compounds are included in ATP: a) nitrogenous base; b) carbohydrate; c) three molecules of phosphoric acid; d) glycerin; e) an amino acid?
20. In what organelles ATP is synthesized in an animal cell: a) ribosomes; b) mitochondria; c) chloroplasts?
21. As a result of what process, occurring in mitochondria, ATP is synthesized: a) photosynthesis; b) breathing; c) protein biosynthesis?
22. Why is assimilation called plastic exchange: a) organic substances are created; b) organic matter is broken down?
23. What does the process of dissimilation include: a) synthesis of organic substances with energy absorption; c) the breakdown of organic substances with the release of energy?
24. What is the difference between the oxidation of organic substances in mitochondria
from the combustion of these same substances: a) the release of heat; b) release of heat and synthesis of ATP; c) ATP synthesis; d) the oxidation process occurs with the participation of enzymes; e) without the participation of enzymes?
25. In what cell organelles does the process of photosynthesis take place: a) in mitochondria; b) ribosomes; c) chloroplasts; d) chromoplasts?
26. During the splitting of which compound, free oxygen is released during photosynthesis:
A) CO 2 ; b) H 2 0; c) ATP?
27. Which plants create the largest biomass and release most of the oxygen:
a) disputed; b) seed; c) algae?
28. Which components of the cell are directly involved in protein biosynthesis: a) ribosomes; b) nucleolus; c) nuclear envelope; d) chromosomes?
29. What structure of the nucleus contains information about the synthesis of one protein: a) a DNA molecule; b) triplet of nucleotides; c) gene?
30. What components make up the body of the ribosome: a) membranes; b) proteins; c) carbohydrates; d) RNA; d) fats?
31. How many amino acids are involved in the biosynthesis of proteins, a) 100; b) 30; in 20?
32. Where complex structures of a protein molecule are formed: a) in the ribosome; b) in the matrix of the cytoplasm; c) in the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Examination
Option 1:
1d; 2b; 3a,f,g; 4b; 5 B; 6a,d; 7b; 8g; 9a; 10b; 11b; 12b; 13b; 14a; 15g; 16b; 17b; 18b; 19b,c; 20b,c; 21b; 22b; 23a; 24a, b, c, d; 25b; 26 a; 27 a, b, c; 28b; 29b, c; 30a; 31a; 32c.
Option 2:
1a,b; 2a4 3b,c; 4a; 5 B; 6a,c,d,e; 7b; 8a,b,c; 9c; 10a; 11c; 12all; 13b; 14a,b; 15b; 16c; 17g; 18b; 19a,b,c: 20b; 21b; 22a; 23b; 24c, d; 25v; 26b; 26b; 28a,d; 29c; 30b,d; 31c; 32c.
Verification work on the topic "Reproduction and development of organisms"
"Wait a minute"
What is the cell life cycle?
What are the types of postembryonic development?
What is the structure of the blastula?
What are the functions of chromosomes?
What is mitosis?
What is cell differentiation?
What is the structure of the gastrula?
What germ layers are formed during embryonic development?
Name three Russian scientists who have made a great contribution to the development of embryology.
What is metamorphosis?
List the stages of embryonic development of multicellular animals.
What is embryonic induction?
What are the advantages of indirect development over direct development?
Into what periods is the individual development of organisms divided?
What is ontogeny?
What facts confirm that the embryo is an integral system?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in prophase 1 and prophase 2 of meiosis?
What is the reproductive period?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in metaphase 1 and metaphase 2 of meiosis?
What is the number of chromosomes and DNA in anaphase of mitosis and anaphase 2 of meiosis?
List the types of asexual reproduction.
List the stages of embryogenesis.
How many chromosomes and DNA will be in cells in the metaphase of mitosis and telophase of meiosis 2?
What is the autonomic pole in the blastula?
Name the types of chromosomes (by structure).
What are blastocoel and gastrocoel?
Formulate the biogenetic law.
What is cell specialization?
What is meiosis?
What is the number of chromosomes in cells at the beginning and at the end of mitosis?
What is stress?
List the phases of meiosis.
How many eggs and sperm are formed as a result of gametogenesis?
What are bivalents?
What are primary and secondary cavities animals?
What is a neurula?
What periods does interphase consist of?
What is the biological significance of fertilization?
How does the second division of meiosis end?
What is homeostasis?
What is sporulation?
What is the biological meaning of reproduction?
What is neurulation?
What is the importance of reproduction in nature?
What is a gastrula?
What are the parts of a bird egg?
What are the functions of a zygote?
How is regeneration expressed in highly organized animals and humans?
What germ layers are formed in multicellular animals at the gastrula stage?
List the phases of meiosis.
What stages do animals go through during development with metamorphosis?
What is direct and indirect development?
How is cleavage different from mitotic division?
What stages are distinguished in the postembryonic development of a person?
What is amitosis?
What organs develop in the human embryo from the mesoderm?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in anaphase 1 and anaphase 2 of meiosis?
List the phases of mitosis.
What is the embryonic development of animals?
What is the number of chromosomes and DNA in cells in the prophase of mitosis and anaphase 2 of meiosis?
What are the functions of the egg and sperm?
What is the structure of a chromosome?
How many chromosomes and DNA will be in a cell in anaphase of mitosis and metaphase 1 of meiosis?
What happens to a cell in interphase?
List the main stages of egg formation.
What is regeneration?
What is the set of chromosomes and DNA in telophase 1 and telophase 2 of meiosis?
Who created the biogenetic law?
What is conjugation?
What are crossover chromosomes?
What does crossing over lead to?
What are chromosomes?
How can one explain the differences in the size of the eggs of birds and humans?
What is the structure of the blastula?
In what phase of meiosis does conjugation occur and what is it?
What are the stages of oogenesis called?
In what phase of meiosis does crossing over occur and what is it?
What is the biological significance of crossing over?
What germ layer forms the human heart?
How does the first division of meiosis end?
Test "Test yourself"
Option 1
1. What type of cell division is not accompanied by a decrease in the set of chromosomes: a) amitosis; b) meiosis; c) mitosis?
2. What set of chromosomes is obtained during the mitotic division of the diploid nucleus: a) haploid; b) diploid?
3. How many chromatids are in the chromosome by the end of mitosis: a) two; b) one?
4. What kind of division is accompanied by a reduction (decrease) in the number of chromosomes in a cell by half: a) mitosis; 6) amitosis; c) meiosis? 5. In what phase of meiosis does chromosome conjugation occur: a) in prophase 1; 6) in metaphase 1; c) in prophase 2?
6. What method of reproduction is characterized by the formation of gametes: a) vegetative; b) asexual; c) sexual?
7. What set of chromosomes do spermatozoa have: a) haploid; b) diploid?
8. In which zone does meiotic cell division occur during gametogenesis:
a) in the growth zone; 6) in the breeding area; c) in the ripening zone?
9. What part of the sperm and egg is the carrier of genetic information: a) shell; b) cytoplasm; c) ribosomes; d) core?
10. The development of which germ layer is associated with the appearance of a secondary body cavity: a) ectoderm; b) mesoderm; c) endoderm?
11. Due to which germ layer the chord is formed: a) ectoderm; b) endoderm; c) mesoderm?
Option 2
1. What kind of division is typical for somatic cells: a) amitosis; b) mitosis; c) meiosis?
2. How many chromatids are in the chromosome by the beginning of prophase: a) one; b) two?
3. How many cells are formed as a result of mitosis: a) 1; b) 2; c) 3; d) 4?
4. What type of cell division results in four haploid cells:
a) mitosis; b) meiosis; c) amitosis?
What set of chromosomes does the zygote have: a) haploid; b) diploid?
What is formed as a result of oogenesis: a) sperm; b) egg; c) zygote?
7. Which of the methods of reproduction of organisms arose later than all in the process of evolution: a) vegetative; b) asexual; c) sexual?
8. What set of chromosomes do eggs have: a) haploid; b) diploid?
9. Why is the stage of a two-layer embryo called a gastrula:
a) similar to the stomach; b) has an intestinal cavity; c) has a stomach?
10. With the appearance of which germ layer, the development of tissues and organ systems begins:
a) ectoderm; b) endoderm; c) mesoderm?
11. Due to what germ layer the spinal cord is formed: a) ectoderm; b) mesoderm; c) endoderm?
Examination
Option number 1
1c; 2b; 3b; 4c; 5a; 6c; 7a; 8c; 9g; 10b; 11c
Option number 2
1b; 2b; 3b; 4b; 5 B; 6b; 7c; 8a; 9b; 10v; 11a.
Final testing
VERIFICATION WORK FOR THE COURSE"General biology" Grade 10
Option 1.
Instruction for students
The test consists of parts A, B, C. 60 minutes are allotted for completion. Read each question carefully and the suggested answers, if any. Answer only after you have understood the question and analyzed all possible answers.
Complete the tasks in the order in which they are given. If you have difficulty with any task, skip it and try to complete the ones for which you are sure of the answers. You can return to missed tasks if you have time.
One or more points are given for completing tasks of varying complexity. The points you get for completed tasks are summed up. Try to complete as many tasks as possible and score the most points.
We wish you success!
The process of formation of the first organic compounds on Earth is called chemical evolution. It preceded biological evolution. The stages of chemical evolution were identified by A.I. Oparin.
Stage I - non-biological, or abiogenic (from the Greek. u, un - a negative particle, bios - life, genesis - origin). At this stage, chemical reactions took place in the Earth's atmosphere and in the waters of the primary ocean, saturated with various inorganic substances, under conditions of intense solar radiation. In the course of these reactions, simple organic substances could form from inorganic substances - amino acids, alcohols, fatty acids, nitrogenous bases.
The possibility of synthesizing organic substances from inorganic substances in the waters of the primary ocean was confirmed in the experiments of the American scientist S. Miller and domestic scientists A.G. Pasynsky and T.E. Pavlovskaya.
Miller designed an installation in which a mixture of gases was placed - methane, ammonia, hydrogen, water vapor. These gases could be part of the primary atmosphere. In another part of the apparatus was water, which was brought to a boil. Gases and water vapor circulating in the apparatus under high pressure were subjected to electrical discharges for a week. As a result, about 150 amino acids were formed in the mixture, some of which are part of proteins.
Subsequently, the possibility of synthesizing other organic substances, including nitrogenous bases, was experimentally confirmed.
Stage II - the synthesis of proteins - polypeptides that could be formed from amino acids in the waters of the primary ocean.
Stage III - the appearance of coacervates (from lat. coacervus - a clot, a bunch). Amphoteric protein molecules, under certain conditions, can spontaneously concentrate and form colloidal complexes, which are called coacervates.
Coacervate droplets are formed by mixing two different proteins. A solution of one protein in water is transparent. When mixing different proteins, the solution becomes cloudy; under a microscope, drops floating in water are visible in it. Such drops - coacervates could have arisen in the waters of the 1000 primary ocean, where there were various proteins.
Some properties of coacervates are outwardly similar to the properties of living organisms. For example, they "absorb" from the environment and selectively accumulate certain substances, increase in size. It can be assumed that substances entered into chemical reactions inside the coacervates.
Since the chemical composition of the "broth" in different parts of the primary ocean varied, the chemical composition and properties of the coacervates were not the same. Relationships of competition for substances dissolved in the “broth” could form between coacervates. However, coacervates cannot be considered living organisms, since they lacked the ability to reproduce their own kind.
Stage IV - the emergence of nucleic acid molecules capable of self-reproduction.
Studies have shown that short chains of nucleic acids are able to double without any connection with living organisms - in a test tube. The question arises: how did the genetic code appear on Earth?
The American scientist J. Bernal (1901-1971) proved that minerals played an important role in the synthesis of organic polymers. It was shown that a number of rocks and minerals - basalt, clay, sand - have informational properties, for example, polypeptide synthesis can be carried out on clays.
Apparently, initially a “mineralogical code” arose on its own, in which the role of “letters” was played by cations of aluminum, iron, magnesium, alternating in various minerals in a certain sequence. In minerals, a three-, four- and five-letter code appears. This code determines the sequence of connecting amino acids in a protein chain. Then the role of the information matrix passed from minerals to RNA, and then to DNA, which turned out to be more reliable for the transmission of hereditary traits.
However, the processes of chemical evolution do not explain how living organisms arose. The processes that led to the transition from the inanimate to the living, J. Bernal called biopoiesis. Biopoiesis includes the stages that should have preceded the appearance of the first living organisms: the emergence of membranes in coacervates, metabolism, the ability to self-reproduce, photosynthesis, oxygen respiration.
The formation of cell membranes by lining up lipid molecules on the surface of coacervates could lead to the appearance of the first living organisms. This ensured the stability of their shape. The inclusion of nucleic acid molecules in coacervates ensured their ability to self-reproduce. In the process of self-reproduction of nucleic acid molecules, mutations arose that served as material for.
So, on the basis of coacervates, the first living beings could have arisen. They appear to have been heterotrophs and fed on energy-rich complex organic matter found in the waters of the primordial ocean.
As the number of organisms increased, competition between them intensified, as the supply of nutrients in the ocean waters decreased. Some organisms have acquired the ability to synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances using solar energy or the energy of chemical reactions. So there were autotrophs capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
The first organisms were anaerobes and obtained energy during oxygen-free oxidation reactions, such as fermentation. However, the advent of photosynthesis led to the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. The result was respiration, an oxygenic, aerobic oxidation pathway that is about 20 times more efficient than glycolysis.
Initially, life developed in the waters of the ocean, as strong ultraviolet radiation had a detrimental effect on organisms on land. The appearance of the ozone layer as a result of the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere created the prerequisites for the emergence of living organisms on land.
