History is not always fair. We are accustomed to exalt the ancient Greek culture, while we assign a secondary role to the Roman one. Roman poetry was not as exalted as Greek, the philosophy of the Hellenes set the tone for the ancient world. Learning from the Greeks was the norm for the nobility of Ancient Rome.
If you want to have geometry explained to you, then it would be best to turn to a Greek, but if you need to build a floating bridge, a sewer network or build a weapon that shoots flaming balls of gravel and resin up to a distance of 274 meters, then you should take a Roman to help. The inventions of Rome to this day serve in modern world.
The brilliant architectural, organizational and technical exploits of the Romans distinguish them, as well as the Greeks, among the ancient peoples. Although their knowledge of mathematics was rudimentary, they modeled, experimented, and built as solidly as was possible at the time. As a result, we can still see their work to this day: they stretch from Limyra Bridge in Turkey to Hadrian's Wall in Scotland. Below are the most significant achievements of the ancient Romans.
1. Pontoon bridges
Roman engineering technology is often referred to as synonymous with military technology. The world-famous roads were not built for daily use by ordinary people, they were built to ensure that the legions quickly reached their destination and also quickly left from there. The Roman-designed pontoon bridges, built mostly during the wartime period, served the same purpose and were the brainchild of Julius Caesar. In 55 BC. he built a pontoon bridge, about 400 meters long, to cross the river Rhine, which traditionally the German tribes considered their defense against the Roman invasion.
Caesar's bridge across the Rhine was an extremely clever structure. The construction of a bridge across the river, while not disturbing the flow of the river itself, is a very difficult undertaking, especially in a military situation, where the construction site must be guarded around the clock, and engineers must work very quickly and efficiently. The engineers set the supports at the bottom of the river at an angle against the current, thereby giving the bridge additional strength. Protective piles were also installed, which eliminated a potential threat that could float on the river. As a result, all the piles were assembled together, and a wooden bridge was built on their tops. In total, the construction took only ten days, using only lumber. Thus, information quickly spread among the local tribes about the all-encompassing power of Rome: if Caesar wanted to cross the Rhine, he did it.
Perhaps the same apocryphal story accompanies the pontoon bridge of Caligula, built across the sea between Baiae and Puzzuoli, about 4 km long. Presumably, Caligula built this bridge after he heard from a soothsayer that he had about the same chance of becoming emperor as the opportunity to cross the bay of Baia on horseback. Caligula took this as a challenge, and built this very bridge.
2. Segment arch
As with almost all of the above engineering feats, the Romans did not take part in the invention of the arch, however, they are sure they perfected it. Arches and arched bridges had been around for nearly two thousand years when the Romans took over. Roman engineers realized that arches did not have to be continuous, that is, they did not have to cover a given gap "in one step." Instead of crossing space in one step, they could be broken into several, smaller parts. Thus, segmental arches appeared.
At new form arches had two distinct advantages. Firstly, the potential space of the span bridge could be increased in geometric progression. Second, because they required less material to make, segmental arch bridges were more pliable when water passed underneath them. Instead of forcing water to flow through one small hole, the water under the segmented bridges flowed freely, thus reducing the risk of flooding and the rate of wear on the piers.
3. Hydropower
Vitruvius, the godfather of Roman engineering, describes several of the techniques the Romans used to use water. By incorporating Greek technology such as crenellated doors and the water wheel, the Romans were able to develop their advanced sawmills, mills and turbines.
The shifting wheel, another Roman invention, turned under the influence of flowing rather than falling water, making it possible to create floating water wheels used to grind grain. This came in very handy during the siege of Rome in 537 AD. when General Belisarius solved the problem of the siege by cutting off food supplies by building several floating mills on the Tiber, thus providing people with bread.
Strangely, archaeological evidence suggests that the Romans had all the necessary knowledge to create various kinds of water devices, but they used them extremely rarely, preferring instead cheap and widely available slave labor. However, their water mill was one of the largest industrial complexes in ancient world before the industrial revolution. The mill consisted of 16 water wheels that ground flour for neighboring communities.
4. Aqueduct
Along with roads, aqueducts were another marvel of Roman engineering. The point of aqueducts is that they are very long, very long actually.
One of the problems with water supply big city is that when a city grows to a certain size, you cannot access clean water from anywhere in it. And although Rome is located on the Tiber, this river was very polluted by another Roman engineering achievement, sewers.
To solve this problem, Roman engineers built aqueducts - a network of underground pipes, overhead lines of water and bridges designed to bring water to the city and its surroundings.
Just like roads, Roman aqueducts were a very complex system. Although the first aqueduct, built around 300 BC, was only 11 kilometers long, by the end of the third century AD. There were 11 aqueducts in Rome, with a total length of 250 miles.
5. Heated floors
Efficient temperature control is one of the most difficult engineering challenges humans face, but the Romans managed to solve it, or at least almost solved it.
Using an idea that is still used today in underfloor heating technology, the hypocaust was a set of hollow clay columns under the floor through which hot air and steam were pumped from a separate furnace to other rooms.
Unlike other, less advanced heating methods, the hypocaust neatly solved two problems that had always been associated with heating systems in the ancient world - smoke and fire. The fire was the only source heat, however, buildings caught fire from time to time, and the resulting smoke in an enclosed space often played a fatal role.
However, since the floor was raised in the hypocaust system, the hot air from the stove never made contact with the room itself.
Instead of "being" in the room, the heated air passed through the hollow tiles in the walls. As they exited the building, the clay tiles absorbed the warm air, making the room warm.
6. Sewerage
The huge sewers of the Roman Empire are one of the strangest creations of the Romans, since they were not originally built to serve as sewer systems at all. The cloaca Maxima (or the Great Sewer, if translated literally) was originally built in order to drain some of the waters of the local swamps. The construction of the "cloaca" began in 600 BC, and more and more waterways were added over the following hundreds of years. As canals continued to be dug regularly, it is difficult to say exactly when the cesspool of Maximus ceased to be a drainage ditch and became a proper sewage system. Originally a very primitive system, the Cloaca Maximus spread like a weed, stretching its roots deeper and deeper into the city as it grew.
Unfortunately, the Cloaca Maxima had access directly to the Tiber, so the river quickly filled with human waste. However, the Romans did not have to use the water of the Tiber for drinking or washing. It is worth noting that they even had a special goddess who monitored the work of this system - Cloacina.
Perhaps the most important achievement The Roman sewer system was the fact that it was hidden from human eyes, did not allow any diseases, infections, odors and unpleasant sights to spread. Any civilization can dig a ditch in order to cope with natural needs, however, to build and maintain such a grandiose sewer system, it was necessary to have serious engineering minds. The system was so complex in design that Pliny the Elder declared it to be a more grandiose human structure than the structure of the pyramids.
It is impossible to talk about the achievements of Roman engineering without talking about the roads, which were so well built that many of them are still quite usable even today. Comparing our today's asphalt highways to ancient Roman roads is like comparing a cheap watch to a Swiss one. They were strong, durable and built to last for centuries.
The best Roman roads were built in several stages. To begin with, the workers dug a pit, about a meter deep in the area where it was planned to build a road. Further, wide and heavy stone blocks were installed at the bottom of the trench, the remaining space was covered with a layer of dirt and gravel. Finally, the top layer was paved with slabs with bulges in the center so that water could drain. In general, Roman roads were extremely resistant to the effects of time.
In typical Roman fashion, the engineers of the empire insisted on the creation and use of straight roads, that is, on their construction through any obstacles, and not bypassing them. If there was a forest on the way, they cut it down; if there was a mountain, they built a tunnel through it; if there was a swamp, they dried it out. The downside of this type of road construction was of course the huge amount of manpower required for the job, but work force(in the form of thousands of slaves) - this was what the ancient Romans owned in abundance. By 200 B.C. The Roman Empire had about 85,295 kilometers of highways.
In terms of innovation in construction, liquid stone, which is lighter and stronger than ordinary stone, is the greatest creation of the Romans. Today, concrete is an integral part of our Everyday life, so it's easy to forget how revolutionary his invention once was.
Roman concrete was a mixture of crushed stone, lime, sand, pozzolana and volcanic ash. It could be poured into any form to build a structure, it was also very strong. Although it was originally used by Roman architects to build strong bases for altars, from the 2nd century B.C. the Romans began to experiment with concrete in order to construct self-contained forms. Their most famous concrete structure, the Pantheon, is still the largest unreinforced concrete structure in the world, standing for over two thousand years.
As mentioned earlier, this was a significant improvement on the old Etruscan and Greek rectangular architectural styles, which required columns and heavy walls to be placed around the entire perimeter of any building. Moreover, concrete construction material was cheap and fireproof. It was also quite flexible, as it was able to survive the numerous earthquakes that hit the volcanic Italian peninsula every now and then.
Like many technologies, Roman siege weapons were originally developed by the Greeks and later improved by the Romans. The ballista, essentially a giant crossbow that could shoot large stones during a siege, was constructed from Greek weapons that fell into the hands of the Romans.
Using the tendons of animals, the ballistas worked like springs in giant mousetraps, so they could throw projectiles up to 457 meters away. Since the weapon was light and accurate, it was equipped with spears and arrows, thus it was used as an anti-personnel weapon. Ballistas were also used to besiege small buildings.
The Romans invented their own "siege engines", called wild donkeys because of the powerful blow that the wild donkey delivers. Although they also used animal sinews in their work, the "wild donkeys" were much more powerful mini-catapults that shot fireballs and whole buckets of large stones. At the same time, they were less accurate than ballistas, but more powerful, which made them ideal weapons for undermining walls and setting fires during sieges.
We take the inner space of the modern world for granted, however, we should not do this. Our huge vaulted arches, large atriums, glass walls, ceilings, and more were all unthinkable in the ancient world.
Before the Romans perfected the domes of buildings, even the best architects of those times had to struggle for a long time with the creation of stone roofs. Even the greatest architectural achievements before Roman architecture, such as the Parthenon and the pyramids, looked more impressive on the outside than on the inside. Inside, they were dark, and represented a limited space.
Roman domes, by contrast, were spacious, open, and created a real sense of interior space. For the first time in history. Based on the understanding that the principles of the arch could be rotated in three dimensions to create a shape that had the same strong supporting force but "acted" over a larger area, dome technology was made available largely through concrete.
Interest in everything connected with the Roman Empire is always high. This ancient state was able to unite thousands of people and nationalities, for centuries keeping the entire Mediterranean under control. Great scientists and wise philosophers, invincible commanders and iron legions, legendary politicians and unsurpassed orators, skilful architects and experienced engineers, honor and glory, triumph and laurel wreath - all this is the Eternal City.
The fall of the Roman Empire in 468, without exaggeration, plunged Europe into chaos for a long time and set back the development of mankind hundreds of years ago. Many of the technologies used during the era of the empire were forgotten for many years.
Of course, the Romans did not have computers and flying machines. But people had to go centuries or even millennia in order to regain in some industries the level that had already been reached once.
The quantity and quality of technology lost or forgotten and the resulting failure of civilization is so striking that one begins to wonder what history would have been like if Rome had stood its ground. Perhaps we would live in a much more technological and developed world. But, as they say, history does not know the subjunctive mood, and we can only be surprised at the ability of the Romans and fantasize what heights a person could reach if all his discoveries were used in time and effectively and were not forgotten.
Glass
Although glass making technology has been known to man since ancient times (the oldest glass jewelry found in excavations in Egypt dates back to the 5th millennium BC), it was the Romans who were able to develop the production of glass utensils to an unprecedented high level. Roman craftsmen learned how to blow glass objects, giving them the desired shape, making transparent glass and mosaics.
Portland vase is one of the outstanding works of antique glassblowers, which has survived to this day. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the quantity and quality of glass produced in Europe fell sharply. Local glassblowers could make only the most basic items. Only the Byzantine masters preserved and passed on from generation to generation the secrets of glass making. Hundreds of years passed before the art of glass making was revived near Venice in the 13th century.
Roads And bridges
The main goal of all roads in the Roman Empire was the rapid transfer of troops over long distances, as well as the control of territories. In second place in importance was the postal service, and then trade. Usually roads were laid from one settlement to another, however, large roads (modern highways) could be interconnected by smaller roads (modern country roads).
Before laying a new path, engineers carefully checked all the parameters and then the workers cleared the path of trees and plants and brought material for construction (. Difficult road sections requiring expansion were noted in advance, where caravans traveling towards them could collide with each other. It is noteworthy that Roman roads had a convex shape, allowing rainwater to drain to the edges into specially dug recesses.
Stone bridges or less often wooden bridges were laid across the rivers, signs were installed at the forks, and every 15 kilometers the traveler was waiting for a station with an overnight stay and removable horses. Surprisingly, in mountainous areas you can even find tunnels in the rock, made by Roman craftsmen for the smooth continuation of the road.
The stone bridge in the Spanish Alcantara (province of Cáceres) is one of the masterpieces of ancient engineering. Built at the beginning of the 2nd century AD under Emperor Trajan To better understand the system of Roman roads, it is enough to recall the saying "All roads lead to Rome." Indeed, the so-called "zero kilometer" for all the roads of the empire began at the eternal city. And any traveler could get to the capital from anywhere by following a simple rule: choose the widest road at the fork in the road.
Concrete
In ancient Rome, concrete was poured into the cavities of load-bearing structures. It is thanks to the widespread use of concrete that many Roman buildings have survived to this day. Also, the Romans massively used a combination of concrete and metal reinforcements, achieving great stability of buildings, so that they could withstand a strong earthquake without any problems.
During the construction of the Roman Colosseum, concrete was widely used as a bonding agent. As you can see, the Roman engineers knew their job - the greatest monument of ancient architecture stood for almost 2000 years After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, concrete technology was lost. Europeans were able to rediscover the production of concrete only after a thousand years.
TO BE CONTINUED…
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The chapter "Building materials, construction equipment, structures" of the subsection "Architecture of the Roman Republic" of the section "Architecture of Ancient Rome" from the book " General history architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)”, edited by B.P. Mikhailov.
Stone was the main building material in a mountainous country rich in its various varieties and volcanic rocks. The most convenient for processing were varieties of soft tuff - gray, yellowish or brownish in color. Hard limestone, travertine, was highly valued and was used extremely sparingly during almost the entire period of the republic. It was used by architects only in places of the greatest load of the building in the corner parts and in those details where porous tuff, which was easily weathered, was inappropriate. Outside, stone buildings were often covered with a light layer of knocking. Mostly cult and public buildings and engineering structures were erected from stone. Dwellings were built of raw brick. From the end of the 2nd century burnt bricks of various shapes came into use. Shafts of columns were laid out from shaped round or pentagonal bricks (Fig. 1). By the end of the 1st century BC. hollow brick blocks were used in the walls of the thermae for the installation of a heating system in which hot air circulated (Fig. 2).
At the end of the period of the republic, white marble, both local and imported from Greece, began to be used for the decoration of temples, public buildings and rich dwellings.
In the art of building and stone processing, the Etruscans had a certain influence on the Romans. The remains of ancient Roman buildings are made of large stones of irregular shape. In addition to polygonal masonry, square masonry was also mastered early. Behind period V-III centuries BC e. The Romans improved their construction technique by developing the so-called "normal" masonry of blocks in the shape of a parallelepiped of different sizes (on average 60X60X120 cm). Several methods of this masonry were used: from the same spoon rows of blocks; from spoons with rare pokes; from alternating rows of spoons and pokes, as well as observing the rhythmic alternation in each row of pokes and spoons (Fig. 3).
By the 3rd century BC. under the influence of the Greeks, the processing of the outer side of the blocks improved and various methods of rustication were developed. To lift and move heavy stone blocks at construction sites, simple cranes were used (Fig. 4).
In addition to the post-beam system, a false arch and a false vault were used in the structures. By the end of the III century. BC. is the appearance of Roman concrete, which opened up great opportunities in construction.
The development of Roman concrete began with the use of lime mortar in rubble masonry. A similar building technique was widespread in Hellenistic times. The difference between Roman concrete and ordinary lime mortars is that instead of sand, it used pozzolans - volcanic sands named after the place of extraction (the city of Pozzuoli - ancient Puteoli). The use of pozzolan instead of sand in mortar was due to the lack of good grades of sand in this part of Italy. Pozzolans proved to be the best astringent in the mortar, as they made it water-tight, strong, and set quickly. Initially, concrete was only used to fill the space between the hewn stone walls. The dimensions of the stones laid in concrete gradually decreased, the mixture became more and more homogeneous, and the concrete thus turned into an independent building material, although the facing of the outer surfaces with stone was preserved. Initially, the wall surface consisted of small irregularly shaped stones connected to the core of the wall and to each other with concrete mortar. This is the so-called irregular facing - incert (opus incertum). Gradually, there appears (from the 90s of the 1st century BC) a tendency to give the stones more and more regular shape, and, finally, from the middle of the 1st century. BC. reticulat is used - mesh masonry (opus reticulatum), in which the outer surface of the concrete wall is lined with small, carefully laid pyramidal stones. Their flat bases go out and form a mesh pattern, and the pointed ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall (Fig. 5). The corners of the walls and the lintels of the openings were formed by masonry of large blocks. Samples of early concrete technology have come down to us in a small number. This is due to the fact that initially concrete was used mainly not in monumental buildings, but in dwellings and small structures, for which a quickly obtained and inexpensive wall material was needed. The concrete technique also had the advantage that it required a much smaller number of skilled construction workers and allowed extensive use of slave labor.
In parallel, the development of arched-vaulted structures, which were used in architecture ancient East, sometimes met in Greece (Priene, Pergamum, etc.). The question of whether arched-vaulted structures were introduced into the architecture of Rome from outside or independently invented by Roman architects cannot currently be considered definitively resolved.
The first appearance of the wedge arch in Rome dates back to the 4th century. BC. In the III-II centuries. BC. the number of arched-vaulted structures increases, especially since the end of the 2nd century. BC.
The combination of concrete technology and arched-vaulted structures, which provided unprecedented opportunities, had a huge impact on the development of Roman architecture. Only with the help of such construction techniques could such outstanding architectural structures as the Roman aqueducts, the Colosseum and the Pantheon be created.
The first of the monumental structures that have come down to us in this new type of technology is the portico of the Aemilia, which was a huge warehouse of grain in Emporia (the port of Rome down the Tiber). Large trade operations took place here. Initially, the Emporium was a simple unloading area, and the portico of the Aemilia was a temporary structure. In 174 BC a portico building was built (Fig. 6). It was a large rectangular building, elongated along the embankment (487X60 m), divided inside into 50 short transverse naves by 49 rows of pillars. The building rose in steps from the banks of the Tiber, and each nave was covered with a stepped cylindrical vault with a span of 8.3 m. On the facade of hewn tufa, each nave corresponded to a section separated from neighboring pilasters. Each nave is expressed on the facade: at the bottom with a large arched span, at the top with two smaller windows, also with a semicircular completion. The walls of the building are made of gray concrete of very good quality, their surface is lined with incert; The corners of the building and the wedge-shaped arches above the door and window openings were made from rectangular blocks of the same material. The portico of Aemilia was an outstanding monument of the early Roman building art.
Here, for the first time in a building of such a grandiose scale, the merging of the vaulted-arched principle of construction with concrete technology has been achieved. Such a developed design probably points to a long previous evolution.
The purpose of the building corresponded to the simplicity of its forms. The repetition of one standard element on the facade 50 times gave the building scale and emphasized the utility of its purpose.
Such huge constructions were carried out in an exceptionally short time. The grandiose Colosseum was built in five years, and aqueducts 100 or more kilometers long, along with substructures and bridges, “at the places where they crossed river valleys, the Romans managed to build in two or three years (the term of authority of the aedile - the head of construction, elected by the Senate). Construction was usually bid and carried out by contractors who were interested in the best organization of the whole, skillfully combining the labor of a huge mass of unskilled slaves and a small number of experienced architect-builders. Therefore, when designing, the typification of the main structural elements, the multiplicity of their dimensions per foot and modularity were widely used, which made it possible to divide the work into identical simple operations. The organization of labor at Roman construction sites was very high.
Contrary to popular belief, plumbing was not invented in ancient Rome. Systems for the supply (water supply) and drainage (sewerage) of water were in Ancient Egypt, Babylon. However, here you need to decide what exactly is considered a water supply system. Experts refer to systems that conduct water, not only aqueducts and pipes, but also wells with irrigation canals, which public opinion refers rather to irrigation systems. Nevertheless, the entire system of transporting water to the consumer formally belongs to the tap, and therefore we are forced to deny Rome this great invention.
But the Romans made a lot of improvements to the system they did not invent. It was in Rome that the most powerful industry for the production of water for drinking and domestic purposes was created. However, in a city of millions, it could not be otherwise. It is curious that one Roman inhabitant of the era of Emperor Augustus accounted for up to a ton of water per day, which is three times the water consumption in modern Rome.
The Roman plumbing was a system of many kilometers of aqueducts, huge sewage treatment plants and clay pipelines that delivered water throughout the city - to baths, private villas, fountains, artificial fish ponds ... If anything is considered a purely Roman "invention" in this area, then the scale of the problem solved by the Romans is exceptional.
And the truly Roman inventions that we use to this day were things no less important than plumbing.
Inventions of Ancient Rome:
1. Concrete.
2. Arch, more precisely, a keystone that allows the arch not to crumble down.
3. Illuminated tunnels. The Romans cut tunnels in the mountains so as not to make detours, and sometimes the tunnels are quite long - under Naples there was a tunnel 1300 meters long. And there were special people, paid from the treasury, who filled the lamps with state-owned oil and made sure that there was light in the tunnel around the clock.
4. Battalion (manipulative) principle of building an army. It has been used and is still being used to this day, with the exception of the missile forces.
5. walking zebra. Pedestrians crossed the road on long stones, and rain streams flowed between the stones. Cart wheels also rode between them.
6. Central heating. It was used in public baths to heat water, walls and floors. Heating went with the help of hot air, which came through clay pipes-air ducts.
7. Roads in the modern sense of the word (with a pillow and a hard surface). Reference: The famous Roman roads in many parts of Europe were used for their intended purpose until the beginning of the twentieth century. Roads really were made for centuries. First, a trench is dug about a meter deep - ten meters deep. If the soil is weak, swampy, oak piles are driven into the bottom of the trench. The trench edges are reinforced with stone slabs. Then, as in a pie, different layers are laid out - large stone, smaller stone, sand, again stone, lime, tile powder ... "Layer cake" fills the entire dug trench. Today it is called a travel pillow. The actual road surface is placed on top of the pillow - stone slabs located in a small hill so that rainwater flows from the center of the road into the side drainage ditches. Roman roads used more stone material than modern roads. Along the edges of the Roman road there were verst (mile) pillars in the form of neat stone columns on square stone pedestals. There were also real road signs in the form of stone columns higher than human height, which indicated the distance to the nearest settlements and to Rome. And in Rome itself, a zero kilometer with a commemorative sign was laid. The core of the empire, which was visited by idle ancient tourists. An interesting detail: along the roads, the Romans sowed Chernobyl (artemisia absinthium) - everyone walking could pick its leaves on the side of the road and put them in sandals so that their legs would not hurt from a long walk.
8. fish sauce. It was made from the insides of slightly rotten fish, mixed with spices.
9. straw hat(similar to a sombrero, but without folded brim).
10. Hood. As a sign of mourning, a part of the toga, which usually lay on the back, was thrown over the head. It turned out not a pronounced hood, which then evolved to a separate personal belongings.
11. Transformable arena(similar ones are now used in the circus and theater). The Roman arena was a complex technical structure - it could be filled with water to arrange naval battles. The arena of the Colosseum had hidden passages and elevators to lift animals right into the center of the arena.
12. Folding tables and chairs(the Romans had wooden and bronze ones).
Alexander Nikonov
The Roman civilization left behind a huge contribution to history, despite the fact that in most cases it was in the shadow of its neighbors from Greece. The Romans borrowed many sciences, and counting using Roman numerals was generally unpleasant. However, there are at least 10 technologies created in Rome that are still in use today.
In ancient times, it was believed that in order to learn the basics of geometry or philosophy, it is preferable to turn to the Greek. If it is necessary to build a bridge, a sewer or a powerful weapon, then it is better to turn to a Roman. Indeed, unsurpassed technological achievements distinguish this civilization from other representatives of its time. The result of Roman inventions was the fact that many technologies are used to this day throughout the planet. We will talk about ten of the most famous.
10. Dome
What is now taken for granted: arches, atria, glass walls and ceilings, was unthinkable in the ancient world: before the Romans managed to create the technology to improve buildings, the best architects of that time suffered for a long time with stone roofs. All architectural works created before the heyday of Roman civilization, such as the pyramids, look much more impressive from the outside than they were inside - they were dark rooms with limited space. It was the Romans who were the first in history to create vast open interior spaces thanks to the realization that the arch could be rotated in three dimensions. And to create a powerful reliable force to hold such structures, it was necessary to have a special substance, which became concrete - the achievement of the Romans. In this rating, we will return to this achievement of civilization
9. Armament
Like most of the technology of the time, siege weapons were first created by the Greeks but were perfected by the Romans. Thanks to the captured samples of Greek weapons, the world saw ballistas - gigantic crossbows, light and accurate. The use of ballistas was widely directed against infantry, while on their basis "siege engines" were created - powerful and maneuverable mini-catapults, which, although they were not as aimed as ballistas, did huge damage, which made it possible to successfully use them for siege
8. Concrete
Liquid stone, aka concrete - one of greatest achievements Romans. Nowadays, concrete is widely used in construction of various sizes. Antique concrete consisted of a mixture of volcanic ash, pozzolan, crushed stone, lime and sand. Concrete allowed for pouring of any shape, and was unusually strong. Initially, Roman architects used it to cast the bases of altars, but in later times various experiments were carried out with this material, which resulted in the appearance of such wonders as the Pantheon - the world's largest unreinforced concrete structure and is still 2000 years old.
7. Roads
Talking about the achievements of Roman civilization, one cannot keep silent about such an invention as roads, which were created so well that many of them are still suitable for use. Of course, it would be incorrect to compare Roman roads with modern asphalt highways, but they were really durable, and were created for centuries in several stages. At the beginning, a huge pit was dug about a meter deep, then wide stone blocks were installed at the bottom of the trench, after which the remaining space was filled with a thick layer of gravel. The uppermost layer was laid with special plates with bulges, on which water could flow. As you know, the engineers of the empire insisted on the creation of exclusively straight roads, which required huge resources to clear the area through which these roads passed. However, by 200 BC, the Roman Empire had 85,000 kilometers of roads to its credit.
6. Sewerage
The monumental collectors of the Romans became one of the most iconic creations, despite the fact that they were originally built for a completely different purpose. Initially, "Cloaca Maxima" ("Largest Sewerage" under literal translation), was created to drain part of the water from local swamps. Beginning in 600 BC and over the following hundreds of years, many waterways were added. On this moment it is difficult to determine exactly at what point the cloaca became a full-fledged sewer, however, as cities grew, sewers began to penetrate deeper and deeper into them, eventually completely covering them. The main achievement of the sewer was the fact of inconspicuousness and ridding society of most infectious diseases, and Pliny the Elder stated that the Roman sewer is a much more complex architectural structure than the Egyptian pyramids.
5. Heated floor
Creating an optimal temperature is the most difficult engineering task that requires a powerful scientific potential even in our time, let alone ancient times. However, the Romans coped with this task. They first applied an idea that is still used in the construction of underfloor heating - it was a structure of clay hollow columns that were built under the base of the floor, and solved several problems at once: the problem of fire and the problem of smoke. Fire at that time was the main source of heat, but the buildings had the properties of burning, and the smoke released during this carried a huge danger of suffocation. In the Roman heating system, the floor was raised, which allowed the hot air from the furnace never to come into contact with the room: it passed through the hollow tiles, and as it left the building was absorbed by the clay tiles, which made it possible to achieve the desired effect.
4. Aqueduct
Like roads, aqueducts of phenomenal length have become calling card and by this engineering marvel in the life of the Romans. One of the limitations to the growth of ancient cities was the impossibility of getting drinking water from any point in it, and this problem was solved. After all, although Rome was located on the Tiber River, it was excessively polluted by another invention of architecture: sewage. The Roman aqueducts were a complex system that stretched over 400 kilometers and supplied clean drinking water to the city.
3. Hydropower
The Romans were able to combine Greek technology and their own engineering skills, which made it possible to create the world's first water-powered mills, turbines and sawmills. Also, the Romans created the world's first inverted wheel, which later became widespread throughout the world. It is noteworthy that despite the abundance of engineering ideas, affordable and cheap manual labor continued to be used in most of the empire.
2. Arch of segments
Although such an invention as an arch does not belong to the hands of the Romans, they found the possibility of improving it. Roman engineers managed to comprehend that in order to give strength to the structure, the arch should not consist of one segment, when it can be broken into many small parts. This allowed the creation of much more powerful and reliable bridges.
1. Pontoon bridges
A huge number of Roman roads implied the possibility of rapid movement of armies, and the pontoon bridge created in 55 BC by Julius Caesar, more than 400 meters long, allowed the Romans to cross the Rhine with lightning speed, in which the ancient tribes of the Germans saw reliable protection from invasion. The bridge over the Rhine turned out to be an extremely clever creation, because building a bridge across the river without disturbing the flow is a very difficult task, especially in a military situation. Engineers worked quickly and efficiently: the piles were assembled together within ten days, after which the bridge was assembled
