Introduction to experimental psychology.
How to start psychological research.
Literature - - Ch. 2:54-65, ch. 10, - Ch. 1.6, - ch.4
Experiment
In any experiment, there is an object of study (behavior, phenomenon, property, etc.), in addition, in an experiment, usually
something changes
potential sources of influence are constant
any behavior is measured
Under variable in psychology, they understand any quantity, property or parameter that interests us. This can be either a quantitatively measurable value (such as height, weight, reaction time, sensation thresholds, etc.) or quantities that allow only a qualitative description (for example, gender, race, mood, character, etc.)
independent research dependent
variable variable
control variables
Independent variable is a variable changed by the experimenter; includes two or more states (conditions) or levels.
Dependent variable- a variable that changes under the action of an independent variable, taking on different values that are measured.
Control variable is a variable that is kept constant.
The researcher changes the independent variable so that the effects (influence) of different values or levels of the independent variable can be determined from changes in the dependent variable.
At the same time, the main difficulty for us is to ensure the constancy of the control variables. If in the course of the experiment, along with the independent variable we have identified, some other variable also changes, which can also have an effect on the dependent variable, then we say that there is mixing effect.
Mixing due to the fact that the action of the independent variable is accompanied by a number of other variables that can systematically differ when different conditions are presented to the independent variable, and thus have a favorable (or unfavorable) effect on the action of one of them.
The confusion is caused by the fact that when designing the experiment, we did not take into account any variable or did not check whether it is really included in the control variables and, thereby, made it an independent variable.
research project
includes the following steps
| search for an idea | Sources of ideas · observations · experts · magazines, books, textbooks, etc. |
| formulation of the hypothesis to be tested | A testable hypothesis is a statement about an assumed or theoretical relationship between two or more variables. The hypothesis being tested either states explicitly or implies implicitly that the variables measurable. |
| analysis of relevant literature | The literature review serves not to reinvent the wheel, i.e., to determine what is already known about your hypothesis. Literature review helps to develop a reasonable research plan, select the appropriate material and incentives. . |
| development of the experimental scheme | |
| conducting pretests (pilot studies) | The preliminary tests use a small number of subjects. This is done to check whether there are errors in the design and procedure of the experiment whether the subjects understand the instructions how long the experiment will take whether the tasks are too difficult or easy. At the same time, we will train ourselves in practice to observe and measure the behavior of interest to us. |
| data collection | |
| statistical data analysis | Typically, the logic of hypothesis testing is as follows: the experimenter selects conditions (experimental and control) to test his hypothesis, assuming that the experimental conditions will cause some effect compared to the control conditions. This hypothesis is tested against null hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no relationship between the selected variables. An experiment is considered successful when it succeeds in rejecting the null hypothesis, i.e. show that it is false, and, therefore, the initial hypothesis about the presence of a connection is true. |
| data interpretation | Getting the data is not enough - you still need to interpret it. It's just that data has no value in and of itself, it must be correlated with a theory that explains behavior. |
| report |
Measurements in psychology
Literature - - Ch. 6 + see almost any psychology dictionary +
+ Sidorenko E.V. Methods of mathematical processing in psychology. St. Petersburg, 1996.
MEASURING SCALE
Strict definition scale is quite difficult.
It is easier to say that a scale is a rule by which we put names (numbers) in accordance with objects or properties of objects.
Measuring scale types
Usually there are 4 types of measuring scales (Druzhinin, 1997, Elmes et al, 1992, Stevens, 1951):
naming scale (nominal scale, nominal scale)
order scale (ordinal scale, ordinal scale)
interval scale (interval scale, interval scale)
scale of equal ratios (ratio scale)
Scale types are defined by the properties they possess. Scale types are listed below with increasing information content. Each subsequent scale has the properties of the previous scale and additional ones. This means, in particular, that the statistical procedures that can be used for the scale of names are also suitable for all others. But statistics for the scale of equal ratios will not work for the three less informative scales.
| name scale | measures the property of difference in some way and nothing else. The naming scale simply sorts objects into different categories. Examples |
| order scale | Reflects the difference in the value of some property. The values of the scale are assigned to the values of some property so that the order reflects the order in which the value of this property changes in the selected objects. Such a scale shows the order in which objects are arranged according to the selected indicator, without giving any information about the real values of this indicator. Sometimes such scales may have a zero that matches the "zero" of the selected property. The order scale assumes a monotonic relationship between the divisions of the scale and the parameter exponent. Examples |
| interval scale interval scale | has the properties of difference, magnitude and equal intervals. In this scale, not only the scale values, but also the interval values make sense. In the scale of intervals, the value of the difference between the values of the scale somehow reflects the difference in the possession of the selected property. The interval scale assumes a linear relationship between the scale divisions and the parameter indicator. Examples |
| relationship scale | has all the properties of the previous scales and, in addition, has a real zero - that is, the zero of the scale corresponds to the "zero" of some selected property. Then the value of the scale corresponds to the difference in the manifestation of some property in relation to its "zero". This is the most powerful scale. In such scales, not only the difference, but also the ratio of values makes sense (for example, in n times the scale value corresponds to n times the value of the index). Examples |
Scale type:
determines which statistical procedure we will use (see table)
helps to critically evaluate the research of others
influences the interpretation of data, as different scales reflect different properties.
Only from the scale of intervals does it make sense to talk about the average values of some indicator. So, for example, if we refer IQ to a scale of intervals, we can talk about the average of the group, which will allow us, say, to compare the average IQ of schoolchildren in different countries. If IQ is a scale of order, then the concept of the average loses its meaning and there can be no average IQ of the group.
Only on a scale of equal ratios can we speak of percentages. So, for example, we will be able to claim that a certain technique has allowed us to increase creativity by 20% only when creativity is measured on a scale of equal ratios.
DESCRIPTIVE OBSERVATIONS
The most obvious way to make observations is in psychology;
It aims to describe behavior.
Descriptive observations list what behavior occurs, with what frequency and in what sequence, and in what quantity.
There are 3 types of descriptive observations: naturalistic, precedents (special cases) and reviews.
Benefits of descriptive observations:
useful in the early stages of research
useful when other methods are not available
Flaws:
Doesn't make it possible to draw conclusions about relationships between variables
the impossibility of repetition makes them extremely subjective
Anthromorphism (attributing human characteristics to animals and even inanimate objects)
internal invalidity, since such methods allow a) to select cases from a whole bunch of cases, as well as to select questions, answers and facts; b) relate these cases and answers to our predetermined theory, and thus "prove" any theory. Example: Freud's theory. Whatever Freud's genius, his theory does not stand up to scrutiny in terms of the facts and evidence on which it is based.
DEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS
These are observations of relationships, dependencies between various phenomena and properties. To study such a dependence, we can use the correlation technique. Using the correlation technique allows us to determine the degree of relationship between two variables of interest. We usually do this with the hope that we can predict the other from one variable. Such conclusions are made "ex post facto", that is, after what happened. First, observations about the behavior of interest are collected and then a correlation coefficient is calculated, which expresses the degree of relationship between two variables or measurements.
Variables in Experiments
| independent | The experimenter chooses them on the basis that they can cause changes in behavior. When changes in the level (value) of the independent variable lead to a change in behavior, we say that the behavior is controlled by the independent variable. If the independent variable does not control the behavior, then it is called a null result. A null result can have several interpretations: 1. The experimenter erred in thinking that the independent variable affects behavior. Then the null result is true. 2. Changes in the independent variable were not valid. |
| dependent | They depend on the behavior of the subjects, which, in turn, depends on independent variables. A good dependent variable should be reliable (i.e. when we repeat the experiment - same subjects, same levels of independent variables, ... - the dependent variable should be about the same. The dependent variable is unreliable if there are problems with the way it is measured. Another problem with the dependent variable that can result in a null result is that the dependent variable is stuck at the lowest or highest end of the scale.This is called a ceiling effect.This effect prevents the influence of the independent variable from showing up on the dependent variable.Finally, a null result may be due to statistical processing of the data.The results of a statistical test may not confirm the null hypothesis is false, while it is not true. |
| control | In any experiment, there are more variables than can actually be controlled, i.e. there are no perfect experiments. The experimenter tries to control as many significant variables as possible and hopes that the remaining uncontrolled variables will have a small effect compared to the effect of the independent variable. The smaller the effect of the independent variable, the tighter the control should be. Null results can also be obtained if there is insufficient control over various factors. This is especially true for non-laboratory conditions. You may remember that we call the influence of these uncontrollable factors confounding. |
EXPERIMENTAL SCHEMES
Literature - - Ch. 3, 4, 6, - Ch. 2, 7, 8, - Ch. 5
There are two main possibilities:
distribute several subjects to each level of the independent variable
Distribute all test subjects to all levels
The first possibility is called
intergroup experimental design is the presentation of each of the conditions of the independent variable different groups test subjects.
The second possibility is called
Intra-individual experimental scheme - this is the presentation of all the conditions under study to one (or several) subjects. Sometimes such a scheme is also called the scheme of an individual experiment or intragroup .
Types of interaction
Main effects are statistically independent of interaction effects. This means that knowing the magnitude and direction of the main effects, we cannot say anything about the interaction.
Example. Consider an experiment with two independent variables, 1 and 2. Independent variable 1 has two levels, A and B. Independent variable 2 also has two levels, 1 and 2. In all three cases shown below, the main effects of these variables are the same (the difference in the dependent variable between two levels of independent variable 1 is 20 units, and the difference between two levels of independent variable 1 is 60 units).
3) And in this case there is an intersecting interaction
| Independent variable 1 | ||
| A | IN | B-A |
| Independent variable 2 | ||
| 2-1 | ||
| A | IN | average | |
| average |
This is an intersecting interaction. It is the most reliable, as it cannot be explained by measurement and scaling problems of the dependent variable.
The main effects in the tables are the same, but the graphs are all different.
Morality: The interaction must be considered before drawing conclusions in an experiment where there is more than one independent variable.
MIXED SCHEME
This is a scheme where one or more intergroup variables and one or more intra-individual variables are used.
BSPU them. M. Tanka
Institute of Psychology
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Compiler Radchikova Natalia Pavlovna
In his professional activity the psychologist must not only have a good command of the theoretical issues of special subjects, but also see the expediency and effectiveness of the application in practice of certain methods of conducting experimental research. Such techniques form the basis of scientific psychological explanation and the scientific method of accumulating psychological knowledge.
While experimental methods are becoming widespread in the field of psychological research, there is a growing need for their methodological support - the organization of a "correct" experiment. Therefore, the course "Experimental Psychology" is focused, on the one hand, on the methodological preparation of students for conducting various kinds of experimental research, and, on the other hand, on providing students with the necessary recommendations for writing upcoming term papers and theses.
The main objectives of this course are
1) in ensuring the proper level of training of future psychologists in the direction of the theory and methodology of research in the field of psychology;
2) in developing in them the necessary skills in the practical conduct of experimental work;
3) in developing the ability to navigate in specialized literature and critically analyze the material read, especially the materials of experimental studies.
Course objectives:
* give the basic concepts and definitions adopted in the field of experimental psychology;
* consistently acquaint students with all stages of the experiment - from the birth of an idea and the formation of a testable hypothesis to the presentation of the results of their work;
* to familiarize students with the basic schemes and modern methods conducting experiments;
* analyze possible errors, difficulties, advantages and disadvantages of the discussed experimental schemes;
* to prepare students for conducting independent experimental psychological research.
COURSE PROGRAM
1. Philosophical foundations of experimental psychology. Knowledge. The difference between scientific knowledge and other forms of knowledge. Types of beliefs. Nature scientific explanation. Rationalism. Empiricism. Critical thinking. Falsification. intermediate variables. Approaches to the evaluation of scientific theories.
2. Introduction to experimental psychology. How to start psychological research. Introduction. The role and place of experimental psychology. Goals and objectives of the course in experimental psychology. Course content. Goals and objectives of psychological research. Experiment. The concept of experiment. The difference between the experiment and other types empirical research. The concept of a variable. The structure of the experiment. Dependent, independent and control variables. Mixing effect. Experimental research project. stages pilot project. Sources of ideas. Development of testable hypotheses. Literature analysis. Development of the scheme of the experiment. Null hypothesis. Pilot studies. Data collection. The concept of statistical analysis data. The level of statistical significance. Interpretation of results. Preparation of a pilot report.
3. Observations in psychological research. The role of observations in psychology. Main types of observations. Validity: external validity, internal validity, construct validity. The main sources of violation and ways to increase validity. Descriptive observations: naturalistic, special cases (precedents), reviews. - features, main advantages and disadvantages. dependent observations. The concept of correlation. correlation technique. Correlation coefficient. Interpretation of the correlation coefficient. Problems in the interpretation of the correlation coefficient. Mixing. Limited data interval. Causal observations. Experiment. Benefits of experimental observations. Ways to improve the reliability of observations. Instructions. protocols. Equipment used in experimental psychological research.
4. Measurements in psychological research. Measuring scales in psychology. The concept of a scale. Types of measuring scales. Naming scale (nominative scale). Order scale (ordinal scale). Interval scale (interval scale). Scale of equal relations. Properties of measuring scales. difference property. Value property. Property of equal intervals. The existence property of a real zero. Connection of data processing methods with the scale of measurement. Relationship between the interpretation of results and the measurement scale. Psychological measurements. Measurement of the subjective reality of the subject. Subjective scaling procedures. ranking method. Method of absolute evaluation. Method of paired comparisons. Multidimensional scaling. Measurement of the characteristics of the subject and his behavior. The concept of psychodiagnostics. Statistical reliability and validity. Experimental reliability. Test reliability. Reliability of results.
5. Fundamentals of the experiment. The concept of experiment. Features of the experiment. Ideas behind psychological experiment. History of experimental psychology as a science. Benefits of the experiment. Ideal and real experiments. Experimental and control groups. Variables in the experiment. Zero result and its causes.
6. Experimental schemes. Experimental scheme. The internal validity of the experiment. Intergroup experimental scheme. Techniques for the distribution of subjects into groups. random distribution(randomization). Ways to form groups randomly. Distribution by conditions. Possible reasons violation of the validity of the experiment when using the intergroup scheme. Intra-individual experimental scheme. Techniques for selecting the sequence of tests in the experiment. Random distribution of trials (randomization). Random distribution by blocks (block randomization). Leveling. Full equalization. Partial equalization. Latin square. Balanced latin square. Advantages and disadvantages of full and partial equalization. Possible reasons for the violation of the validity of the experiment when using an intra-individual scheme. Control group. control conditions. Choice of experimental scheme.
7. Multifactorial experimental schemes. Experiments with several independent variables. Experiments with multiple dependent variables. Advantages of complex (multifactorial) experimental schemes. Factorial experimental scheme. Complex intra-individual scheme. Mixed scheme. main effect. Interaction. Types of interaction. Interpretation of the results of complex experiments. Graphical presentation of results. Benefits of graphical presentation of results. Graphical representation of the interaction. Features and selection of complex experimental schemes.
8. Special types of experiments. The concept of experiments with a small number of subjects. Areas of application for experiments with a small number of subjects. Psychophysics. Experiments in the field of perception, memory, speech. Simulator experiments.
9. Quasi-experiments Quasi-experiments. Types of quasi-experiments. Analysis of natural events. Growing up and history as effects influencing the internal validity of quasi-experiments. Ways to increase validity - control group. Study of special cases. Longitudinal research. Schemes of longitudinal studies. Features of working with variables characterizing the subjects. Age as a special variable in psychological research. Techniques of working with age in psychological experiments. Internal validity of quasi-experimentation. Disadvantages of quasi-experiments. Possible reasons for the violation of the internal validity of quasi-experiments.
10. Problems of experimental research. Subject errors. Influence social roles for conducting experiments. Errors at various types research (descriptive and dependent observations, experiment). Errors related to the reaction of the subjects. Ways to eliminate possible errors associated with the reaction of the subjects. experimenter's error. Experimenter's preconceptions. Conscious bias. Unconscious bias. Ways to eliminate possible errors of the experimenter. Reliability of information exchange in the scientific environment. External validity of studies.
11. Data interpretation. The role of data interpretation in psychological research. Interpretation of specific results. Ceiling effect problem. The problem of return to the mean. Interpretation of stable regularities. Experimental reliability. Reliability and repetition of the experiment. Direct repetition of the experiment. Systematic repetition of the experiment. Conceptual repetition of the experiment.
12. Ethics of psychological research. The role of ethics in psychological research. Ethical problems in studies where the subjects are people. Briefing. Confidentiality and anonymity. Freedom of nonparticipation. Protection from harm. Elimination of the harmful effects of experimental research. Ethical issues in animal research. Ethical problems in the processing and analysis of experimental data. Ethical issues in reporting on a pilot study. Plagiarism in scientific papers.
13. Report on experimental psychological research. The structure of the experimental report. Standards. Experimental Report Writing Technique. What to include in a pilot report.
MAIN LITERATURE
1. Solso R., Johnson H., Beal K. Experimental psychology. Practical course. St. Petersburg: 2002
2. Gottsdanker, Robert. Fundamentals of psychological experiment. - Moscow: Moscow University Publishing House, 1982.
3. Druzhinin, V.N. Experimental psychology. - Moscow, 1997.
4. Kornilova, T.V. Experimental psychology: Theory and methods. - Moscow, 2002.
COURSE EVALUATION carried out according to the following criteria
offset
· Independent work- critical review of a journal article about an experimental study
· Test- problem solving (conducted in the winter session, the assessment affects the examination grade)
Exam(2 theoretical questions)
Introduction to experimental psychology.
Any effective scientific method requires due "maturation" of both the science itself and the purely practical, social need for the results of this scientific activity. The latter is decisive. So it happened with psychology as a whole, and with the method that revolutionizes it - the experiment.
The history of its application was preceded by many things, including the repeated change of views on the subject of psychology, on the nature of the psyche as a whole. As long as the mental was defined as something purely internal, only a single method was used for its study - self-observation (introspection). The denial of the very possibility of an experiment in psychology and the corresponding mathematical processing of the results has long been a kind of ban on the very idea of a psychological experiment.
The first specialists who applied the method of experiment (together with the corresponding mathematical apparatus) to problems that are essentially psychological were natural scientists-astronomers. The impetus for their research was the practical task of astronomy to fix the time of passage of a given meridian by a star in a special telescope grid (the Bradley method). In 1796, at the Greenwich Observatory, a significant (0.5-1.0 sec) discrepancy was found in the determination of time by different employees. In 1816, the Königsberg astronomer Bessel reported the results of many years of experiments to measure the "reaction time" of a person, i.e., the time elapsed between the moment of presentation of the stimulus and the moment of the onset of the human response (the so-called "irremovable delay of the human link", see work No. 16 in chapter II). At the same time, "personal equations" were compiled - the first successful forms of mathematical symbolization in psychology, attributed to the perceptual activity of a person. Soon the first specialized device for experimental psychological research was created - the Hipp chronoscope. This is how experimental psychology was born. Her first, fundamental work was "Elements of Psychophysics" (1860), written by physicist and physiologist T. Fechner.
A significant contribution to the development of the ideas of experiment and measurement in psychology was made by F. Galton, who in 1884 organized the first truly mass (statistical) measurements in the "anthropometric" laboratory.
The approval, implementation and development of the experimental method in psychology are associated with the opening in 1879 of the first laboratory " physiological psychology" W. Wundt, where numerous studies were carried out on the quantitative correlation of elementary physiological and mental processes.
By 1893, there were already 34 specialized experimental psychological offices in the world. The formation of experimental psychology in Russia is associated with the names of N. N. Lange, G. I. Chelpanov, V. M. Bekhterev, S. S. Korsakov, G. I. Rossolimo and others.
The further development of experimental psychology proceeded very rapidly. The experimental method itself did not remain unchanged. It penetrated psychology more and more broadly and "subtly", it more and more boldly applied the apparatus of mathematics to the most diverse and complex mental phenomena and processes.
At the turn of the XX century. the experimental method is affirmed in all the leading branches of psychology, contributing to the restructuring of the whole science as a whole.
By itself pilot study(like any other method) does not yet solve serious scientific tasks, it is not a complete research process. The latter can be conditionally divided into several logically interconnected stages that are not strictly separated in time, can change places, occupy a larger or smaller share in the scientific process:
1. Prior research, observation, or theoretical analysis reveals (or suggests) some important facts, reveals contradictions, or raises questions that should be studied in more detail. This is a kind of task setting stage.
2. A working scientific hypothesis is formulated about the cause of the observed facts, about their patterns, relationships.
3. A psychological study is carried out in the true sense of the word: experiment, observation, etc. - in order to test the hypothesis formulated above, and the failure to confirm the initial hypothesis does not mean a general failure of the study, a negative result is the beginning of a new cycle, a new "spiral" scientific process.
4. Processing, analysis, discussion and comparison of the results, their scientific interpretation, where new tasks are set, prospects for the next stages of scientific research are outlined.
The experimental method allows:
1) arbitrarily invoke a process (phenomenon, state, function) of interest to the researcher, and not wait for random manifestations of this process in a real environment and activity;
2) to vary in the necessary directions the very conditions for the flow and manifestation of the process under study, i.e., to highlight (emphasize or "fix") the influence of individual variables (factors), study the process in its "pure" form and at the same time establish its actual patterns, connections and systems interdependencies;
3) to produce a sufficiently strict quantitative dosage of the processes under study and the conditions for their occurrence, i.e., to proceed to a consistent mathematical processing of the results of the study, to a complete mathematical formalization of an integral study.
It is customary to distinguish two types of experiments in psychology: laboratory and natural, proposed by the Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky in 1912. The first is carried out in a specially equipped laboratory, the second - in natural conditions for the test subject. But their difference does not lie at all in the place of the experiment, it is intended to eliminate the main difficulty or shortcoming of the laboratory experiment, since any such experiment is artificial, i.e., the activity of the subject takes place in the environment and situation that the experimenter creates. At the same time, no technical improvements of the experiment and the laboratory, no (albeit the most plausible) models of the real working situation and the “habitat” of the subject itself are of fundamental importance. A person always knows that this is not real work, that this is an experiment that can be terminated at any time at the request of the subject. In this case, the process studied by the psychologist may lose very significant connections that actually exist in a real situation. An experiment is always more or less abstract, since it takes the process under study only in a strictly defined system of influencing conditions. This serious* shortcoming is not removed by reorienting the experimental approach from the analytical to the synthetic one, i.e., by going over to the analysis of the joint influence of all factors in their totality of life (the latter is typical, for example, for modern experiments in engineering psychology). This implies the inevitable difficulty of transferring the results (conclusions and recommendations) of a laboratory experiment to real practice, to a naturally occurring mental activity human, for the sake of which every laboratory experiment is carried out.
One of the ways to solve this methodological problem has been outlined and is being implemented in the works of BM Teplov* and his school of differential psychophysiology. Each studied mental property is multilateral, it has many manifestations, therefore, in the experimental study of this property, a comparison of various methods is necessary, a special analysis apparatus is needed (factorial or dispersion analysis). Then the question is raised about the development of a system of "vital indicators" of the studied and measured property, i.e., the need for an objective and scientific interpretation of the manifestations of the studied psychological property in the real activity of the subject. Vital indicators should be considered only in aggregate, in comparison, it is also necessary to know their intimate, procedural side, and not just the effective expression. Human behavior depends on many properties nervous system, i.e., vital indicators are not unambiguous, not stable, moreover, under normal conditions, they are confined not so much to the manifestation of the studied properties of the nervous system, but to the living conditions in which they have developed.
* (See: Teplov B. M. Problems individual differences. M., 1961.)
The natural experiment is designed to eliminate the described shortcoming; according to the classical scheme, it is between the method of laboratory experiment and the method of observation. At the same time, the subject's activity is studied in its natural course (conditions, tasks, performance), and external conditions are subjected to experimental influence, i.e., the latter do not change in their natural order, but in accordance with the experimenter's plan.
Very interesting development experimental method in psychology is the so-called learning experiment, which acts as the implementation of one of the most important methodological principles psychological research, namely the genetic principle. A learning experiment involves a significant change in the position of the researcher. This is a transition from a simple (albeit exploratory) statement of existing facts and patterns (the "slices" method), from a psychological explanation of their current essence to the learning process itself, that is, to the systematic formation of the necessary mental processes. The phenomenon under study is formed in the subject by the experimenter himself, controlled by him from the outside, investigated in the process of formation and development *. The researcher proceeds from a clear knowledge of what exactly needs to be formed, what should be the properties of a new mental formation.According to this, a clear external system of experimental conditions is organized, on which the action is based and controlled , a stage-by-stage transition of the formed process from the external, objective to the internal, or psychological (the process of internalization) is ensured, the development of the internalized action is ensured according to a special system of parameters ** .
* (See: Galperin P. Ya. Introduction to psychology. M., 1976.)
** (See: Talyzina N. F. Management of the process of learning. M., 1975.)
The test method can also be considered a kind of modification of the experimental method (in the direction, as it were, opposite to the teaching experiment). If any experiment in its methodological orientation is a study of patterns, then a test is mainly a measurement or test of the current level (without a serious analysis of the system of initial conditions and factors). The test provides a measure or assessment, thereby outlining directions for further research. A test is a kind of reconnaissance tool, a measuring tool that indicates the place of a given test subject among a certain contingent of test subjects. And such an assessment is attributed, as a rule, only to present moment time.
The test as a measuring tool was at one time an indisputable achievement of the new psychology, because with its short, standard and subject to mathematical processing methods, it introduced some orderliness and scientific character into spontaneous subjectivism and everyday categorical judgments of a person about himself and about other people. However, the initial evaluative orientation of the test requires not only the high professionalism of its creators and interpreters, but also their high moral (and essentially class) responsibility for the fate of people who have been tested. It is known that the practice of testing under conditions capitalist society is a kind of justification for the class and racial inequality of people *.
* (See: Gurevich K. M. Professional suitability and basic properties of the nervous system. M., 1970.)
Of course, the general difficulties of a psychological experiment also affect the test method: the problematic measurement in psychology, the correspondence between the experimental and practical activities of the subjects, the variability of mental manifestations, etc. In addition, in many tests it is not at all known what exactly is measured (for example, ambiguity of the concept of "intelligence quotient"). Therefore, ignoring the objective and purely methodological limitations and difficulties of the test method can lead to very serious errors, especially in cases of professionally uncontrolled and massive creation, use and interpretation of the results of test methods by unskilled people.
experimental psychology
Lecture course
Introduction to experimental psychology
Methods and results of multivariate studies individually - psychological characteristics personalities
Data collection methods
Multivariate data analysis methods
Psychological testing
General issues of test reliability.
Approaches to the study of the validity of tests.
Methodology for solving psychodiagnostic problems
Statistics and test processing
Main Experiment
Correlation analysis
Conclusion
Literature
Introduction to experimental psychology
In practical life, personality theories do not play a significant role. The human psyche is an extremely complex phenomenon and presents significant difficulties for study.
The systematization of psychological knowledge about a person can be conditionally divided into clinical-psychological and experimental. The first arose from verbal theories and observations as a desire to treat and correct deviant behaviors. Many prominent psychologists are known in this field of psychology (Adler, Bekhterev, Freud, and many others). While scientific in purpose, these theories have achieved popularity without a rigorous experimental basis. Measurement here is replaced by observation, data collection - by the selection of representative cases, statistical processing - by meaningful interpretation. However, this poverty of the experimental procedure makes it possible to manipulate a large number of explanatory variables. It is important that the supporters of the clinical method try to bring into a single system all the variables necessary for the formation of concepts about personality, without which it is impossible to come to the establishment of real patterns.
Experimental psychology arose as a reaction to the verbal nature of the clinical psychological research method. Quantitative experimental research is divided into two-dimensional and multidimensional. Both approaches allow you to explore relationships between variables, but in different ways.
The two-dimensional experiment is a transfer of the research method adopted in the physical sciences. It involves the selection of dependent and independent variables using experimental control. In a multidimensional experiment, all the measured factors, taken in their entirety, are statistically taken into account at the same time.
Proponents of the two-dimensional experimental method believe that the selection of two variables is necessary to study the mental phenomenon in its purest form. In their opinion, with this approach, secondary factors are eliminated. But the mental process never proceeds in isolation. Behavior is complex and determined by many internal and external factors. For this reason, they try to form two groups of persons identical in all respects except one, and it is impossible to put them in the same conditions even in a laboratory experiment.
A multivariate experiment requires the measurement of a set of accompanying features, the independence of which is not known in advance. Analysis of the relationships between the studied features allows you to identify a small number of hidden structural factors, on which the observed variations of the measured variables depend. This approach is based on the assumption that the initial features are only superficial indicators that indirectly reflect personality traits hidden from direct observation, the knowledge of which will allow one to simply and clearly describe individual behavior. Thus, a multidimensional approach is applied in areas where human behavior is considered in natural settings. What cannot be achieved by direct manipulation of the dependent and independent variables can be achieved by more sophisticated statistical analysis of the entire set of significant variables. The main advantage of the multidimensional approach is its efficiency in the study of real situations without the risk of their distortion by side effects arising from the creation of artificial experimental conditions.
1. THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. IN THE EXTENSIVE MEANING: THE SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE STUDYING THE PROBLEM OF THE METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN GENERAL. 2. ALL SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY AS A SYSTEM OF KNOWLEDGE OBTAINED ON THE BASIS OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE PSYCHE OF HUMAN AND ANIMALS (ACCORDING TO W. WUNDTU). 3. SYSTEM OF EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IMPLEMENTED IN SPECIFIC INVESTIGATIONS (M. V. METLIN). 4. THE THEORY OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT (F. J. McGUIGAN).
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IS A BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY STUDYING THE LAWS AND REGULARITIES OF APPLICATION OF EXPERIMENT AND OTHER OBJECTIVE METHODS IN THE STUDY OF MENTAL PHENOMENA. THE OBJECT OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IS THE EXPERIMENT AND OTHER OBJECTIVE METHODS. THE SUBJECT OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IS LAWS AND REGULARITIES IN THE APPLICATION OF EXPERIMENT AND OTHER OBJECTIVE METHODS IN THE STUDY OF MENTAL PHENOMENA.
GUSTAV THEODOR FECHNER () (, GROS - ZERHEN, NEAR MUSKAU, -, LEIPZIG), GERMAN PHYSICIST, PSYCHOLOGIST, PHILOSOPHER - IDEALIST, WRITER - SATIRIST (SPOKED UNDER THE NAME OF DOCTOR MIses). HIS VIEWS INFLUENCED MANY SCIENTISTS AND PHILOSOPHERS OF THE 20TH CENTURY, INCLUDING: GERARDUS HEYMANS, ERNST MAH, WILHELM WONDT, SIGMUND FREUD, AND STANLEY HALL. FECHNER IS CONSIDERED THE CREATOR OF THE S=KLOGI FORMULA WHICH PROVES THE SCIENCE-BASED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BODY AND PSYCHE
WILHELM WUNDT () GERMAN PHYSIOLOGIST AND PSYCHOLOGIST. FOUNDER OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY. LESS KNOWN AS THE MAIN FIGURE IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, HOWEVER, THE LAST YEARS OF WUNDT'S LIFE PASSED UNDER THE SIGN (POPULATION PSYCHOLOGY), WHICH HE UNDERSTAND AS THE DOCTRINE OF THE SOCIAL BASIS OF THE HIGHER MENTAL ACTIVITY
EDWARD TITCHENER (1867–1927) STATED THAT A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT IS NOT A TEST OF ANY STRENGTH OR ABILITY, BUT A SECTION OF CONSCIOUSNESS, AN ANALYSIS OF A PART OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISM, AND A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIENCE CONSISTS IN SELF-OBSERVATION IN STANDARDS. EVERY EXPERIENCE, IN HIS OPINION, IS A LESSON OF SELF-OBSERVATION. DEVELOPED A POWERFUL TREND IN PSYCHOLOGY CALLED "STRUCTURALISM" OR "STRUCTURAL PSYCHOLOGY".
HERMANN EBBINGAUZ () GERMAN PSYCHOLOGIST. WAS AN OPPOSEON OF V. DILTEY. CARRIED OUT EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF MEMORY ON THE BASIS OF SYLLABLE MEMORY (1885). DEVELOPED SEVERAL METHODS FOR STUDYING MEMORY PROCESSES. DISCOVERED A NUMBER OF MEMORY PSYCHOLOGY PHENOMENA, IN PARTICULAR, "EDGE FACTOR", THAT IS A MORE EFFECTIVE MEMORIZATION OF THE FIRST AND LAST SERIES syllables. BUILT CURVES OF LEARNING AND FORGETTING - WHICH SHOW THAT THESE PROCESSES ARE NON-LINEAR. I HAVE ALSO FOUND THAT MATERIAL THAT IS MEMBERABLE IS BETTER THAN THAT IS NOT MEANINGLESS.
JAMES MCKEAN CATTEL (1860-1944) BORN MAY 25, 1860 IN USA. IN 1880 GRADUATED LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, IN 1886 RECEIVED THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG. STUDY ALSO IN THE UNIVERSITIES OF PARIS AND GENEVA. WORKED AS ASSISTANT TO WILHELM WUNDT IN LEIPZIG. LECTURED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, WHERE HE LEAD THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY. IN 1891 CATTELL ACCEPTED AN INVITATION FROM COLOMBIA UNIVERSITY AND TAKEN THE POSITION OF PROFESSOR OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, BECOMING DEAN OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY AND PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY. CATTELL HAS BEEN INVESTIGATED IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR, EDUCATION, ORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE; DEVELOPED METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS.
ALFRED BINET () FRENCH PSYCHOLOGIST, DOCTOR OF MEDICINE AND LAW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS, FOUNDER OF THE FIRST FRANCE LABORATORY OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. STRIVED TO APPROVE THE OBJECTIVE METHOD OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY. KNOWN, FIRST OF ALL, AS THE COMPILER (TOGETHER WITH T. SIMON IN 1905) OF THE FIRST PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE TEST, CALLED "SIMON BINET'S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT SCALE" (ANALOGUE OF THE MODERN IQ-TEST). LATER IN 1916, THE SIMON BINET SCALE WAS REWORKED BY L. THERMEN INTO THE STANFORD BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
HEINRICH RORSCHACH (1884-1922) SWEDISH PSYCHIATRIST. INVENTED THE TEST NAMED AFTER HIM, WHICH BECAME ONE OF THE MAIN MEANS OF PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY, ITS STRUCTURE AND UNCONSCIOUS MOTIVATION. T E TEST CONSISTS IN INTERPRETATION BY THE SUBJECT OF A SET OF INK SPOTS OF DIFFERENT CONFIGURATION AND COLOR, THAT HAVE A DEFINITE SENSE FOR DIAGNOSTICS OF HIDDEN INSTALLATIONS, MOTIVATIONS, CHARACTER PROPERTIES. R.'S WORK GIVES AN IMPULSE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF ONE OF THE MAIN DIRECTIONS IN MODERN PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS, BECAUSE IT ALLOWED TO APPROACH TO CONSIDERATION OF THE PERSONALITY AS A WHOLE, NOT A TOTALITY OF SEPARATE ABILITIES
DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY, A BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY STUDYING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PEOPLE. A PREREQUISITE FOR THE APPEARANCE OF "DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY" AT THE TURN OF THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES WAS THE INTRODUCTION OF EXPERIMENT INTO PSYCHOLOGY, AS WELL AS GENETIC AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS. THE PIONEER IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY WAS F. GALTON (GREAT BRITAIN), WHO INVENTED A NUMBER OF TECHNIQUES AND INSTRUMENTS FOR THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. W. STERN (GERMANY) INTRODUCED THE TERM "DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY" (1900). THE FIRST MAJOR REPRESENTATIVES OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY WERE A. BINET (FRANCE), J. CATTEL (USA) AND OTHERS
FRANCIS GALTON () ENGLISH EXPLORER, GEOGRAPHER, ANTHROPOLOGIST AND PSYCHOLOGIST; FOUNDER OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOMETRIC. GALTON. INTRODUCED THE CONCEPT OF HEREDITY IN PSYCHOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY GALTON INTRODUCED THE CONCEPT OF HEREDITY IN PSYCHOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
WILLIAM LEWIS STERN () GERMAN PSYCHOLOGIST AND PHILOSOPHER, CONSIDERED ONE OF THE PIONEERS OF DIFFERENTIAL AND PERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY. In addition, ROMO HAVE A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE NARROWING CHILD PSYCHOLOGY. THE CREATOR OF THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENT COEFFICIENT, WHICH LATER WAS BASED ON ALFRED BINET'S FAMOUS IQ TEST. FATHER OF THE GERMAN WRITER AND PHILOSOPHER GUNTER ANDERS. IN 1897, STERN INVENTED A TONE VARIATOR, WHICH ALLOWED HIM TO SIGNIFICANTLY EXPAND THE POSSIBILITIES OF STUDYING HUMAN SOUND PERCEPTION.
SIGMUND FREUD () AUSTRIAN PSYCHOLOGIST, PSYCHIATRIST AND NEUROLOGIST, FOUNDER OF THE PSYCHOANALYTICAL SCHOOL OF THE THERAPEUTIC DIRECTION IN PSYCHOLOGY, POSTULATES THE THEORY, ACCORDING TO WHICH HUMAN NEUROTIC DISORDERS ARE CAUSED BY
CARL GUSTAV JUNG () Swiss psychiatrist, founder of one of the directions depth psychology, analytical psychology. In 1912, Jung published The Psychology of the Unconscious, which refuted many of Freud's ideas; two years later he resigned as president of the International Psychoanalytic Society. In 1921, the work "Psychological Types" was published, in which Jung divided all people into introverts and extroverts, and also substantiated his theory of archetypes for the first time.
IVAN MIKHAILOVICH SECHENOV () RUS. NATURAL SCIENTIST, RESEARCHER OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE, FOUNDER OF PHYSIOLOGICAL SCHOOL AND NATURAL SCIENTIFIC DIRECTION IN PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA. IN THE WORK "REFLEXES OF THE BRAIN" (1863) DEVELOPED THE DOCTRINE OF THE BRAIN MECHANISMS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND WILL; PUSHED OUT, BASED ON THE DISCOVERY OF "CENTRAL INHIBITION" - BRAKING INFLUENCE OF THE NERVE CENTERS ON BEHAVIOR, - THE PROPOSITION THAT ALL ACTS OF CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS MENTAL LIFE ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF ORIGIN ARE REFLEXES; APPROVED THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-REGULATION AND SYSTEM ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS-MENTAL ACTIVITY. FOR THE FIRST TIME HAS DESIGNATED THE CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK AS A NECESSARY REGULATOR OF BEHAVIOR. SECHENOV'S DOCTRINE PROMOTED THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA; ACCEPTED BY IP PAVLOV, VM BEKHTEREV, LS VYGOTSKY AND THEIR STUDENTS, IT BECAME THE BASIS FOR THE SYSTEMIC STUDY OF THE LIFE OF THE ORGANISM AND ITS FUNCTIONS.
IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV () ACADEMICIAN, PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, FAMOUS RUSSIAN SCIENTIST, CREATOR OF THE STUDY ABOUT "CONDITIONAL REFLEXES". His main work - “Twenty years of experience of objective study of the highest nervous activity (behavior) of animals” (collection of articles, speeches, reports) - was published in 1923 by I.P. Pavlov and his students for the first time gave accurate experimental confirmation of Sechenov’s theoretical views, FATHER OF RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGY. IN 1863 SECHENOV PUBLICATED THE BOOK "BRAIN REFLEXES" IN WHICH, FAR AWAY OF THE VIEWS OF HIS TIME, CONSIDERED PSYCHOLOGY AS A PART OF PHYSIOLOGY, REDUCING THE SCIENCE OF MENTAL PROCESSES TO THE STUDY OF MOTOR (MUSCLE) ACTIVITY. Based on the idea of Sechenov about the reflex mechanism, as a general basis of mental life, Pavlov launched an analysis of the activity of working devices of the body (muscles and glands), considering it as a set of reactions to external irritations made by the body in order to adapt to the environment.
BEKHTEREV VLADIMIR MIKHAILOVICH () RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGIST, NEUROPATHOLOGIST, PSYCHIATRIST, PSYCHOLOGIST. FOUNDED THE FIRST IN RUSSIA EXPERIMENTAL - PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY (1885), AND THEN THE PSYCHONEUROLOGICAL INSTITUTE (1908) - THE FIRST IN THE WORLD CENTER FOR COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF HUMANS. BASED ON THE REFLECTOR CONCEPT OF MENTAL ACTIVITY PROPOSED BY IM SECHENOV, HE DEVELOPED A NATURAL SCIENTIFIC THEORY OF BEHAVIOR. ARISING IN OPPOSITION TO THE TRADITIONAL INTROSPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF CONSCIOUSNESS, THEORY B. ORIGINALLY RECEIVED THE NAME OF OBJECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY (1904), THEN PSYCHOREFLEXOLOGY (1910) AND, FINALLY, REFLEXOLOGY (1917). B. MADE A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOMESTIC EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ("GENERAL FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN REFLEXOLOGY", 1917).
Alexander Fedorovich Lazursky () The founder of the domestic differential psychology, the author of fundamental works on the characterology and classification of personalities, the creator and head of the psychological laboratory at a neuropsychiatric institute, the author and developer of the method of natural experiment in psychology. LAZURSKY PROPOSED THE CONCEPT OF A MULTILEVEL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE ("AN ESSAY OF THE SCIENCE OF CHARACTERS", 1909).
GRIGORY IVANOVICH ROSSOLIMO () IN 1908, G. I. ROSSOLIMO PUBLISHES A SCALE FOR MEASURING THE LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL ABILITIES, INCLUDED IN THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS UNDER THE NAME "PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFILES". CONSTRUCTING THE TEST, HE WAS NOT BY THE EMPIRICAL WAY, BUT DEVELOPED A SYSTEM OF THEORETICAL CONCEPTS ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE. THE AUTHOR CONSIDERED THE MAIN PURPOSE OF HIS TEST TO DEVELOP CRITERIA FOR THE DIFFERENCE OF NORMAL CHILDREN FROM THAT HAVE DIFFERENT DEGREES OF MENTAL retardation.
DURING THE SOVIET PERIOD IN PEDOLOGY AND PSYCHOTECHNOLOGY THE PRACTICE OF TESTING IS GAINING SPEED. TESTS GET THE BROADEST APPLICATION, FIRST OF ALL IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. M. Ya. D. LEVITOV, A. A. LYUBLINSKAYA, G. I. ROSSOLIMO, I. N. SPIELREIN, A. M. SHUBERT AND OTHERS
LEV SEMENOVICH VYGOTSKY () LS VYGOTSKY IS THE OUTSTANDING DOMESTIC PSYCHOLOGIST, LEAVED A BRIGHT MARK IN SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, LAYED THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE DOMESTIC WHICH SUBJECT AFFECTS OTHERS, FORMS OWN INNER WORLD, PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS. HE DEVELOPED A DOCTRINE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MENTAL FUNCTIONS IN THE PROCESS OF INDIVIDUAL MASTERING OF CULTURAL VALUES MEDIATED BY COMMUNICATION. CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE, FIRST OF ALL THE SIGNS OF A LANGUAGE, SERVE A KIND OF TOOLS, OPERATING THE BASIC UNITS OF WHICH ARE MEANINGS AND MEANINGS
ALEXANDER ROMANOVICH LURIIA () FOLLOWING THE IDEAS OF L. S. VYGOTSKY, LURIIA DEVELOPED A CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL CONCEPT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PSYCHE, PARTICIPATED IN CREATING THE THEORY OF ACTIVITY. ON THIS BASIS I DEVELOPED THE IDEA OF A SYSTEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE HIGHER MENTAL FUNCTIONS, THEIR VARIABILITY, PLASTICITY, EMPHASIZING THE LIFETIME NATURE OF THEIR FORMATION, THEIR IMPLEMENTATION IN VARIOUS TYPES OF ACTIVITY. STUDYED RELATIONS OF HEREDITY AND EDUCATION IN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.
2. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH SCIENCE IS A SPHERE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY, THE RESULT OF WHICH IS NEW KNOWLEDGE ABOUT REALITY, MEETING THE CRITERION OF TRUTH AND CHARACTERIZED BY A METHOD. CRITERIA OF TRUE (SCIENTIFIC) KNOWLEDGE: - ANY THEORY IS A TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION AND CAN BE DESTROYED. - KNOWLEDGE THAT CAN BE REFUTED IN THE PROCESS OF EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION IS RECOGNIZED AS SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. - KNOWLEDGE FOR WHICH THERE IS NO APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE FOR REFUTATION CANNOT BE SCIENTIFIC.
THEORY IS A SUMMARY AND CAN BE REFUTED BY EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT IS A METHOD OF REFUTING plausible HYPOTHESES. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES: 1. FALSIFIABILITY PRINCIPLE - - POTENTIAL REFUTABILITY OF THE THEORY; - ABSOLUTE REFUTATION OF THE THEORY IS ALWAYS FINAL. 2. THE PRINCIPLE OF VERIFIABILITY - ANY HYPOTHESIS CAN BE REFUTED AFTER (RELATIVELY)
THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD IN PSYCHOLOGY THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD IS A FIXED SYSTEM OF MEANS, TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES THAT ALLOW TO GET RELIABLE AND RELIABLE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT MENTAL PHENOMENA. IT IS BASED ON THE FACT THAT A HUMAN REALIZES HIS INNER POTENTIAL IN THE FORM OF ACTIVITY (BEHAVIOR, ACTIVITY, COMMUNICATION, GAMES, ETC.), WHICH IS CARRIED OUT IN A PARTICULAR SITUATION. ANALYZING ACTIVITY AND CORRELING IT WITH A HUMAN AS A SUBJECT, ON THE ONE SIDE, AND WITH A SITUATION, ON THE OTHER SIDE, THE RESEARCHER RECEIVES THE POSSIBILITY TO RECONSTRUCT THE STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES OF THE INTERNAL WORLD, WITHOUT WHICH THE OBSERVED ACTIVITY WOULD BE IMPOSSIBLE.
STATES (PHASES) OF SCIENCE (ACCORDING TO T. KUHN): 1. REVOLUTIONARY PHASE (BREAKING THE PARADIGMA). 2. "NORMAL SCIENCE" - THE RULES AND STANDARDS OF SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY, ADOPTED BY THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY, BEFORE THE NEXT REVOLUTION BREAKING THE OLD PARADIGM. STAGES OF THE NORMATIVE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: HYPOTHESIS (HYPOTHESIS). RESEARCH PLANNING. CONDUCTING RESEARCH. DATA INTERPRETATION. REFUTATION OR NON-REFUTATION OF HYPOTHESES. (FORMING A NEW HYPOTHESIS).
TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 1. FUNDAMENTAL (WITHOUT CONSIDERATION OF THE PRACTICAL EFFECT). 2. APPLIED (FOR SOLVING A SPECIFIC PROBLEM). 3. MONODISCIPLINARY AND COMPLEX. 4. SINGLE-FACTORY (ANALYTICAL) - IDENTIFICATION OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT ASPECT. 5. SEARCH (ISSUES PREVIOUSLY UNSOLVED). 6. CRITICAL (REFUTATION OF THE EXISTING THEORY, CHOICE FROM ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES). 7. REPRODUCER.
TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC THEORIES 1. AXIOMATIC (BASED ON AXIOMS UNPROVED IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE THEORY) AND HYPOTHETIC-DEDUCTIVE (BASED ON ASSUMPTIONS - HYPOTHESIS). 2. QUALITATIVE THEORIES (WITHOUT INVOLVING MATHEMATICAL EQUIPMENT). 3. FORMALIZED THEORIES (USING THE MATHEMATICAL APPARATUS).
A HYPOTHESIS IS A SCIENTIFIC ASSUMPTION THAT HAS NOT BEEN CONFIRMED OR REFUTED YET. - MAY BE REJECTED, BUT NEVER FINALLY ACCEPTED; - OPEN FOR FURTHER CHECK. I. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES (BY ORIGIN): 1. THEORETICAL (THE THEORETICALLY JUSTIFIED; TO CHECK THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE THEORY). 2. EXPERIMENTAL (FOR CONFIRMATION / REFUTATION OF THE THEORIES). 3. EMPIRICAL (regardless of theory; FOR THIS PARTICULAR CASE).
II. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES (BY CONTENT) 1. ABOUT THE PRESENCE OF THE PHENOMENON (DOES IT EXIST?). 2. ON THE PRESENCE OF RELATIONS BETWEEN PHENOMENA (CORRELATION STUDY). 3. ON THE PRESENCE OF A CAUSAL RELATION BETWEEN THE PHENOMENA - EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESES: - BASIC (1-2) AND ALTERNATIVE. - HYPOTHESIS ABOUT THE DIFFERENCE (H 1). - HYPOTHESIS OF SIMILARITY (Н 0).
THE CONCEPT OF AN IDEAL RESEARCH THE RESULTS ARE OBJECTIVE, INVARIANT WITH RESPECT TO TIME, SPACE AND THE TYPE OF OBJECTS OF STUDY. IDEAL RESEARCH IS INTERSUBJECTIVE. IDEAL RESEARCH CANNOT AND SHOULD NOT COMPLETELY CORRECT WITH REAL RESEARCH. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD SHOULD GIVE A RESULT AS APPROXIMATE TO THE IDEAL. CONCEPT AND TYPES OF VALIDITY.
