The reign of Alexander 3. Alexander III. Biography. Governing body. Personal life. How and under what circumstances did he ascend the throne?

The existence of youth anti-Stalinist groups had not only a symbolic, but also a real meaning: they, despite the transience of their existence and the disproportion of goals to the available forces, nevertheless had a latent influence on the internal life of the USSR.

SENTENCE

In the name of the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic of 1941, February 9, the Jalal-Abad Regional Court of the Kyrgyz SSR, consisting of the presiding Karelin, people's assessors Ashmarin, Yarmantovich, with the secretary Makarova, with the participation of the parties: prosecutor Dzhienvekov, defense Moskalev, having considered in a closed court session the case on charges of:

1. Yatsuk Ivan Ivanovich, born on October 9, 1922, a native of the Tashkent region of the Merzachul district, the village of Syrnovorossiysk, origin from peasants, social. position - a student, expelled from the members of the Komsomol in this case, single, according to the words we have not previously been convicted, before his arrest he studied at school No. Art.58-10 Part 1 and 58-11 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, has been in custody since 19/XII-40.

2. Yuri Vilgelmovich Shokk, born on June 28-1922, a native of Leningrad, Russian by nationality, non-party member, student, origin from workers, father in 1937 convicted of kr crime, mother was expelled from Leningrad in 1938, according to the words we have not previously judged, studied at school No. 1 in Jalal-Abad in the 10th grade, lived in Jalal-Abad, Kurortny per., No. 20, is accused under Art. Article 58-10 part 1 and 58-11 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, has been in custody since 19 / KhP-40.

3. Elin Alexander Ivanovich, born on October 1, 1924, a native of the Saratov region. b / Ekaterininsky district of Olshinsky s-soviet, social. origin from peasants, non-party member, Russian by nationality, no criminal record, student, studied at school No. 1 in the 10th grade of the city of Jalal-Abad. Lived in the city of Jalal-Abad st. Pogranichnaya d. No. 73, accused under Art. 58-10 part 1 of the Criminal Code and 58-11 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, has been in custody since December 19, 1940.

4. Gubaidulin Shamil Ibragimovich, born on 13/V-1923, a native of the Kirghiz SSR, Osh region, mountains. Uzgen, Tatar by nationality, social. descent from employees, student, expelled in this case from the members of the Komsomol, single, no criminal record, studied at school No. 1 in the 10th grade of Jalal-Abad, lived in the Resort of Jalal-Abad, is accused under Article 58- 10 part 1 and 58-11 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, has been in custody since December 23, 1940.

5. Salakhutdinov Kamil Minukhailovich, born October 29, 1923, native of Chita, socialist origin from a family of employees, Tatar by nationality, expelled from the Komsomol members in this case, no previous convictions, student, studied at school No. 1 in Jalal-Abad, lived in Jalal-Abad, Torgovaya St., No. 13, accused under Articles 58-10 Part 1 and 58-11 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, has been in custody since January 26, 1941.

At the trial, the testimony of the accused, witnesses was heard; Having reviewed the material of the preliminary investigation, the court found:

The above defendants Yatsuk, Shokk, Elin, Gubaidulin and Salakhutdinov in October 1940 organized a counter-revolutionary circle called "True Communists", whose goal was to combat the event of the party and the Soviet government.

The mass involvement in this circle of members from young people from among the morally unstable, reading anti-Soviet literature, agitation among the population by issuing counter-revolutionary leaflets.

The organizers of this circle are Yatsuk and Schokk, who began to recruit this anti-Soviet circle.

At their meetings, the circle worked out the activities of this circle, discussed with anti-Soviet purpose of the event of the party and owls. government.

The defendants all pleaded guilty, stated that, being politically undeveloped, they did not understand certain issues of the policy of the party and the Soviet government, based on the foregoing, the court considers that the charges brought against all the accused under Article 58-10 Part 1 and 58-11 of the Criminal Code established, therefore, guided by Articles 319-320 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the court sentenced:

Yatsuk Ivan Ivanovich, Shokk Yuri Vilhelmovich, on the basis of Article 58-10 of the Criminal Code, to be sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 10 years (ten) each and, according to Article 58-11 of the Criminal Code, also to be sentenced to ten years (10 years) each, for on the basis of Article 49 of the Criminal Code, to leave Yatsuk Ivan Ivanovich and Shokk Yuri Vilhelmovich 10 years (ten) in prison, followed by loss of voting rights for a period of five years each.

Yelin Alexander Ivanovich, Gubaidulin Shamil Ibragimovich on the basis of Art. According to Article 58-11 of the Criminal Code Elina A.I. Gubaidulina Sh.I. to subject the penalty to deprivation of liberty for a period of 8 years (eight) each and on the basis of Article.49 of the Criminal Code to leave the penalty to Elina A.I., Gubaidulina Sh.I. 8 l. (eight) followed by loss of voting rights for a period of 3 years (three years) each. Preliminary conclusion to Elin from 19/XII-40 and Gubaidulin from 23/XII-40 to be credited.

Salakhutdinov Kamil Minukhailovich, on the basis of Article 58-10 part 1 of the Criminal Code, to be sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 6 years (six), according to Article 58-11 of the Criminal Code, to be punished by imprisonment for a term of 6 years (six). On the basis of Article 49 of the Criminal Code, leave 6 years (six years) of imprisonment with a loss of rights for two years (2 years), pre-trial detention from January 26, 1941, set off.

The verdict is final, but can be appealed to the Supreme Court of the Kyrgyz SSR within 72 hours from the date of delivery of a copy of the verdict to the convicts.

The measure of restraint for all convicts until the entry into force of the sentence is to be left in custody.

Pl. presiding - Karelin

nar. assessors - Ashmarin and Yarmantovich.

Commentary by historians S. Pechuro and V. Bulgakov:

The question is, to what extent can one trust the accusations under Article 58, presented during investigations and trials Stalin era, as a rule, does not confront the modern reader. Complete - from beginning to end - the falsification of the charges seems to him beyond doubt. It is natural. In this thought, he is daily strengthened by numerous publications (memoirs, articles by historians, literary works), who unanimously paint a picture of terror grinding millions of loyal Soviet citizens. Such an idea of Stalinist repressions originates from the revelations of the Khrushchev thaw. The idea that participation in a real, and not invented by investigators, fight against the regime elevates, and does not defame a person, sounded quite seditious at that time. As a result, a legend has taken root in the public mind, according to which, in the era of general fear and dope that enveloped the country, there were and could not be people who doubted the infallibility of the “leader of the peoples”, who realized the depravity of the ruling system. And if any were found - units! - then surely there was no one who would have dared to desperate and hopeless resistance. This legend lives on to this day.

The truth, in our opinion, is that resistance to Stalinism still existed. And not only in the 1920s in numerous and varied forms, but also in the early 1930s (first of all, we must talk about peasant uprisings associated with collectivization), and later. After the war, which undoubtedly gave the strongest impetus to its development, it arose with new energy.

Without exaggerating the real significance (and even more so the volume of activity) of anti-Stalinist youth groups, we still believe that their existence had not only a symbolic (rather obvious), but also a real meaning. According to the first researcher of the problem V.V. Iofe, they, despite the transience of existence and the disproportion of goals to available forces, nevertheless “had an implicit influence on the internal life of the USSR, and although the mechanisms of this organizations post-war years for the life of the country - is necessary ”(Memory: Historical collection. Issue 5. Paris, 1982. P. 227).

Considering the Jalal-Abad verdict published above in the context of everything known to us on this topic, we came to the conclusion that the organization for the creation of which the young men were tried is not a “fake” invented by the Beria investigators. And the "classic" name - "True Communists", and the age of the participants, and the presence among them of a Leningrad youth from an exiled family, and the mention of leaflets - all this, combined together, are undoubted signs of authenticity.

The special value of the published document is that it presents us with one of the pre-war opposition youth groups. Very little is known about them. In addition to the verdict on the "True Communists", we have only one piece of evidence.

Recently Memorial received a letter from the wife of a seriously ill resident of Taishet, Viktor Mikhailovich Savinykh. He is the only survivor from the group, which included 9 Siberian schoolchildren aged 14 to 17. These guys were arrested in May 1940 for having written a letter to Stalin "about the inadmissibility of sending fascist Germany trainloads of grain at a time when the Soviet people are starving." Children, having gone through torture, received 10 years in the camps and died in Kolyma. And how many young people who dared to “have their own opinion” do we not know? As, unfortunately, we do not know the further fate of schoolchildren from Jalal-Abad.

After the death of Emperor Alexander II in March 1881, his second son became the ruler of Russia. Initially, he was supposed to make a career in the military sphere, but after the death of the heir (older brother) Nikolai, he had to forget about a military career and take a place on the throne.

Historians paint this ruler as a typical Russian powerful man, who was more inclined towards war than to subtle and careful planning of the state course. The features of his reign are the preservation of autocracy and the signing of peace agreements.

In contact with

Main events

The reign of Alexander 3 was remembered as one of the most peaceful, because the emperor sought to preserve friendly relations with all neighbors and, if possible, act as a peacemaker in conflicts. Although not without military victories. The main events of the emperor's reign by years are briefly as follows:

• 1881: the capture of Ashgabat, the resumption of the "Union of the Three Emperors";
• 1882: A.F. Mozhaisky designed and launched an airplane on its first flight, factory legislation is being developed;
• 1883: Creation by Plekhanov of the Emancipation of Labor group in Geneva;
• 1884: introduction of a new charter for universities and the opening of parochial schools in the villages;
• 1885: annexation of Central Asia and the Russo-Afghan conflict;
• 1887: Russo-German peace treaty concluded;
• 1888: University in Tomsk was opened;
• 1889: positions of judges in rural districts were abolished, the position of zemstvo chief was introduced;
• 1891: beginning construction of the Great Siberian Route;
• 1891-1892: Volga famine;
• 1892: a new Customs Charter was adopted, a new "City Regulation" was approved, a secret Russian-French military convention was concluded;
• 1893: the law "On the customs tariff" is adopted, the beginning of the Russian-German "customs war".

The main events show that the activities of the king were mainly aimed at the counter-reforms of his father.

The years of the reign of Alexander III

Domestic politics

Russia under Alexander 3 was divided into supporters of two parties: the liberal, advocating reforms, and the monarchist, opposing democracy. Unlike his father, the son took a course on strengthening of autocracy and rejected the very model of constitutional Russia.

Main directions

Russia maintains administrative regulation social sphere. All enemies of the monarchy were persecuted, arrested and expelled. Despite the counter-reforms, the state developed dynamically, and its social and economic indicators grew. Main directions domestic policy Alexandra 3 became:

1. Taxation - new increased duties on imported goods, direct taxes were introduced, and the rates of the old ones increased. Inheritance tax was introduced and income tax increased industrial enterprises, land and real estate, which primarily affected wealthy people. In turn, serious concessions were introduced for the peasants: the size of the annual redemption was reduced, the poll tax was abolished, and the Peasant Land Bank was established.
2. Social sphere - the promotion of the industrial industry increased the number of workers in factories, the number of hired workers increased.
3. Labor legislation - in 1882, the Factory Inspectorate was created, a law on child labor was adopted (it became prohibited until the age of 12), a reduction in the working day for adolescents was introduced, ban on night work for minors. Acts were approved on the rules for hiring and on the relations of workers in the team. Relations between the employer and the worker were settled by mandatory signing of a work contract and paybook payments.
4. Local self-government - zemstvos and cities were endowed with great rights, the zemstvo chief became at the same time a justice of the peace.
5. Judicial proceedings - juveniles and students were not allowed to attend court hearings. It was forbidden to publish transcripts and reports, as well as to let the public into trials in which religious and moral feelings could be offended. Serious crimes were sent to the judicial chambers for consideration.
6. Education - universities were deprived of the right to be autonomous due to the frequent revolutionary views and movements that originated here. A new edition of the University Charter began to operate.

Thus, the main directions of Alexander's domestic policy were reduced to the settlement social issues, taxation and education.

Tasks

Many progressive citizens of Russia saw in the tsar someone who would continue the reforms and lead Russia to a constitution. However, the reforms of Alexander 3 destroyed these hopes. His first speech was marked by the fact that the tsar declared the senselessness of constitutional plans, which clearly indicated the course of autocracy.

He set himself the task of preventing the development of a revolutionary movement in Russia. The emperor did not recognize the reforms, dismissed some officials who advocated reforms, and adopted the Manifesto on autocratic power. Russian governors at the same time, they were endowed with special rights in the struggle for imperial power. An equally important task was the introduction of counter-reforms of the zemstvo persuasion and refereeing.

The policy of autocracy and reactionary reforms also touched the educational sphere. According to the adopted circular, the children of lackeys and other servants were forbidden to attend gymnasiums, and schools in the villages were replaced by parochial institutions. Was conducted strict censorship of all printed publications.

Important! The harsh reforms of the domestic policy of Alexander 3 became the main cause of deep discontent in Russian society, which created excellent ground for the growth and exacerbation of social contradictions.

Counter-reforms

All the reforms of the previous emperor were aimed at constitutional politics and gave greater rights to peasants and others. ordinary people. His son was categorically against such changes in society, and as soon as he took the throne, he began to carry out counter-reforms, including:

• Zemskaya - the position of Zemstvo chief is introduced, they are appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. Only people of noble origin had the right to take such a position, and their job was to control the peasants in the administrative part.
• City - the number of voters is reduced due to an increase in property qualifications, and any law in the Duma must be approved by the governor. The number of Duma meetings was limited, which in fact led to the management of the city by the government.
• Judicial - jurors had to have sufficient educational qualifications to occupy such a position, which increased the number of nobles among them.
• Printed and educational – introduced tight control over educational institutions, the autonomy of universities is prohibited, the academic staff was controlled by the government. A special police force was created to supervise schoolchildren and students.

Thus, economic reforms, adopted laws, acts and manifestos brought the Russian Empire to the level of 1861, which could not favorably affect the mood in society.

Monument to Alexander III in St. Petersburg near the Marble Palace

Foreign policy

The peaceful foreign policy of Alexander 3, despite the short period of his reign, led to the assignment of the unofficial title of "Peacemaker" to him.

He set the main external task maintaining peace with neighbors and other states, as well as finding and strengthening relationships with prospective allies. Despite the peaceful course, the emperor planned to strengthen Russia's influence in all areas.

Main directions

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander 3 concentrated on several directions, which is clearly seen in the table.

Russia's peaceful actions have not always ended successfully, but not because of wrong actions, but because of hostile neighbors. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander 3 led to increase the area of ​​the state peacefully and 13 peaceful years of the country.

Foreign policy of Alexander 3

Board results

Alexander 3 was called "the most Russian tsar", who put all his strength into protecting the Russian people, strengthening the outskirts and state unity. His reign was short, only 14 years, as he died at 49 from kidney failure. The pros and cons of Alexander's reign make it possible to assess his activities on the throne.

The pros and cons of ruling

The results of Alexander's reign include both advantages and disadvantages, like any other policy. The advantages of the reign of this emperor include:

• providing peasants with multiple benefits and the opportunity to take loans and credits;
• creation of factory legislation;
• the beginning of the work of the Peasants' Bank;
• the sharp growth of the industry;
• the growth of the ruble and the strengthening of its exchange rate;
• restoration of the significance and authority of the Orthodox Church;
• peaceful foreign policy and strengthening state power;
• expansion of the state by joining the Asian khanates.

The disadvantages include:

• counter-reforms of Alexander 3, which crossed out all the achievements of Alexander II;
• preservation of autocracy;
• severe limitation of the power of local self-government;
• press censorship, lack of publicity;
• restrictions in the field of education.

Alexander III. Personality. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in 1881-1894.

Video lesson on the history of "Foreign policy of Alexander III"

Conclusion

The domestic and foreign policy of Alexander, despite their peaceful course, ensured the emergence of a revolutionary spirit among the people, which ultimately led to. Russia under Alexander 3 took a step back in its social development.

Alexander Alexandrovich was the second son in the imperial family. His older brother Nikolay was preparing to inherit the throne, and he received the appropriate education.

Childhood, education and upbringing

In May 1883, Alexander III proclaimed a course called "counter-reforms" in historical-materialist literature, and "adjustment of reforms" in liberal-historical literature. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local landowning nobles. The clerks and small merchants, other poor sections of the city, lost their suffrage. Judicial reform has undergone a change. In the new regulation on the zemstvos of 1890, the representation of estates and nobility was strengthened. In 1882-1884. many publications were closed, the autonomy of universities was abolished. primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

In these events, the idea of ​​“official nationality” from the time of Nicholas I was manifested - the slogan “Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility” was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. The new official ideologists K. P. Pobedonostsev (chief prosecutor of the Synod), M. N. Katkov (editor of Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the Grazhdanin newspaper) were omitted from the old formula "Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people" the word "people" as "dangerous"; they preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the nobility traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were supported by the economic support of the landowners.

On October 20, 1894, in the Crimea, 49-year-old Alexander III died suddenly from acute inflammation of the kidneys. Nicholas II ascended the imperial throne.

In January 1895, at the first meeting of representatives of the nobility, the tops of the zemstvos, cities and Cossack troops with the new tsar, Nicholas II declared his readiness to “guard the beginnings of autocracy as firmly and steadily as his father guarded”. During these years, representatives of the royal family often intervened in government, which by the beginning of the 20th century had up to 60 members. Most of the Grand Dukes held important administrative and military posts. The uncles of the tsar, the brothers of Alexander III, the Grand Dukes Vladimir, Alexei, Sergei and great uncles Nikolai Nikolaevich, Alexander Mikhailovich.

Domestic politics

His departure was a real escape. On the day he was due to leave, four imperial trains stood ready at four different stations in St. Petersburg, and while they were waiting, the emperor left with a train that was standing on a siding.

Nothing, even the need for a coronation, could force the tsar to leave the Gatchina palace - for two years he ruled uncrowned. Fear of the "People's Will" and hesitation in choosing a political course determined this time for the emperor.

Economic poverty was accompanied by a delay in the mental and legal development of the mass of the population, education under Alexander III was again taken into blinders, from which it escaped after the abolition of serfdom. Alexander III expressed the attitude of tsarism towards enlightenment in a note on a report that in Tobolsk province literacy is very low: “And thank God!”

In the 1980s and 1990s, Alexander III encouraged unprecedented persecution of Jews. They were evicted to the Pale of Settlement (only 20,000 Jews were evicted from Moscow), a percentage rate was set for them in secondary, and then in higher educational institutions(in the Pale of Settlement - 10%, outside the Pale - 5%, in the capitals - 3%).

new period in the history of Russia, which began with the reforms of the 1860s, ended by the end of the 19th century with counter-reforms. For thirteen years, Alexander III, in the words of G. V. Plekhanov, "sowed the wind." His successor - Nicholas II - fell to the lot to reap the storm.

For thirteen years Alexander III sowed the wind. Nicholas II will have to prevent the storm broke. Will he succeed?

Professor S. S. Oldenburg in his scientific work on the history of the reign of Emperor Nicholas II, referring to the domestic policy of his father, testified that during the reign of Emperor Alexander III, among others, the following main tendency of power manifested itself: the desire to give Russia more internal unity by asserting the primacy of the Russian elements of the country.

Foreign policy

The reign of Emperor Alexander III foreign policy brought major changes. Proximity with Germany and Prussia, so characteristic of the periods of the reign of Catherine the Great, Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II, was replaced by a noticeable cooling, especially after the resignation of Bismarck, with whom Alexander III signed a special three-year Russian-German treaty on "benevolent neutrality" in in the event of an attack by any of the third countries on Russia or Germany.

N. K. Girs became the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Experienced diplomats of the Gorchakov school remained at the head of many departments of the ministry and in the Russian embassies of the leading countries of the world. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander III were as follows.

1. Strengthening influence in the Balkans;
2. Search for reliable allies;
3. Maintaining peaceful relations with all countries;
4. Establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia;
5. Consolidation of Russia in the new territories of the Far East.

Russian policy in the Balkans. After the Berlin Congress, Austria-Hungary significantly strengthened its influence in the Balkans. Having occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, she began to seek to extend her influence to other Balkan countries. Germany supported Austria-Hungary in its aspirations. Austria-Hungary began to try to weaken Russia's influence in the Balkans. Bulgaria became the center of the struggle between Austria-Hungary and Russia.

By this time, an uprising broke out in Eastern Rumelia (Southern Bulgaria as part of Turkey) against Turkish rule. Turkish officials were expelled from Eastern Rumelia. The accession of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria was announced.

The unification of Bulgaria caused an acute Balkan crisis. The war between Bulgaria and Turkey, with the involvement of Russia and other countries in it, could break out at any moment. Alexander III was angry. The unification of Bulgaria took place without the knowledge of Russia, this led to the complication of Russia's relations with Turkey and Austria-Hungary. Russia suffered the heaviest human losses in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. and was not ready for a new war. And Alexander III for the first time retreated from the traditions of solidarity with the Balkan peoples: he advocated strict observance of the articles of the Berlin Treaty. Alexander III invited Bulgaria to solve its own foreign policy problems, recalled Russian officers and generals, and did not interfere in Bulgarian-Turkish affairs. Nevertheless, the Russian ambassador to Turkey announced to the Sultan that Russia would not allow a Turkish invasion of Eastern Rumelia.

In the Balkans, Russia has turned from an opponent of Turkey into its de facto ally. Russia's positions were undermined in Bulgaria, as well as in Serbia and Romania. In 1886 diplomatic relations between Russia and Bulgaria were severed. In the city, Ferdinand I, Prince of Coburg, who had previously been an officer in the Austrian service, became the new Bulgarian prince. The new Bulgarian prince understood that he was the ruler of an Orthodox country. He tried to reckon with the deep Russophile sentiments of the broad masses of the people, and even in 1894 he elected the Russian Tsar Nicholas II as godfather to his heir, son Boris. But the former officer of the Austrian army was never able to overcome in relation to Russia "a feeling of insurmountable antipathy and a certain fear." Russia's relations with Bulgaria remained strained.

Looking for allies. At the same time, in the 1980s complicated relations between Russia and England. The clash of interests of the two European states takes place in the Balkans, Turkey, and Central Asia. At the same time, relations between Germany and France are becoming more complicated. Both states were on the brink of war with each other. In this situation, both Germany and France began to seek an alliance with Russia in case of war with each other. In the city, German Chancellor O. Bismarck proposed to Russia and Austria-Hungary to renew the "Union of Three Emperors" for six years. The essence of this alliance was that the three states pledged to comply with the decisions Berlin Congress not to change the situation in the Balkans without the consent of each other and to maintain neutrality towards each other in case of war. It should be noted that the effectiveness of this union for Russia was insignificant. At the same time, O. Bismarck, secretly from Russia, concluded the Tripartite Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) against Russia and France, which provided for the provision of military assistance by the participating countries to each other in case of hostilities with Russia or France. The conclusion of the Triple Alliance did not remain a secret for Alexander III. The Russian Tsar began to look for other allies.

Far Eastern direction. IN late XIX V. Japan expanded rapidly in the Far East. Japan before the 60s 19th century was a feudal country, but in - gg. happened there bourgeois revolution and the Japanese economy began to develop dynamically. With the help of Germany, Japan created a modern army, with the help of England and the United States, it actively built its fleet. At the same time, Japan pursued an aggressive policy in the Far East.

Private life

The main seat of the emperor (because of the threat of terrorism) was Gatchina. For a long time he lived in Peterhof and Tsarskoe Selo, and when he came to St. Petersburg, he stayed at the Anichkov Palace. He did not like winter.

Court etiquette and ceremonial became much simpler under Alexander. He greatly reduced the staff of the Ministry of the Court, reduced the number of servants and introduced strict control over the spending of money. Expensive foreign wines have been replaced by Crimean and Caucasian ones, and the number of points is limited to four per year.

At the same time, huge sums of money were spent on the acquisition of art objects. The emperor was a passionate collector, second only to Catherine II in this respect. Gatchina Castle literally turned into a storehouse of priceless treasures. Acquisitions of Alexander - paintings, art objects, carpets and the like - no longer fit in the galleries of the Winter Palace, Anichkov and other palaces. However, in this passion, the emperor did not show either fine taste or great understanding. Among his acquisitions there were many ordinary things, but there were also many masterpieces, which later became the true national treasure of Russia.

Unlike all his predecessors on the Russian throne, Alexander adhered to strict family morality. He was an exemplary family man - a loving husband and a good father, never had mistresses or connections on the side. At the same time, he was also one of the most pious Russian sovereigns. The simple and direct soul of Alexander knew neither religious doubts, nor religious pretense, nor the temptations of mysticism. He firmly adhered to the Orthodox canons, always stood up to the end of the service, prayed earnestly and enjoyed church singing. The sovereign willingly donated to monasteries, to the construction of new churches and the restoration of ancient ones. Under him, church life noticeably revived.

Alexander's hobbies were also simple and artless. He was passionate about hunting and fishing. Often in summer royal family went to the Finnish skerries. Here, among the picturesque semi-wild nature, in the labyrinths of numerous islands and canals, freed from palace etiquette, the august family felt ordinary and happy family devoting most of the time to long walks, fishing and boating. The Emperor's favorite hunting ground was Belovezhskaya Pushcha. Sometimes the imperial family, instead of relaxing in skerries, went to Poland to the Principality of Loviche, and there they enthusiastically indulged in hunting amusements, especially deer hunting, and most often ended their vacation with a trip to Denmark, to Bernstorf Castle - Dagmara's family castle, where they often gathered from all over Europe her crowned relatives.

During summer holiday ministers could distract the emperor only in cases of emergency. True, during the rest of the year, Alexander devoted himself entirely to business. He was a very hardworking sovereign. Every morning I got up at 7 o'clock, washed my face cold water, made himself a cup of coffee and sat down at the desk. Often the working day ended late at night.

Death

Train wreck with the royal family

And yet, despite the relatively healthy lifestyle life, Alexander died quite young, before reaching the age of 50, quite unexpectedly for both relatives and subjects. In October royal train, coming from the south, crashed near the Borki station, 50 kilometers from Kharkov. Seven wagons were smashed to smithereens, there were many victims, but the royal family remained intact. At that moment they were eating pudding in the dining car. The roof of the wagon collapsed during the crash. Alexander with incredible efforts kept her on his shoulders until help arrived.

However, shortly after this incident, the emperor began to complain of back pain. Professor Trube, who examined Alexander, came to the conclusion that a terrible concussion during the fall marked the onset of kidney disease. The disease progressed steadily. The emperor increasingly felt unwell. His complexion became sallow, his appetite was gone, and his heart was not working well. In winter, he caught a cold, and in September, while hunting in Belovezhye, he felt completely bad. The Berlin professor Leiden, who urgently arrived on a call to Russia, found nephritis in the emperor - an acute inflammation of the kidneys. At his insistence, Alexander was sent to

120 years ago, on November 1, 1894, in the Crimea, in Livadia, the Russian Emperor Alexander III, the 13th tsar of the Romanov family, died at the age of 49, father.

During the 13 years of the reign of Alexander III the Peacemaker, Russia did not participate in any war, thanks to the skillful public policy and diplomacy, the Russian empire became a stronger and greater power than it was before his reign.

On the day of the death of Alexander III, Europe felt that it had lost an international arbiter who had always been guided by the idea of ​​justice.

The cause of death of Alexander III was chronic nephritis, which led to damage to the heart and blood vessels. According to experts, kidney disease arose after a railway accident that hit the royal train near the Borki station, 50 kilometers from Kharkov in the fall of 1888. During the train crash, the roof collapsed in the royal carriage, and Tsar Alexander III, saving his family, held the roof on his shoulders until help arrived.

Emperor Alexander III ascended the throne on March 14, 1881, after the assassination of his father Alexander II.

On April 29, 1881, the emperor signed "Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy", who called on "all faithful subjects to serve faithfully and truthfully to eradicate the vile sedition that dishonors the Russian land, - to affirm faith and morality, - to the good upbringing of children, - to exterminate untruth and theft, - to establish order and truth in the operation of all institutions ".

In 1881, a peasant bank was established for issuing loans to peasants for the purchase of land, the redemption of peasant allotments.

1882 - 1884 - the tax system was changed: the poll tax for the poorest classes has been abolished, the inheritance tax and interest-bearing papers have been abolished, and the taxation of crafts has been increased. Protection of workers: the admission to factory work of minors and night work of adolescents and women is prohibited.

1881 - 82 - a commission was established to draw up laws of criminal and civil law.
Measures have been taken to expand the advantages of the local nobility, in 1885 a noble land bank was established, giving long-term loans to noble landowners, the Ministry of Finance was entrusted with the creation land bank for all classes.

Public education. In 1884, the charter of a new university reform was adopted, which destroyed university self-government, students were not exempted from military service, military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps.
The elementary school was handed over to the clergy and established. A circular on "cook's children" has been issued restricting higher education for children from the lower strata of society.

The Emperor was an avid collector and founded the Russian Museum. A rich collection of paintings, graphics, arts and crafts, sculptures, collected by Alexander III, was transferred to the Russian Museum.

From 1881 - 1895 the share of customs duties for imported goods increased from 19% to 31%, thus, Russian producers were protected from imported goods. A course has been taken for the industrialization of Russia, for the creation of its own industry - this is not only an economic, but also a fundamental political task, which is the main direction in the system of internal patronage.

Russian state budget were replaced in 1881-87 by a grandiose excess of state revenues over expenditures. The ruble has become golden! Indirect taxes were the main source of state revenues, the objects of taxation were increased (new taxes on gasoline, kerosene, matches). In 1881, an apartment tax was introduced in Russia and taxation rates were raised - excise taxes on alcohol, tobacco and sugar were raised.

Emperor Alexander III loved Georgian, and, and knew a lot about them. During the reign of Alexander III, expensive foreign wines were forced out of the domestic market of the Russian Empire by domestic wines. Crimean winemaking has received good sales markets, high-quality wines have been presented at world wine exhibitions.

In the reign of Alexander III, the Russian Empire became a strong naval power. The Russian fleet took 3rd place in the world after England and France. 114 new warships were launched, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers, the total displacement of the Russian fleet reached 300,000 tons.

Emperor Alexander III delivered his famous phrase "Russia has only two true allies - the army and the navy." Over the past 100 years, the situation with Russia's loyal allies has not changed at all.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander III were:
1. Strengthening influence in the Balkans. As a result Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 Bulgaria was liberated in 1879 from the 500-year-old Turkish yoke.

2. Search for reliable allies. In 1881, the German Chancellor Bismarck signed the secret Austro-Russian-German Treaty "Union of the Three Emperors", which provided for the neutrality of each of the parties in the event that one of the countries was at war with the 4th side. In 1882, secretly from Russia, Bismarck concluded “ Triple Alliance"- Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy against Russia and France, which provided for the provision of military assistance to each other in case of hostilities with Russia or France. In 1887, the Russian-German "customs war": Germany did not provide Russia with a loan and increased duties on Russian bread and created advantages for the import of American grain into Germany. Russia responded by raising duties on imported German goods: iron, coal, ammonia, steel.

3. Maintain peaceful relations with all countries. Secret alliance of France and Russia. France of the 80s saw in Russia its protector from Germany and savior. A grandiose parade in honor of the first visit of Alexander III to France, a solemn reception of the Russian squadron in Toulon, and a return visit of the French squadron to Kronstadt in the summer of 1891.

4. Establishment of borders in the south of Central Asia, after the annexation of Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva Khanate. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased by 430,000 sq. km.

5. Consolidation of Russia in the new territories of the Far East. In 1891, Russia began construction of the "Great Siberian Railway" - 7 thousand km. railway line Chelyabinsk - Omsk - Irkutsk - Khabarovsk - Vladivostok.

For the maintenance of European peace, Alexander III was called the Peacemaker. During the reign of Alexander III Russia did not wage a single war, and "the Russian nation, under the just and peaceful rule of its emperor, enjoyed security, this highest good of society and an instrument of true greatness"

The autocracy created the historical identity of Russia.

Alexander III

Counter-reforms are the changes that Alexander III carried out during his reign from 1881 to 1894. They are named so because the previous emperor Alexander 2 carried out liberal reforms, which Alexander 3 considered ineffective and harmful to the country. The emperor completely limited the influence of liberalism, relying on conservative rule, maintaining peace and order in the Russian Empire. In addition, thanks to the foreign policy of Alexander 3, he was nicknamed the “peacemaker king”, since he did not wage a single war in all 13 years of his reign. Today we will talk about the counter-reforms of Alexander 3, as well as the main directions of the domestic policy of the “king-peacemaker”.

Ideology of counter-reforms and major transformations

On March 1, 1881, Alexander 2 was killed. His son Alexander 3 became emperor. The young ruler was greatly influenced by the murder of his father by a terrorist organization. This made us think about limiting the freedoms that Alexander 2 wanted to give his people, emphasizing conservative rule.

Historians distinguish two personalities who can be considered the ideologists of the policy of counter-reforms of Alexander 3:

• K. Pobedonostseva
• M. Katkova
• D. Tolstoy
• V. Meshchersky

Below is a description of all the changes that took place in Russia during the reign of Alexander 3.

Changes in the peasant sphere

Alexander 3 considered the agrarian question to be one of the main problems of Russia. Despite the abolition of serfdom, there were several problems in this area:

1. The large size of the payoff payments, which undermined economic development peasantry.
2. The presence of a poll tax, which, although it brought profit to the treasury, did not stimulate the development of peasant farms.
3. Weakness of the peasant community. It was in it that Alexander 3 saw the basis for the development of the countryside in Russia.

N. Bunge became the new Minister of Finance. It was he who was entrusted with the decision peasant question". On December 28, 1881, a law was passed that approved the abolition of the position of "temporarily liable" for former serfs. Also in this law, redemption payments were reduced by one ruble, which at that time was the average amount. Already in 1882, the government allocated another 5 million rubles to reduce payments in certain regions of Russia.

In the same 1882, Alexander 3 approved another important change: the poll tax was significantly reduced and limited. Part of the nobility opposed this, since this tax gave annually to the treasury about 40 million rubles, but at the same time it limited the freedom of movement of the peasantry, as well as their free choice of occupation.

In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established to support the small landed peasantry. Here, peasants could get a loan to buy land at a minimum percentage. Thus began the counter-reforms of Alexander III.

In 1893, a law was passed restricting the peasants' right to leave the community. To redistribute communal land, 2/3 of the community had to vote for the redistribution. In addition, after the redistribution, the next exit could be made only after 12 years.

labor legislation

The Emperor also initiated the first legislation in Russia for the working class, which by this time was rapidly growing. Historians identify the following changes that affected the proletariat:

• On June 1, 1882, a law was passed that prohibited the labor of children under 12 years of age. Also, this law introduced an 8-hour restriction on the work of 12-15 year old children.
• Later, an additional law was passed, which prohibited the night work of women and minors.
• Limiting the size of the fine that the entrepreneur could "pull" from the worker. In addition, all fines went to a special state fund.
• The introduction of a pay book, in which it was necessary to enter all the conditions for hiring a worker.
• The adoption of a law that increases the responsibility of the worker for participating in strikes.
• Creation of a factory inspectorate to check the implementation of labor laws.

Russia became one of the first camps where the control over the working conditions of the proletariat took place.

The fight against "sedition"

To prevent the spread of terrorist organizations and revolutionary ideas, on August 14, 1881, the law "On measures to limit state order and public peace" was adopted. These were important counter-reforms of Alexander 3, who was the biggest threat to Russia precisely in terrorism. According to the new order, the Minister of the Interior, as well as the Governors General, had the right to declare a "state of exception" in certain areas for increased use of the police or the army. Also, governors-general received the right to close any private institutions that were suspected of collaborating with illegal organizations.

The state significantly increased the amount of funds that were allocated to secret agents, the number of which increased significantly. In addition, a special police department, the Okhrana, was opened to deal with political cases.

Publishing policy

In 1882, a special board was set up to control publishing houses, consisting of four ministers. However, Pobedonostsev played the main role in it. In the period between 1883 and 1885, 9 publications were closed, among them the very popular "Notes of the Fatherland" by Saltykov-Shchedrin.

In 1884, a “cleansing” of the libraries was also carried out. A list of 133 books was compiled that were forbidden to be kept in libraries Russian Empire. In addition, censorship of newly published books increased.

Changes in education

Universities have always been a place for the dissemination of new ideas, including revolutionary ones. In 1884, Minister of Education Delyanov approved a new university charter. According to this document, the universities lost their right to autonomy: the leadership was appointed entirely from the ministry, and not chosen by the university staff. Thus, the Ministry of Education not only increased control over curricula and programs, but also received full oversight of the extracurricular activities of universities.

In addition, the rectors of the university lost the right to protect and patronize their students. So, even in the years of Alexander 2, each rector, in the event of a student being detained by the police, could intercede for him, taking him under his guardianship. Now it was forbidden.

Secondary education and its reform

The most controversial counter-reforms of Alexander III concerned secondary education. On June 5, 1887, a law was passed, which the people called "on the cook's children." Its main goal is to make it difficult for children from peasant families to enter the gymnasium. In order to peasant child could continue studying at the gymnasium, someone from the “noble” class had to vouch for him. Tuition fees also increased significantly.

Pobedonostsev argued that the children of peasants do not need to have higher education, ordinary parochial schools will be enough for them. Thus, the actions of Alexander 3 in the field of primary and secondary education crossed out the plans of a part of the enlightened population of the empire to increase the number of literate people, whose number in Russia was catastrophically small.

Zemstvo counter-reform

In 1864, Alexander 2 signed a decree on the creation of local governments - zemstvos. They were created at three levels: provincial, district and hair. Alexander 3 considered these institutions a potential place for the dissemination of revolutionary ideas, but did not consider them a useless place. That is why he did not eliminate them. Instead, on July 12, 1889, a decree was signed approving the position of zemstvo chief. This position could only be held by representatives of the nobility. In addition, they had very broad powers: from holding a trial to decrees on organizing arrests in the area.

In 1890, another law of counter-reforms in Russia at the end of the 19th century was issued, which concerned zemstvos. Changes were made to the electoral system in the zemstvos: now only nobles could be elected from landowners, their number increased, the city curia was significantly reduced, and peasant seats were checked and approved by the governor.

National and religious politics

At the heart of religious and national policy Alexander 3 lay the principles that were proclaimed back in the years of Nicholas 1 by the Minister of Education Uvarov: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality. The emperor paid great attention to the creation of the Russian nation. For this, a rapid and large-scale Russification of the outskirts of the empire was organized. In this direction, he did not differ much from his father, who also Russified the education and culture of the non-Russian ethnic groups of the empire.

The Orthodox Church became the backbone of the autocracy. The emperor declared a fight against sectarianism. In gymnasiums, the number of hours for subjects of the "religious" cycle increased. Also, Buddhists (and these are Buryats and Kalmyks) were forbidden to build temples. Jews were forbidden to settle in major cities even beyond the "Pale of Settlement". In addition, Catholic Poles were denied access to managerial positions in the Kingdom of Poland and the Western Territory.

What preceded the reforms

A few days after the death of Alexander 2, Loris-Melikov, one of the main ideologists of liberalism, the Minister of Internal Affairs under Alexander 2, was dismissed, and with him the Minister of Finance A. Abaza, as well as the famous Minister of War D. Milyutin . N. Ignatiev, a well-known supporter of the Slavophiles, was appointed the new Minister of the Interior. On April 29, 1881, Pobedonostsev drew up a manifesto called “On the Inviolability of Autocracy,” which justified the alienation of liberalism for Russia. This document is one of the main ones in determining the ideology of the counter-reforms of Alexander 3. In addition, the emperor refused to accept the Constitution, which was developed by Loris-Melikov.

As for M. Katkov, he was the editor-in-chief of Moskovskie Vedomosti and, in general, one of the most influential journalists in the country. He provided support for the counter-reforms in the pages of his publication, as well as other newspapers throughout the empire.

The appointment of new ministers showed that Alexander 3 was not going to completely stop his father's reforms, he simply expected to turn them in the right direction for Russia, removing "elements alien to her."