Illness and death At four o'clock, my father called me and asked me to cover him, saying that he was shivering. - Tuck your back in better, your back will be very cold. We were not very alarmed, because it was cool in the car, everyone was chilly and wrapped in warm clothes. We covered our father with a jacket, a blanket,

Illness and death Although the ancient Slavs were a healthy people, nevertheless their life was not so comfortable that death came to them only in battle or in extreme old age. It can be assumed in advance that the climate and environment in which the Slavs lived determined

The initial period of the reign of Alexander III. After the death of Alexander II, his second son Alexander III (1881-1894) came to the throne. A man of rather ordinary abilities, conservative views, he did not approve of many of his father's reforms and did not see the need for serious changes (primarily in solving the key issue - providing the peasants with land, which could significantly strengthen the social support of the autocracy). At the same time, Alexander III was not devoid of natural common sense and, unlike his father, had a stronger will.
Shortly after the assassination of Alexander II, which sowed panic in high circles, the leaders of Narodnaya Volya were arrested. April 3, 1881 involved in the assassination attempt on the late Emperor SL. Perovskaya, A. I. Zhelyabov, N. I. Kibalchich, N. I. Rysakov and T. M. Mikhailov were hanged, and G. M. Gelfman soon died in prison.
On March 8 and 21, meetings of the Council of Ministers were held, at which the Loris-Melikov project was discussed. Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod, former educator of Alexander III and a prominent conservative K. P. Pobedonostsev sharply opposed the project, considering it a prototype of the constitution. And although the watchmen of the project were in the majority, Alexander III postponed its consideration, after which they did not return to it.
April 29, 1881 published the royal manifesto, written by Pobedonostsev. It spoke about the protection of the autocracy from any "encroachments", that is, from constitutional changes. Seeing in the manifesto allusions to the rejection of reforms in general, liberal ministers - D.A. Milyutin, M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Abaza (Minister of Finance) resigned. Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich was removed from the leadership of the fleet.
V.K. Plehve became the director of the Police Department, which replaced the III Section, and in 1884 - I.P. Durnovo. Lieutenant-colonel G.P. .Degaev, almost completely defeated the "People's Will". True, in December 1883 he himself was killed by Degaev. who considered his cooperation with the police unprofitable, but this, of course, could not save the revolutionary movement.
In parallel with the police in March, the Holy Squad, which arose in March 1881, fought against the revolutionaries, which included more than 700 officials, generals, bankers, including P. A. Shuvalov, S. Yu. Witte, B. V. Stürmer S With the help of its own agents, this voluntary organization tried to undermine the revolutionary movement. But already at the end of 1881, Alexander III ordered the dissolution of the "Holy Squad", the existence of which indirectly spoke of the inability of the authorities to cope with the "sedition" on their own.
In August 1881, in accordance with the "Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace", the Minister of the Interior and the provincial authorities received the right to arrest, expel and bring to trial suspicious persons, close educational institutions and enterprises, a ban on the publication of newspapers, etc. Any locality could be declared in de facto state of emergency. Introduced for 3 years, the “Regulations” were extended more than once and were valid until 1917.
But the authorities did not limit themselves to repressions, trying to carry out certain positive changes. The first government of Alexander III included several liberal ministers, primarily the Minister of the Interior N. P. Ignatiev and Finance N. Kh. Bunge. Their activities are associated with such measures as the abolition in 1881 of the temporarily obligated position of the peasants, the reduction of redemption payments, the gradual abolition of the heavy poll tax. In November 1881, a commission headed by Loris-Melikov's former deputy M.S. Kakhanov began work on a project for the reform of local government. However, in 1885 the commission was dissolved, and its activities had no real results.
In April 1882, Ignatiev proposed to Alexander III that in May 1883 the Zemsky Sobor should be convened, which was supposed to confirm the inviolability of the autocracy. This caused sharp criticism of Pobedonostsev, and the tsar, who did not want any elected representation, was also dissatisfied. In addition, the autocracy, in his opinion, needed no confirmation. As a result, in May 1882, N. P. Ignatiev was replaced as Minister of the Interior by the conservative D. A. Tolstoy.
The period of counter-reforms. The resignation of Ignatiev and his replacement by Tolstoy marked a departure from the policy of moderate reforms carried out in 1881-1882, and a transition to the offensive against the transformations of the previous reign. True, it was only about the “correction” of the “extremes” admitted under Alexander II, which, according to the tsar and his entourage, were “alien” in Russian environment. The corresponding measures were called counter-reforms.
In May 1883, during the coronation celebrations, Alexander III delivered a speech to representatives of peasant self-government - volost foremen, in which he urged them to follow "the advice and guidance of their leaders of the nobility" and not rely on "gratuitous additions" to the peasants' allotments. This meant that the government intended to continue to rely on the "noble" estate, which had no historical perspective, and did not want to solve the country's most important problem - land.
The first serious counter-reform was the university charter of 1884, which sharply limited the autonomy of universities and raised tuition fees.
In July 1889, the implementation of the Zemstvo counter-reform began. Contrary to the opinion of the majority of members of the State Council, the position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced, designed to replace mediators and justices of the peace. They were appointed by the Minister of the Interior from among hereditary nobles and could approve and dismiss representatives of peasant self-government, impose punishments, including corporal punishment, resolve land disputes, etc. All this created great opportunities for arbitrariness, strengthened the power of the nobles over the peasants and in no way did not improve the work of zemstvo bodies.
In June 1890, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were adopted. It introduced the estate principle of elections to zemstvos. The first curia was noble, the second - urban, the third - peasant. For the nobles, the property qualification was lowered, for the representatives of the cities it was increased. As for the representatives from the peasants, they were appointed by the governor from among the candidates elected by the peasants. However, once again encountering the opposition of the majority of the State Council, Alexander III refrained from completely abolishing the electivity and all-estate zemstvo bodies.
In 1892, a new city regulation was adopted, according to which the electoral qualification was raised, and the mayor and members of the city council became civil servants subordinate to the governors.
For several years, counter-reforms in the field of the court were stretched. In 1887, the ministers of internal affairs and justice received the right to declare court sessions closed, and the property and educational qualifications for jurors increased. In 1889, cases of crimes against the order of government, malfeasance, etc. were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury. .V.Muravyov on a complete revision of the judicial charters in 1864 was prevented by the death of Alexander III.
Tightened censorship policy. According to the "Provisional Rules on the Press", adopted in August 1882, the Ministries of the Interior, Education and the Synod could close "seditious" newspapers and magazines. Publications that received a warning from the authorities underwent preliminary censorship. Special circulars forbade the coverage in the press of such topics as the labor issue, the redistribution of land, the problems of educational institutions, the 25th anniversary of the abolition of serfdom, and the actions of the authorities. Under Alexander III, the liberal newspapers Strana, Golos, Moscow Telegraph, and the Otechestvennye Zapiski magazine, edited by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, were closed, 15 editions in total. The non-periodical press was also subjected to persecution, although not as severe as newspapers and magazines. In total, in 1881-1894. 72 books were banned - from the freethinker L.N. Tolstoy to the completely conservative N.S. Leskov. “Seditious” literature was withdrawn from the libraries: works by L.N. over 1,300 plays were banned.
The policy of Russification of the outskirts of the empire and the infringement of local autonomy was actively pursued. In Finland, instead of the former financial autonomy, the obligatory acceptance of Russian coins was introduced, and the rights of the Finnish Senate were curtailed. In Poland, which was now called not the Kingdom of Poland, but the Vistula Region, compulsory teaching in Russian was introduced, and the Polish Bank was closed. The Russification policy was actively pursued in Ukraine and Belarus, where virtually no literature was published in Russian. national languages, the Uniate Church was persecuted. In the Baltics, local judicial and administrative bodies were actively replaced by general imperial ones, the population converted to Orthodoxy, German the local elite was forced out. The Russification policy was carried out in Transcaucasia as well; the Armenian church was persecuted. Orthodoxy was forcibly introduced among Muslims and pagans of the Volga region and Siberia. In 1892-1896. the Multan case, fabricated by the authorities, was investigated on charges of Udmurt peasants of sacrificing human sacrifices to pagan gods (in the end, the defendants were acquitted).
The rights of the Jewish population were limited, the residence of which the government sought to limit the so-called "Pale of Settlement". Their residence in Moscow and the Moscow province was limited. Jews were prohibited from acquiring property in countryside. In 1887, the Minister of Education, I.P. Delyanov, reduced the admission of Jews to higher and secondary educational institutions.
Social movement. After the assassination of Alexander II, the liberals sent an address condemning the terrorists to the new tsar and expressed their hope for the completion of the reforms, which, however, did not happen. Under conditions of intensified reaction, oppositional sentiments are growing among the rank-and-file employees of the zemstvos - doctors, teachers, statisticians. More than once, zemstvo officials tried to act beyond their powers, which led to clashes with the administration.
A more moderate part of the liberals preferred to refrain from manifestations of opposition. The influence of liberal populists (N. K. Mikhailovsky, N. F. Danielson, V. P. Vorontsov) grew. They called for reforms to improve the life of the people, and above all for the abolition of landlordism. At the same time, the liberal populists did not approve of the revolutionary methods of struggle and preferred cultural and educational work, acting through the press (the journal Russkoye Bogatstvo), zemstvos, and public organizations.
However, in general, government oppression (often rather senseless) stimulated discontent among the intelligentsia and contributed to its transition to radical positions.
The chief procurator of the Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev became the main ideologists of the reaction, Chief Editor"Moskovskie Vedomosti" and "Russian Bulletin" M. N. Katkov and editor of the magazine "Citizen" V. P. Meshchersky. They denounced liberal reforms, defended the narrowly understood identity of Russia, and welcomed the counter-reforms of Alexander III. “Get up, gentlemen,” Katkov wrote gloatingly about the counter-reforms. "The government is coming, the government is coming back." Meshchersky was supported, including financially, by the guy himself.
There is a crisis in the revolutionary movement connected with the defeat of the "Narodnaya Volya". True, scattered Narodnik groups continued to operate even after that. The circle of P. Ya. Shevyrev - AI Ulyanov (brother of V.I. Lenin) even prepared an attempt on Alexander III on March 1, 1887, which ended with the arrest and execution of five conspirators. Many revolutionaries abandoned their previous methods of struggle altogether, advocating an alliance with the liberals. Other revolutionaries, disillusioned with populism with its naive hopes for the peasantry, became more and more imbued with the ideas of Marxism. In September 1883, the former members of the "Black Redistribution" who lived in Switzerland - P. B. Axelrod, G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, L. G. Deutsch - created the Social Democratic group "Emancipation of Labor" , which began to publish Marxist literature in Russian and laid the theoretical foundations of Russian social democracy. Its most prominent figure was G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918). In his work "Socialism and political struggle”and“ Our Differences ”, he criticized the populists, pointed out Russia’s unpreparedness for a socialist revolution. Plekhanov considered it necessary to form a social democratic party and carry out a bourgeois-democratic revolution, which would create the economic prerequisites for the victory of socialism.
From the mid-1980s, Marxist circles also appeared in Russia itself in St. Petersburg, Odessa, Kiev, Kharkov, Kazan, Vilna, Tula, and others. Among them, the circles of D. N. Blagoev, N. E. Fedoseev, M. I. Brusnev, P.V. Tochissky. They read and distributed Marxist literature, carried on propaganda among the workers, but their significance was still small.
Working question. The situation of workers in Russia, whose number has grown markedly compared to the pre-reform period, was difficult: there were no labor protection, social insurance, restrictions on the length of the working day, but an almost uncontrolled system of fines, low-paid female and child labor, mass layoffs, and reductions in prices were widespread. All this led to labor conflicts and strikes.
In the 1980s, the government began to take measures to regulate relations between workers and employers. In 1882, the use of child labor was limited, and a factory inspectorate was created to oversee this. In 1884, education was introduced by law for children who worked in factories.
An important milestone in the development of the strike movement and labor legislation was the strike at Morozov's Nikolskaya manufactory in Orekhovo-Zuevo in January 1885. It was organized in advance, 8 thousand people participated in it, it was led by P. A. Moiseenko and V. S. Volkov . The workers demanded from the manufacturer to streamline the system of fines, the rules for dismissal, and from the government - to limit the arbitrariness of employers. More than 600 people were deported to their native villages, 33 were tried but acquitted (Moiseenko and Volkov, however, were deported after an administrative trial).
At the same time, the government satisfied part of the demands of the workers. As early as June 1885, the exploitation of women and children at night was banned, the system of fines was streamlined, the proceeds from which were now not going to the employer, but for the needs of the workers themselves, and the procedure for hiring and firing workers was regulated. The powers of the factory inspectorate were expanded, provincial presences for factory affairs were created.
A wave of strikes swept through the enterprises of the Moscow and Vladimir provinces, St. Petersburg, Donbass. These and other strikes compelled the factory owners in a number of cases to raise wages, shorten the working day, and improve the living conditions of the workers.
Foreign policy. During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage wars, which earned the tsar the fame of a “peacemaker”. This was due both to the ability to play on the contradictions between European powers and general international stability, and to the emperor's dislike for wars. The executor of the foreign policy plans of Alexander III was the Minister of Foreign Affairs N.K. Gire, who did not play an independent role, like Gorchakov.
Having ascended the throne, Alexander III continued to establish ties with Germany - the most important trading partner and potential ally in the fight against England. In June 1881 Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary renewed the "Union of Three Emperors" for 6 years. The parties promised to remain neutral in the event of a war between one of them and a fourth power. At the same time, Germany concluded a secret agreement with Austria-Hungary against Russia and France. In May 1882, Italy joined the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was promised help in the event of a war with France. Thus, the Triple Alliance was formed in the center of Europe.
The "Union of the Three Emperors" brought Russia certain benefits in its rivalry with England. In 1884, Russian troops completed the conquest of Turkmenistan and approached the borders of Afghanistan, which was under the protectorate of England; from here it was a stone's throw to the main British colony - India. In March 1885 there was a clash between a Russian detachment and Afghan troops led by British officers. The Russians have won. England, seeing this as a threat to its Indian possessions, threatened Russia with war, but could not put together an anti-Russian coalition in Europe. A role in this was played by the support of Russia from Germany and Austria-Hungary, who did not want an excessive strengthening of England. Their position helped Alexander III get Turkey to close the Black Sea straits for british navy, which protected the south of Russia from him. England had to recognize the Russian conquests in Central Asia. Already in 1885, the Russian-Afghan border began to be drawn by Russian-English commissions.
Under Alexander III, Russia's position in the Balkans weakened. In 1881, a pro-German group came to power in Bulgaria. In 1883 Bulgaria concluded an agreement with Austria-Hungary. In 1885, Alexander III opposed the annexation of Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria (in violation of the decisions of the Berlin Congress), although he threatened Turkey that he would not tolerate its invasion of Rumelia. In 1886, after the pro-Austrian regime came to power in Bulgaria, Russia tore relations with her In this conflict, Germany and Austria-Hungary did not support Russia, because they themselves wanted to strengthen their positions in the Balkans. After 1887, the "Union of the Three Emperors" was not renewed.
In the context of aggravated relations with France, Bismarck signed with Russia in 1887 a "reinsurance contract" for 3 years. The neutrality of Russia was envisaged in the event of an attack by France on Germany and the neutrality of Germany in the event of an attack on Russia by Austria-Hungary. Then, in 1887, Alexander III managed to keep Germany from attacking France, the defeat of which would unnecessarily strengthen Germany. This led to an aggravation of Russian-German relations and an increase in import duties on each other's goods by both countries. In 1893, a real customs war began between the two countries.

In the conditions of enmity with England, Germany and Austria-Hungary, Russia needed an ally. They became France, which was constantly threatened by German aggression. As early as 1887, France began to provide Russia with large loans that contributed to the stabilization of Russian finances. French investments in the Russian economy were also significant.
In August 1891, Russia and France signed a secret agreement on joint actions in the event of an attack on one of them. In 1892, a draft military convention was drawn up, providing for the number of troops on both sides in the event of war. The Russian-French alliance was finally formalized in January 1894. It seriously changed the balance of power in Europe, splitting it into two military-political groups.
Socio-economic development. Under Alexander III, measures were taken to modernize the economy, on the one hand, and to provide economic support to the nobility, on the other. Major successes in the development of the economy were largely associated with the activities of the ministers of finance - N. Kh. Bunge, IV Vyshnegradsky, S. Yu. Witte.
Industry. By the 80s of the XIX century. The Industrial Revolution ended in Russia. The government patronized the development of industry with loans and high duties on imported products. True, in 1881 an industrial crisis began, associated with economic consequences. Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878 and reducing the purchasing power of the peasantry. In 1883 the crisis gave way to a depression, in 1887 a revival began, and in 1893 a rapid growth of industry. Mechanical engineering, metallurgy, coal and oil industries continued to develop successfully. More and more foreign investors invested their money in them. In terms of coal and oil production, Russia ranked first in the world. The enterprises actively introduced the latest technologies. It should be noted that heavy industry produced less than 1/4 of the country's output, noticeably yielding to light industry, primarily textiles.
Agriculture. In this industry, the specialization of individual regions increased, the number of civilian workers increased, which indicated a transition to the bourgeois path of development. In general, grain farming continued to predominate. Yields increased slowly due to low level agricultural technology. The drop in world grain prices had a detrimental effect. In 1891 - 1892. A terrible famine broke out, claiming the lives of more than 600 thousand people. Under these conditions, the land shortage of peasants became an extremely acute problem, whose temporarily obligated state was finally terminated by the law of December 28, 1881, by which they were transferred from 1883 to ransom. Alexander III did not want to hear about the increase in peasant allotments at the expense of the landowners; True, in 1889 a law was issued that encouraged the resettlement of peasants in empty areas - the settlers received tax benefits, exemption from military service for 3 years and a small cash allowance, but permission for resettlement was given only by the Ministry of the Interior. In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established, which issued low-interest loans to peasants to buy land. The government tried to strengthen the peasant community and at the same time reduce negative traits communal land use: in 1893, the exit of peasants from the community was limited, but at the same time it was difficult to redistribute the land, which reduced the interest of the most enterprising peasants in the prudent use of their allotments. It was forbidden to mortgage and sell communal lands. An attempt to regulate and thereby reduce the number of family sections, undertaken in 1886, failed: the peasants simply ignored the law. To support the landowners' households, the Noble Bank was created in 1885, which, however, did not stop their ruin.
Transport. The intensive construction of railways continued (under Alexander III, more than 30 thousand km of them were built). The railroad network was especially active in western borders which was of strategic importance. The region of Krivoy Rog, rich in iron ore, was connected with the Donbass, the Urals - with the central regions, both capitals - with Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia, etc. In 1891, the construction of the strategically important Trans-Siberian Railway began, connecting Russia with Far East. The government began to buy out private railways, up to 60% of which were in the hands of the state by the mid-1990s. The number of steamships by 1895 exceeded 2500, more than 6 times more than in 1860.
Trade. The development of commerce stimulated the growth of the transport network. The number of shops, shops, commodity exchanges has increased. By 1895, domestic trade had grown 3.5 times compared to 1873 and reached 8.2 billion rubles.
In foreign trade, exports in the early 1990s exceeded imports by 150-200 million rubles, largely due to high import duties, especially on iron and coal. In the 80s, a customs war with Germany began, which limited the import of Russian agricultural products. In response, Russia raised duties on German goods. The first place in Russian exports was occupied by bread, followed by timber, wool, manufactured goods. Machinery, raw cotton, metal, coal, tea, and oil were imported. Russia's main trading partners were Germany and England. Holland. USA.
Finance. In 1882-1886, the heavy poll tax was abolished, which, thanks to the skillful policy of the Minister of Finance, Bunge, was generally compensated by increasing indirect taxes and customs duties. In addition, the government refused to guarantee the profitability of private railways at the expense of the treasury.
In 1887, Bunge, who was accused of being unable to overcome the budget deficit, was replaced by IV Vyshnegradsky. He sought to increase cash savings and the appreciation of the ruble. To this end, successful exchange operations were carried out, indirect taxes and import duties increased again, for which a protective customs tariff was adopted in 1891. In 1894, under S. Yu. Witte, a wine monopoly was introduced. As a result of these and other measures managed to overcome the budget deficit.
Education. The counter-reforms also affected the education sector. They were aimed at educating a trustworthy, obedient intelligentsia. In 1882, instead of the liberal A.N. Nikolai, the reactionary I.P. Delyanov became the Minister of Education. In 1884 the parochial schools came under the jurisdiction of the Synod. By 1894 their number had grown by almost 10 times; the level of teaching in them was low, the main task was considered to be education in the spirit of Orthodoxy. Still, parochial schools contributed to the spread of literacy.
The number of gymnasium students continued to grow (in the 1990s, more than 150,000 people). In 1887, Delyanov published a "circular about cook's children," which made it difficult to admit children of laundresses, cooks, lackeys, coachmen, etc. to the gymnasium. Tuition fees have increased.
In August 1884 A new university statute was adopted, essentially abolishing the autonomy of universities, which now fell under the control of the trustee of the educational district and the Minister of Education. The rector, deans and professors were henceforth appointed, and not so much scientific merit how much political credibility. A fee was introduced for attending lectures and practical classes by students.
In 1885, the form for students was reintroduced, in 1886 the term of service in the army of persons with higher education, Since 1887, a certificate of political loyalty was required for admission to universities. The government markedly reduced spending on universities, which made scientific research more difficult. Some of the free-thinking professors were fired, others left in protest themselves. Under Alexander III, only one university was opened - in Tomsk (1888). In 1882, the higher medical courses for women were closed, and in 1886, admission to all higher women's courses, the liquidation of which K.P. Pobedonostsev sought, was stopped. True, the Bestuzhev courses in St. Petersburg nevertheless resumed work, albeit in a limited number.
Culture of Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. The science. This period was marked by new important discoveries in various branches of science. I. M. Sechenov created the doctrine created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, laying the foundations of Russian physiology. Continuing research in this direction, IP Pavlov developed a theory of conditioned reflexes. I. I. Mechnikov made a number of important discoveries in the field of phagocytosis (protective functions of the body), created a school of microbiology and comparative pathology, together with N. F. Gamaleya organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, and developed methods for combating rabies. K. A. Timiryazev did a lot for the study of photosynthesis and became the founder of Russian plant physiology. V. V. Dokuchaev, with his works “Russian Chernozem” and “Our Steppes Before and Now”, gave rise to scientific soil science.
Chemistry has made great strides. A. M. Butlerov laid the foundations of organic chemistry. D. I. Mendeleev in 1869 discovered one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law chemical elements. He also owns a number of discoveries not only in chemistry, but also in physics, metrology, hydrodynamics, etc.
The most prominent mathematician and mechanic of his time was P. L. Chebyshev, who was engaged in research in the field of number theory, probability, machines, and mathematical analysis. In an effort to put the results of his research into practice, he also invented a plant-walking machine and an adding machine. S. V. Kovalevskaya, author of works on mathematical analysis, mechanics and astronomy, became the first female professor and corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. AM Lyapunov gained worldwide fame for his research in the field of differential equations.
A significant contribution to the development of science was made by Russian physicists. A. G. Stoletov conducted a number of important studies in the field of electricity, magnetism, gas discharge, discovered the first law of the photoelectric effect. In 1872, A. N. Lodygin invented a carbon incandescent lamp, and P. Ya. Yablochkov in 1876 patented an arc lamp without a regulator (Yablochkov's candle), which since 1876 has been used for street lighting.
In 1881, A.F. Mozhaisky designed the world's first aircraft, the tests of which, however, were unsuccessful. In 1888, self-taught mechanic F.A. Blinov invented a caterpillar tractor. In 1895, A. S. Popov demonstrated the world's first radio receiver, which he invented, and soon achieved a transmission and reception range already at a distance of 150 km. The founder of cosmonautics K. E. Tsiolkovsky, who designed the simplest wind tunnel and developed the principles of the theory of rocket propulsion, began his research.
2nd half of the 19th century was marked by new discoveries of Russian travelers - N. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky, N. A. Severtsov, A. P. and O. A. Fedchenko in Central Asia, P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shan- in the Tien Shan, Ya. Ya. Miklukho-Maclay in New Guinea. The result of the expeditions of the founder of Russian climatology A. I. Voeikov in Europe, America and India was the capital work "Climates of the Globe".
Philosophical thought. During this period, philosophical thought reaches its peak. The ideas of positivism (G.N. Vyrubov, M.M. Troitsky), Marxism (G.V. Plekhanov), religious philosophy (V.S. Solovyov, N.F. Fedorov), later Slavophilism (N.Ya. Danilevsky, K.N. Leontiev). N.F. Fedorov put forward the concept of mastering the forces of nature, overcoming death and resurrection with the help of science. The founder of the "philosophy of unity" V. S. Solovyov nurtured the idea of ​​merging Orthodoxy and Catholicism and developed the doctrine of Sophia - the all-encompassing divine wisdom that governs the world. N. Ya. Danshkevsky put forward the theory of cultural-historical types that develop like biological ones; he considered the Slavic type to be gaining strength and therefore the most promising. K. Ya. Leontiev saw the main danger in Western-style liberalism, which, in his opinion, leads to the averaging of individuals, and believed that only autocracy could prevent this averaging.
Reaching a new level historical science. In 1851-. 1879 29 volumes of “History of Russia from Ancient Times” by the outstanding Russian historian S. M. Solovyov are published, which set out the history of Russia until 1775. Although the author did not yet know many sources, and a number of the provisions put forward by him were not confirmed, his work still retains its scientific value. Solovyov’s Peru also owns studies on the divisions of Poland, on Alexander I, interprincely relations, etc. Solovyov’s student was V. O. Klyuchevsky, the author of the works The Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus', The Origin of Serfdom in Russia, historical source", etc. His main work was the "Course of Russian History". An important contribution to the study of the history of the Russian community, church, Zemsky Sobors introduced by A.P. Shchapov. Research on the era of Peter I and the history of Russian culture brought fame to P. Ya. Milyukov. The history of Western Europe was studied by such prominent scientists as V. I. Guerrier, M. M. Kovalevsky, P. G. Vinogradov, N. I. Kareev. Prominent scholars of antiquity were M. S. Kutorga, F. F. Sokolov, F. G. Mishchenko. Research on the history of Byzantium was carried out by V. G. Vasilevsky, F. I. Uspensky, and Yu. A. Kulakovsky.
Literature. In the 1960s, critical realism became the leading trend in literature, combining a realistic depiction of reality with an interest in the individual. In comparison with the previous period, prose takes the first place. Its brilliant examples were the works of I.S. Turgenev “Rudin”, “Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve”, “Noble Nest” and others, in which he showed the life of representatives of the noble society and the emerging raznochintsy intelligentsia. A subtle knowledge of life and the Russian national character was distinguished by the works of I. A. Goncharov "Oblomov", "Cliff", "Ordinary History". F. M. Dostoevsky, who joined the Petrashevists in the 1940s, later revised his views and saw the solution to the problems facing Russia not in reforms or revolution, but in the moral improvement of man (the novels The Brothers Karamazov, Crime and Punishment ”, “Demons”, “Idiot”, etc.). L. Ya. Tolstoy, the author of the novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, etc., rethought Christian teaching in a peculiar way, developed the idea of ​​the superiority of feelings over reason, combining harsh (and not always constructive) criticism of the Russian society of that time with the idea of ​​non-resistance to evil by violence. A. N. Ostrovsky depicted in his plays “Dowry”, “Thunderstorm”, “Forest”, “Guilty Without Guilt”, and others, the life of merchants, officials, artists, showing interest in both purely social and eternal human issues. The outstanding satirist M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in "The History of a City", "Gentlemen of the Golovlevs", "Tales" highlighted the tragic aspects of Russian reality. A.P. Chekhov paid special attention in his work to the problem of the “little man”, suffering from the indifference and cruelty of those around him. The works of V. G. Korolenko - "The Blind Musician", "Children of the Underground", "The Dream of Makar" are imbued with humanistic ideas.
The philosophical tradition in Russian poetry was continued by F. I. Tyutchev in his writings. A. A. Fet devoted his work to the chanting of nature. Extremely popular among the democratic intelligentsia was the poetry of N. A. Nekrasov, dedicated to the life of the common people.
Theater. The leading theater of the country was the Maly Theater in Moscow, on the stage of which P. M. Sadovsky, S. V. Shumsky, G. N. Fedotova, M. N. Ermolova played. An important center of culture was the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg, where V. V. Samoilov, M. G. Savina, P. A. Strepetova played, however, being in the capital, he suffered more from interference from the authorities. Theaters arise and develop in Kyiv, Odessa, Kazan, Irkutsk, Saratov, etc.
Music. The national traditions in Russian music laid down by Glinka were continued by his student A. S. Dargomyzhsky and the composers of the Mighty Handful (named so by V. V. Stasov; Borodin, N. A. Rimsky-Koreakov, Ts. A. Cui. One of the most prominent composers of this period was P. I. Tchaikovsky, author of the operas Eugene Onegin, Mazepa, Iolanthe, The Queen of Spades. , ballets "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty", "The Nutcracker". A conservatory was opened in St. Petersburg in 1862, in Moscow in 1866. Ballet masters M. Petipa and L. I. Ivanov played a huge role in the development of ballet.
Painting. In the painting of the post-reform period, characteristic democratic ideas penetrate, as evidenced by the activities of the Wanderers. In 1863, 14 students of the Academy of Arts refused a mandatory competition on the theme of Germanic mythology, far from modern life, left the Academy and created the Artel of St. Petersburg Artists, "in 1870 transformed into the "Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions" It included portrait painter I. N. Kramskoy, masters of genre painting V. G. Perov and Ya. A. Yaroshenko, landscape painters I. I. Shishkin and I. I. Levitan V. M. Vasnetsov turned to the theme of the Russian fairy tale in his canvases (“Alyonushka”, “Ivan Tsarevich on the Gray Wolf”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”), devoted his creativity of V. I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyar Morozova”, “Menshikov in Berezov”). I. E. Repin wrote as modern (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “Religious Procession in Kursk province”, “They didn’t wait”), and on historical topics (“Cossacks composing a letter to the Turkish Sultan”, “Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan”). VV Vereshchagin ("The Apotheosis of War", "Mortally Wounded" "Surrender!") was the largest battle-player of that time. The creation of the Tretyakov Gallery, which exhibited a collection of paintings by the merchant-philanthropist P. M. Tretyakov, donated by him in 1892 as a gift to the city of Moscow, played an important role in popularizing Russian art. In 1898, the Russian Museum was opened in St. Petersburg.
Sculpture. Prominent sculptors of that time were A. M. Opekushin (monuments to A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, K. M. Baer), M. A. Antokolsky (“Ivan the Terrible”, “Peter I”, “Christ before people"), M. O. Mikeshin (monuments to Catherine II, Bogdan Khmelnitsky, management of work on the monument "Millennium of Russia").
Architecture. The so-called Russian style is being formed, imitating the decor of ancient Russian architecture. In this manner, the buildings of the City Duma in Moscow were built (D.N. Chichagov), Historical Museum in Moscow (V. O. Sherwood), Upper shopping malls (now GUM) (A. N. Pomerantsev). Residential buildings in major cities built in the Renaissance-Baroque style with its characteristic richness of forms and finishes.

Alexander III (1845-1894), Russian emperor (since 1881).

Born March 10, 1845 in Tsarskoye Selo. The second son of Emperor Alexander II. After the death of his elder brother Nicholas (1865) he became the heir.

In 1866, Alexander married the bride of his deceased brother, the daughter of the Danish king Christian IX, Princess Sophia Frederica Dagmar (Maria Feodorovna in Orthodoxy).

He ascended the throne on March 13, 1881 in a difficult political and economic situation: the terrorist activities of the Narodnaya Volya reached its climax, the war with Turkey completely upset the finances and the monetary system Russian Empire. The assassination of Alexander II restored the new emperor against the liberals, whom he considered responsible for the death of his father.

Alexander III canceled the draft constitutional reform, his manifesto of May 11, 1881 expressed the program of domestic and foreign policy: maintaining order and spirit of church piety in the country, strengthening power, protecting national interests. Censorship was strengthened, university autonomy was abolished, and it was forbidden to admit children of the lower class in the gymnasium.

The result of the activities of Alexander III was the conservation of the existing system.

Government policy contributed to the further development of trade, industry, and the elimination of the budget deficit, which made it possible to switch to gold circulation and created the prerequisites for a powerful economic upsurge in the second half of the 1990s. 19th century

In 1882, the government established the Peasant Land Bank, which issued loans to peasants to purchase land, which contributed to the creation of private land ownership among the peasants.

On March 13, 1887, the Narodnaya Volya made an attempt on the life of the emperor. A week later, on March 20, the participants in the failed assassination attempt were hanged.

The thirteen-year reign of Alexander III passed peacefully, without major military clashes, for which he was called the peacemaker king.