S.L. Bratchenko
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEEP COMMUNICATION
Lessons from James Bugenthal
Moscow: "Meaning", 2001 - 197 p.annotation
Foreword
Introduction
Part one
HISTORY AND THEORY
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXISTENTIAL PARADIGMA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXISTENTIAL APPROACH
KEY IDEAS OF JAMES BUDGENTAL'S CONCEPT
EXISTENTIAL-HUMANISTIC APPROACH:
DEEP COMMUNICATION AND ITS DIMENSIONS
LEVEL OF COMMUNICATION
PRESENCE AND COMMONITY
INTERPERSONAL PRESSURE
PARALLELING
Thematic Paralleling
Emotional Paralleling
Frame parallelization
Locus parallelization
SUBJECTIVE-OBJECTIVE CORRELATION AND RESISTANCE
OTHER DIMENSIONS OF DEEP COMMUNICATION
THE ART OF PSYCHOLOGIST'S WORK
Literature
Sergey Leonidovich Bratchenko
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
DEEP COMMUNICATION
M: Meaning, 2001. - 197 p.
annotation
This is the first book not only in domestic, but also in world literature, dedicated to the presentation and analysis of one of the most profound and promising approaches in modern world psychology and psychotherapy - the existential-humanistic approach of James Bugenthal. The history of the emergence of this direction, its philosophical and theoretical basis, as well as the psychological concept of deep communication, on the basis of which the practice of psychological counseling is built.
To be or not to be
that is the question.
Is it worthy
Humble under the blows of fate
Is it necessary to resist?
William Shakespeare
We do not cure diseases and
we do not correct violations,
we free the prisoners...
James Bugenthal
Foreword
This book did not appear suddenly and not by accident. It has its own, already quite large, backstory. In the summer of 1992 on II International Conference By humanistic psychology performed in Moscow Deborah Rahilly(Deborah Rahilly) from USA talking about his teacher's concept - JamesByudzhentala * (James Bugental), one of the leaders existential-humanistic approach(EGP). Her post generated a lot of interest. And then a group of Russian psychologists ( Elena Mazur, Dmitry Leontiev and the author of these lines, who by that time had been seriously interested in the humanistic direction for a long time) agreed with Deborah to hold several introductory seminars after the conference, including in Moscow and St. Petersburg. These short but intense meetings were successful, and groups of psychologists and psychotherapists were formed in both cities, interested in a deeper mastery of this approach.
* Should be stated immediately "name problem": perhaps exactly James Bugental has the most diverse form of writing his last name in Russian (I have already counted more than five options!); without entering into a discussion about how it would be correct "actually", I prefer to use the transcription that I heard from J.B. himself.
In September 1993, in Moscow and St. Petersburg, First Russian-American Conference "Theory and Practice of Existential Psychotherapy", which brought together a fairly large number of participants. At the conference, for the first time in Russia, the existential-humanistic approach of James Bugenthal was presented quite fully and from different angles. There were interesting reports (both American and our specialists), there were interesting discussions, bright demonstrations.
During 1993-1995 Deborah and her colleagues - Robert Nader, Lanier Clance, Padma Catell), etc. – held in Russia a series of training seminars on EGP, in between which the Moscow and St. Petersburg groups actively mastered teaching materials, discussed the experience gained, translated primary sources.
It was a very significant period for all of us, and the movement was bilateral. Our American colleagues got to know us, our moods and capabilities, and our readiness to seriously comprehend and master this deep, extremely difficult approach. We ourselves, on the one hand, actively joined in the exciting process of discovering existential views on a person, his development, personal growth and conditions of psychological (psychotherapeutic) assistance in solving life problems, and, on the other hand, we tried to "listen" to ourselves and understand how serious our readiness to take an existential position in psychology and in life is.
In the process of such mutual and self-knowledge, our self-determination gradually took place - someone stepped aside, taking from this approach only what was close and understandable to him personally; someone decided to build their career on this, make a "name" for themselves, etc.; someone made a very definite and conscious choice in favor of existentialism, while someone remained at a crossroads, continuing to doubt and search.
All this took a lot of effort and time - almost five years! Those were wonderful days, I recall with great warmth our meetings, disputes, discoveries, and I am sincerely proud of the “team” that we managed to unite in this difficult but fascinating process of “cultivating” existentialism on St. for humanistic and existential ideas). In this group for different stages included such well-known St. Petersburg specialists as psychologists Tatyana Kurbatova and Diana Tonkonogaya, Natalia Grishina and Andrey Zamulin, Sevil Vekilova and Leonid Kulikov, Elena Korablina and Natalya Patturina, Irina Iskandaryan and Sergey Ryabchenko, Lyudmila Korostyleva and Valery Sitnikov who helped with the translation Masha Nemicheva and Maria Mironova and many others. Everyone made their own unique contribution, did a great job - and to all of you, dear colleagues, I am very grateful.
Today it is obvious that our efforts were not in vain: until recently, this direction modern psychology was practically unfamiliar with us even to specialists; now, the approach of J. Budzhental is quite well known and respected, it is known both from training seminars, and from lectures, and from numerous publications already (see, for example, Bugenthal, 1995; Bugental, 1998; Bratchenko, 1997, 1998, 2000; Bratchenko, Kurbatova, 1997; Mironova, Bratchenko, 1997 and others). In 1996 in St. Petersburg Association of Training and Psychotherapy a section of "existential-humanistic therapy" was created. In general, the process has begun and is quite active. Now comes the most important, decisive moment - the preparation of real practitioners.
The next stage of work was a trip to America and acquaintance with the practice of EGP in his homeland*. Moreover, we managed not only to get in touch, but also to enter into an intensive two-week dialogue with a whole constellation of representatives of this direction, headed by one of its inspirers and creators James Budgetal. It happened at the Russian-American conference "Existential-humanistic psychotherapy", held on January 20 - February 3, 1997 in San Francisco - at the epicenter of the development of the existential-humanistic approach. (For more on the fascinating "Journey into Existentialism" see Mironova, Bratchenko, 1997; Bratchenko, Kurbatova, 1997; Bratchenko, 1997.)
* Existential approach in psychology appeared in the first half of the 20th century in Europe, but this direction was created primarily by the Americans: Rollo May, J. Bugentala, Irving Yalom), etc. – see paragraphs 1.1 for details. and 1.2.
My impressions of communication with American colleagues are very vivid and varied. On the one hand, I was once again convinced that with all the obvious differences, "by and large" - they are the same as we are. We understood each other quite well (despite some of the language difficulties), and we turned out to have a lot in common - not so much even in a professional sense, but in a human one. Several times I recalled the famous "formula" Carl Rogers: the deepest in people is the most common.
Especially valuable and memorable for me were, of course, meetings and communication with James Budgetal, and also with Gregg Richardson, Molly Sterling, Viktor Yalom, Richard Wiseman, Thomas Greening, Stanley Kripner and many others.
On the other hand, in communication with American psychologists and psychotherapists, I discovered a lot of new things, got a unique experience. In particular, it became clearly clear: yes, in theoretical terms, our psychologists, as a rule, are great "savvy", they are happy to join scientific discussions on the most complex issues ... But in practical terms, in the ability to enter into direct deep contact with client and to conduct intensive, effective and at the same time non-directive therapeutic work - here most of us still have to grow and grow (at least in relation to myself I can say this quite definitely). However, this in itself should not be regarded as a disadvantage: from the point of view of the EGP, what is scary is not that there is still "something to change", but quite the opposite - that there is nothing left (or - there is no need ...). For myself, I saw a very rich and promising "zone of proximal development" precisely in the existential-humanistic direction. For most of my colleagues, as far as I can tell, this trip also turned out to be very meaningful and useful.
So, existentialism is slowly but surely growing on the soil of Russian psychology and psychotherapy. I was lucky to be a participant in this process of the emergence of the existential-humanistic approach in Russia from its very first steps. This work is an attempt to generalize the experience, which can be conditionally grouped into three main sources.
First source- it is very rich, deep and rich experience of communication and participation in seminars and trainings conducted by professional psychologists and psychotherapists from the USA, specializing in the existential-humanistic direction. I would especially like to note the meeting with James Budgetal - the founder of this direction. This Meeting and the lessons of the Master had (and continue to have) a very strong and deep, truly existential influence on me!
I saw in front of me not only (and not so much!) The largest theorist and authoritative researcher, a unique psychotherapist, the leader of a whole trend in psychology (Budzhental, as you know, was a colleague of A. Maslow, K. Rogers, R. May and others in the implementation " humanistic revolution" in psychology, he was elected the first president "Association for Humanistic Psychology", he was the editor of the famous book, a kind of "humanist manifesto" - "The Challenges of Humanistic Psychology"(1967), etc. etc.), but above all - human, personality. A wise man, with tremendous experience - but ready to be surprised and discover again and again. An experienced person, sensitive and deeply understanding - but respecting the secret inner peace personality and refusing to give unequivocal, definitive answers. A person who thinks clearly, logically, surprisingly easily lays out the most difficult topics and problems "on the shelves" (but at the same time realizing the fundamental incompleteness of any reasoning on existential topics), and masterfully owning metaphors, images, humor. A man who all his life dealt with human problems, suffering, pain - and retained optimism, faith in the positive essence of human nature...
And further. For me, it was fundamentally important to make sure that in this case Human and his Concept(theoretical and practical) is a single whole: Byudzhental fully lives, "is present" in his theory and in his practical work; and his concept is very vital and very personal. Both he and his approach are surprisingly natural and harmonious.
The second source- This learning experience various theoretical and methodological literature on humanistic and existential philosophy, psychology and psychotherapy, as well as its discussion with colleagues. For me personally, the most significant were the works M.M.Bakhtin, J. and R.Bayardov, M.Buber, F.E.Vasilyuk, S.Jurard, A.F.Kopiev, J.Korey, D.A.Leontiev, R.Lang, G.Landreth , A. Maslow, R. May, K. Rogers, S. L. Rubinstein, J.-P. Sartre, M. and R. Snyderov, V. Frankl, A. U. Harash and of course, J.Bugentala.
Of the works of James Bugenthal, three books have made the strongest impression on me: "The Search for Existential Identity" (1976), "Psychotherapy and Process" (l978), "The Art of the Psychotherapist" (1987). (Last work and formed the basis for the development of the training seminar program "Psychology of deep communication"- see the third part of this manual).
All of J. Budzhental's texts are notable for the fundamental nature of their theoretical foundations, the abundance of diverse, concrete, life "material", the clarity of presentation and personal significance, partiality. The author does not just present some abstract ideas and "cases from practice"; he vividly, visibly and very personally reveals the experience of his own existential search– personal and professional – as well as experience help in the implementation of such a search for other people, their clients. These books represent, in my opinion, a kind of cast from life, real, diverse and endless, and form a fascinating "mixture" of a scientific treatise, autobiography, methodological manual and artwork.
Third source- this is extremely important (although very different, ambiguous and clearly insufficient) experience of independent EGP training seminars for practical psychologists. In total, at the moment, about twenty such seminars have been held in a number of cities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. The main results of this work will be discussed below (see §3.4). Here I emphasize that it is precisely the attempts to put into practice the existential-humanistic approach (it would be more accurate, of course, to say - it individual elements) allowed me to feel the key values and attitudes of the EGP, to understand much deeper its meaning both for the profession and for life. Each such seminar - both more successful and (to an even greater extent!) less successful - was filled with active, sometimes dramatic searches, discoveries and intensive promotion not only for its participants, but also for myself.
All "three sources, three components" of my experience of comprehending the existential-humanistic approach are very dear and valuable to me and I am sincerely grateful to all who contributed to this!
S.B.
St. Petersburg, 1997-2001
P.S.
When the first version of this book had already been written, the news came that "The Art of the Psychotherapist" James Bugental is finally getting ready to be released in Russian! This will certainly be a great holiday for all those interested in humanistic and existential trends in psychology, and for me in particular - I have been dreaming about this for many years. But, on the other hand, the translation of the "original source" calls into question the intention of my own work. What I considered my main goal, and what, as it seemed to me, is the merit of my book - the most complete and accurate presentation of the main content of the EGP concept with minimal comments and additions - now changes its meaning. There was even a desire to completely redo this work. However, not without hesitation, I still decided to keep the original idea - an additional presentation of Budzhental's ideas would only be beneficial (especially since the translation of "The Art of the Psychotherapist" leaves, in my opinion, much to be desired and it will be useful for readers to be able to compare at least the most important provisions and choose the Russian version yourself). In any case, two books on the existential humanist approach are better than none.
S.L. Bratchenko
PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES
TOLERANCE STUDIES IN EDUCATION
One of the key competencies is tolerance - readiness and
the ability of a person to live and act constructively in a diverse world. Her
development is turning for domestic education into a strategically important
purpose and therefore this problem in last years became extremely popular in
psychology and pedagogy. There are a huge number of works on tolerance and their
The topics are very diverse, but most of them can be attributed to two
large groups: on the one hand, this theoretical developments, with another -
applied. At the same time, among the "theoretical" philosophical,
culturological and sociological texts of a sufficiently high level
abstractness (and often completely speculative publicistic and even
speculative), and among applied - pedagogical developments purely
technological methodological nature. This in itself is quite natural and even
healthy; the problem, however, is that a certain “gap” has formed and it is obvious
lack of "middle-level" theories. As a result, many authors try
practice-oriented approaches "deduce" directly from the philosophical, ethical,
culturological, etc. constructions. Most of the teaching work
tolerances come (explicitly or implicitly) from the "enlightenment position": such
the correct idea of tolerance and non-violence need only be clear, detailed and
persistently state - and this will ensure the success of this idea, it will begin
"to work" ... At the same time, a very important psychological link falls out,
intrapersonal content of the phenomenon of tolerance, without understanding which, and
as well as the relevant conditions and mechanisms for its development, at least in the most general
it is difficult to expect the creation of adequate and effective pedagogical strategies.
In this case, the risk of reducing everything to edification and declarations on the topic of the importance and necessity of tolerance increases ... Without pretending to be complete and unambiguous and realizing the preliminary and open for further development nature of the proposed provisions, I would venture to attempt to formulate the initial ideas for building the PSYCHOLOGY OF TOLERANCE (more precisely, interpersonal tolerance).
Tolerance is not the mechanical result of any "factors" (internal or external) as such; true tolerance is a manifestation of a conscious, meaningful and responsible choice of a person, his own position and activity in building certain relationships (EXISTENTIAL-HUMANISTIC APPROACH).
The psychological content of tolerance cannot be reduced to a single property, a characteristic is a complex, multidimensional and multicomponent phenomenon that has several “basic dimensions” (DIVERSIFICATION APPROACH).
In the complex "anatomy" of tolerance, its psychological basis and key dimension are the personal dimension of tolerance - values, meanings, personal attitudes (PERSONAL APPROACH).
Among all the various types and forms of tolerance for us, the basis of a person's general tolerance is interpersonal tolerance: tolerance as a special way of relationships and interpersonal interaction ... communication with the Other, as an interpersonal dialogue (DIALOGICAL APPROACH).
Full-fledged tolerance - and above all in its personal basis - cannot be the result of only external influences: tolerance is not so much formed as it develops; assistance in the formation of tolerance is the creation of conditions for development ... (FACILITATIVE APPROACH).
Let's take a look at each of these theses.
EXISTENTIAL-HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO TOLERANCE.
Tolerance is considered in various philosophical and psychological approaches– today, the literature is dominated by behavioral (in which tolerance is considered primarily as a special human behavior) and cognitive (when tolerance basically has knowledge and rational arguments…) approaches… .
Such tolerance is not reduced to automatisms, to simple stereotyped actions - it is a value and life position, the implementation of which in each specific situation has a certain meaning and requires the subject of tolerance to search for this meaning and make a responsible decision.
The existential-humanistic approach proceeds from the recognition of the irremovable role of the individual in any activity performed by him. Despite the obvious and very significant role social norms, social ideals, ideological and professional requirements, etc. one cannot deny the desire and ability of each individual person in their actions to be guided also (and sometimes - first of all) by their own goals, values, priorities. This means that no matter how rigid the "external framework" of the teacher's work may be, in its implementation he always introduces a personal beginning, starting from an individual, often very subjective, interpretation of these external requirements and ending with the realization of his personal goals contrary to the "general line". Even with the complete uniformity of official requirements for schools, their life will always be very different precisely because they work there different people which inevitably self-determine in relation to the situation in which they are, and especially in which they act.
From these positions, tolerance is understood not as an unshakable rule or a recipe ready for use, and even more so not as a coercive requirement under the threat of punishment, but as a free and responsible choice of a person of a “value-based tolerant attitude to life” (Asmolov, 2000, p. 7). In particular, for a teacher, this means that tolerance is a special quality of his "way of being", and not just a requirement of a professional role or a communication skill.
The main questions are not “why am I being tolerant?” but “in the name of what, for what reason do I act tolerantly, what values do I uphold and what is the meaning of this for me?!”. The true essence of certain human actions depends on the answers to these existential questions. From this point of view, “forced” tolerance (as well as “learned”, “copied”, etc.)
types of tolerance "in the passive voice") - i.e. not meaningful, not accepted as a value and not responsible - should be considered as pseudo-tolerance (and possibly intolerance disguised as socially desirable forms ...). That is why tolerance cannot be guaranteed either by knowledge of skills and abilities, or by a set of certain “mental traits,” or by external conditions as such. Tolerant relations are not given to a person, but are given in the same way as in the humanistic interpretation of a person he is given the opportunity, the potential for the realization of a healthy and constructive beginning, which is actualized not only under certain conditions, but also with the corresponding efforts of the person himself. The external conditions and internal prerequisites must be followed by the semantic and other activity of a person, his free and responsible self-determination in each specific life situation.
This leads to another important consequence for understanding tolerance:
tolerance is a special principle of the existence of the World that a person builds on the basis of understanding and accepting the plurality and diversity of being and recognizing the inevitability of the coexistence of differences. Awareness of the richness and power of diversity makes the very life of a person richer and more diverse, he strives to build his World and his being so strong and flexible as to be open to coexistence and interaction with Others.
DIVERSIFICATION APPROACH TO TOLERANCE.
Reviews of foreign and domestic works on tolerance testify: it is not possible not only to give an unambiguous definition of tolerance, to reduce it to a single characteristic, but even to localize it in a certain topic. Only the "most important prerequisites for tolerance" - each of which can open up a whole direction fundamental research- some authors number five or more, among which are: ontological premises, epistemological, axiological, sociological, psychological, etc. But even if you try to limit yourself psychological aspects, then here the phenomenon of tolerance does not lie only in one plane - its content is heterogeneous, does not obey "linear determinism" and cannot be reduced to a separate property, indicator, characteristic ... Tolerance is a complex, multifaceted and multicomponent phenomenon that has several lines of manifestation and development, which - by analogy with the "basic measurements of communication" proposed by J. Bugental (Bugental, 1987) - can be called the basic measurements of tolerance.
If we affirm the values of pluralism, variability, if we ourselves are tolerant enough to recognize the “multidimensionality of a person” and his life world, in which tolerance plays the role of one of the key principles, then we will consider tolerance itself as comparable in complexity and isomorphic in structure this multifaceted and diverse World... The complexity and multidimensionality of the phenomenon of tolerance manifests itself in several directions.
First of all, in the variety of types and forms of tolerance. This aspect of diversification is the most obvious, although in many philosophical and theological treatises they try to present tolerance as something unambiguously understood, clearly defined and indivisible. But in modern psychology, just the opposite is true - tolerance "as such" simply disappears, crumbling into a huge variety of options, types, types, forms, levels. Attempts to systematize psychological research on tolerance are very difficult - the term "tolerance" turned out to be applicable to almost any psychological phenomenon.
Tolerance permeates all spheres of a person's social and individual life, is an important dimension of almost any psychological process and state, one of the key "existentials" of human life.
From the awareness of the diversity of types and forms of tolerance, it becomes clear that it is hardly correct to talk about a “tolerant (intolerant) personality” as such - it would be more accurate to talk about the level or degree of manifestation of tolerance (intolerance), about options and forms, about certain accents and aspects of the application of the principles of tolerance in specific situations ... You can also talk about certain dynamics in the development of tolerance and highlight several phases of the formation of tolerance (Pettai, 2000). Moreover, it cannot be unequivocally stated that high level tolerance is always preferable. It makes sense to listen to those who raise the problem of the limits of tolerance (see for more details, for example /Wolzer, 2000/). An excessive increase in tolerance, inadequate to the circumstances (as some sociologists put it, “tolerance without shores”) can lead to a weakening of resistance and an increase in a person’s vulnerability, a decrease in his differential sensitivity (in the broad sense), and even more - to the emergence of threats to individuality, identity etc. All this requires a more cautious, differentiated attitude to issues practical application principles of tolerance in direct interpersonal communication - or, in other words, poses the problem of the measure of tolerance. One of the possible ways of solving this problem is the rejection of the binary opposition "tolerance-tolerance" and the transition to the construction of a continuum of degrees of tolerance (with the same "tolerance" and "intolerance" at conditional asymptotic poles).
Another aspect of diversification is the multidimensionality and heterogeneity of the psychological content of tolerance. This means that it is impossible to describe tolerance with sufficient completeness based on only one concept, only in one dimension. At the same time, the fascination with various typologies, classifications and analytical "preparation" increases the danger of a "collector's" approach, piling up "lists of traits", etc. Therefore, it makes sense to highlight not all, but only the main, most important psychological dimensions of interpersonal tolerance, which can be considered as priority areas its research and development.
Traditionally, to describe complex psychological processes and phenomena (for example, communication), a triad of components is used - cognitive, emotional and behavioral. There have been attempts to apply this scheme to tolerance as well (see, for example, Skryabina, 2000 and others). In the most general form, the main content of these components, or, more precisely, the "dimensions" of tolerance, can be described as follows.
Bratchenko L. S. BRATCHENKO Leonid Sergeevich (b. 3.8.1923, Odessa), owl. artist. Nar. thin Ukrainian SSR (1976). Member CPSU since 1962. In 1951 he graduated from Kharkov Arts. in-t. Since 1952 production designer, since 1966 chief. artist T-ra them. Lysenko. Decorator author. ballet designs: Prisoner of the Caucasus (1957), La Bayadère (1958); "Lileya" by Dankevich (1958, 1968), "Spartacus" (1966), "Romeo and Juliet" (1967), etc.
A. M. Drak.
Ballet. Encyclopedia. - M.:. Chief Editor Yu.N. Grigorovich. 1981 .
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Methodology “Orientation of the personality in communication” (S.L. Bratchenko). The "UFO" technique is intended to study the orientation of the personality in communication, understood by its author as a set of more or less conscious personal semantic attitudes and value orientations in the sphere of interpersonal communication, as an individual "communicative paradigm", including ideas about the meaning of communication, its goals, means, desirable and acceptable ways of behavior in communication, etc. In other words, the technique allows you to study the value-semantic relations of the individual in the sphere of her communication with other people. It is based on the method of unfinished sentences. There are two forms of methodology: basic, which does not have a professional specification, and the second - focused on the study of orientation in professional communication. The technique makes it possible to identify the degree of severity of the types of personality orientation (in%) in non-professional and professional communication, as well as the dominant type of orientation in communication and the ratio of the severity of other types. The author of the methodology identified six types of orientation in communication: dialogic, authoritarian, manipulative, alterocentric, conformal and indifferent, the essence of which is described below. It seems that with the help of these types one can more or less fully characterize the variety of individual options for the content of orientation in communication, as well as reflect the complexity and versatility of this personal formation. Like any projective technique, with its qualified application, it gives important information about the deep features of the psyche. Bratchenko S.L. six main types of UFO are identified: dialogical communicative orientation (D-UFO), authoritarian (AV-UFO); alterocentric (Al–NLO); manipulative orientation (M-UFO); conformal (K-UFO); indifferent (I-UFO). These types of communicative orientation are characterized by the following features, which simultaneously serve as the basis for evaluating projective material:
1) D-UFO - orientation towards equal communication, which is based on
mutual respect and trust, focus on mutual understanding, mutual
openness and communicative cooperation, the desire for mutual self-expression, development, cooperation.
2) AB-UFO - focus on dominance in communication, the desire to suppress the personality of the interlocutor, subjugate him, "communicative aggression", cognitive egocentrism, "requirement" to be understood or the requirement of agreement with one's own position, unwillingness to understand the interlocutor, disrespect for someone else's point of view , orientation to the stereotypical "communication-functioning", communicative rigidity.
3) M-UFO - orientation towards using the interlocutor and all communication for one's own purposes, for obtaining various kinds of benefits, treating the interlocutor as a means, an object of one's manipulations. The desire to understand the interlocutor in order to obtain the necessary information, combined with their own secrecy, insincerity. Orientation towards development and cunning in communication, but one-sided - only for oneself at the expense of another.
4) Al-UFO - voluntary "centring" on the interlocutor, orientation to his goals, needs, etc. and selfless sacrifice of their interests and goals. The desire to understand the needs of another in order to satisfy them to the fullest, but indifference to understanding oneself on his part. The desire to contribute to the development of the interlocutor, even to the detriment of their own development and well-being.
5) K-UFO - refusal of equality in communication in favor of the interlocutor. Orientation towards submission to the power of authority, towards an “objective” position for oneself. Orientation to non-critical "consent" (avoidance of opposition), the lack of desire for real understanding and the desire to be understood. Orientation to imitation, reactive communication, readiness to "adjust" to the interlocutor.
6) And - UFO - such an attitude to communication, in which communication itself is ignored with all its problems, the dominance of orientation to "purely business" issues, "avoidance" of communication as such.
The value of the "UFO" methodology is due to the fact that the final assessment ("formula") reflects the entire spectrum of the above types of orientation and allows you to determine the prevailing communicative trend, thereby preserving the integrity, complexity and versatility of the individual as a subject of communication. The "UFO" technique underwent appropriate psychometric procedures and showed sufficient retest reliability and construct validity.
The text of the "UFO" technique
1. The topic of our conversation ...
2. So that the interlocutor understands me correctly ...
3. I would like to communicate with a person for whom my experiences ...
4. It is very important for me that the interlocutor in communication with me comes from ...
5. I expect from the interlocutor ...
6. If I think the other person is wrong...
7. I consider it right if, in communicating with me, the interlocutor sets as his goal ...
8. The interlocutor's trust in me ...
9. If the interlocutor stops listening to me ...
10. I like this kind of communication…
11. The interlocutor expects from me ...
12. If the interlocutor thinks that I am wrong ...
13. The efforts of communication partners should be directed to ...
14. So that I understand the interlocutor ...
15. What the interlocutor is experiencing ...
16. In communication, I try to proceed from ...
17. If a conflict is brewing in communication ...
18. I try to take a position in communication ...
19. For me, the main goal of communication is…
20. Trust the interlocutor ...
21. If the interlocutor does not understand me ...
22. Usually I start communication ...
23. The interlocutor in communication should never ...
24. For me, the most difficult thing in communication is ...
25. If I do not understand the interlocutor ...
26. I would like the interlocutor to take a position in communication ...
27. If the interlocutor does not answer my question ...
28. What I dislike most about communication is…
29. If the interlocutor interrupts me ...
30. In communication, I should never ...
31. At the end of the conversation…
Processing and interpretation of results For processing the projective material, the system of categories described above (types of communicative orientation) is used. Each “answer” (part of the stems - No. 1; 13; 22; 24; 28 - perform specific functions and are not subject to processing in this context) is assigned a certain category - “D” or “AB”, or “M”, etc., if it is impossible to unambiguously interpret one or another “answer”, two categories can be assigned at once, and in more obscure versions, the category is not assigned. In addition to assessing the "answers" by category (qualitative assessment), each of them is also assigned a score (from 0 to 5) - depending on the degree of completeness and clarity of expression in the "answer" of this direction (quantitative assessment).
The most essential criterion for determining the type of UFO is the ratio
position of the interlocutors from the point of view of their equality (unequal rights), symmetry of requirements and expectations. For a more accurate assessment of the projective material on this issue, an important criterion in the methodology, a special technique was used, called the "inverted stem". Its essence lies in the fact that some of the stems have a "mirror" pair in the list - i.e. the same communicative situation is presented in one stem from the position of the respondent himself, and in the other (comprising a pair with the first) - from the position of his imaginary interlocutor, moreover, in the list dictated to the respondent, “paired” stems are not located next to each other, but are spaced apart (for example, one of the pairs consists of stems No. 5 “I expect from the interlocutor ...” and stems No. 11 “The interlocutor expects me ...”). "Answers" to paired stems are evaluated as a whole, by comparing both answers with each other, and to give a greater specific weight, the pair's score (in points) is multiplied by three. For example, couple No. 3 “I would like to communicate with a person for whom my experiences ... are close and he is not indifferent to them”, No. 15 “What the interlocutor is going through ... is indifferent to me, the main thing is that he thinks well of me” - receives an AB-15 rating as a result (the couple receives the category "AB" and maximum score– 5, which triples).
In order to make the interpretation of the "answers" more accurate and justified, a "key" is used - a selection of the most characteristic and common options for "answers" that have previously undergone peer review. The "Key" is designed to solve two problems: firstly, to evaluate specific "answers" (by finding the closest ones to them in the "Key"), and secondly, to teach those who want to master the "UFO" technique. However, the key should not be used as a dogma, it should serve as an indicative basis for the mental dialogue of the researcher with the respondent, as a result of which only an adequate understanding of the latter can occur, a correct assessment of his communicative orientation.
Each "answer", thus, receives a certain assessment - a category and a score. Then the final score of the entire protocol is displayed, for which the scores for each category are summed up separately (both the scores of individual stems and pairs are taken into account; in the NLO-3 variant, almost all stems are paired). As a result, each protocol receives a final score in the form of a certain “formula” of communicative orientation, for example, the final score of one of the protocols looks like this: D-2, AB-40, M-4, AL-0, K-8, I-12 . Since the total scores (for all categories) are different for different protocols, in order to compare the results of the respondents among themselves, the absolute values are converted into relative ones - as a percentage of the total scores of this protocol. Then the final assessment of the protocol from the above example will look like this: total score - 66 (100%), by category - D - 3%, AB - 61%, M - 6%, AL - 0%, K - 12%, I - 18%. For the analysis and further interpretation of the results, it is the “formula” as a whole that is used, although in some cases there may be non-zero scores in the protocol only for two or three categories, or even (very rarely) for one. As a rule, all types of communicative orientation are presented in the protocols to one degree or another. At the same time, usually final assessment it is possible to identify trends, the predominant type of UFO (in the above example, the authoritarian tendency is clearly visible), to reveal a certain logic of the distribution of points by category, etc. - this is the subject of further interpretation of the results, counseling of respondents, etc.
Methods of research and diagnosis of attitudes towards death
IN psychological science the question of a person's attitude to death for a long time remained without attention, and rather belonged to the sphere of philosophy. Only over the past forty years has there been an intensive growth of research and publications on the fear of death and tanatic anxiety in the world. The term "tanatic anxiety" is commonly understood as "an unpleasant emotional state that occurs when a person thinks about his own death" (D. Templer, 1970), or "pointless and non-localized fear of death" (I. Yalom, 1980), which can manifest itself as conscious level, and at an unconscious level, and be associated with both negative and positive images of death. The attitude towards death, therefore, comes down to fear and anxiety, which, apparently, is due to the predominant representation of these experiences in people's attitude towards death. However, it is clear that the attitude towards death is manifested in a wider range of experiences, thoughts, intentions. The attitude towards death is one of the most important life relations of a person, correlated with her attitude to her whole life as a whole, with her understanding own life and manifested in the thoughts, feelings, intentions and aspirations of a person.
IN domestic psychology There are very few works devoted to the problem of a person's attitude to his own death. In foreign studies that have studied in recent decades thanatic anxiety and fear of death as manifestations of attitudes towards death, some methodological experience has been accumulated, which cannot be said about domestic research and diagnostic practice, which is experiencing a clear shortage of methodological tools that can be used for these purposes. To a certain extent, this gap can be filled by the following methods of foreign authors, adapted by T.A. Gavrilova 22]
1. "Scale of Fear of Death" by J. Boyar. (Boyar's Fear of Death Scale - FODS).
Scale of Fear of Death" by J. Boyar. (Boyar's Fear of Death Scale - FODS)
2."Death Anxiety Scale", D. Templer. ("Death Anxiety Scale" - DAS).
In 1967, D. Templer first introduced the "Death Anxiety Scale" (DAS), which he developed and subsequently received the greatest distribution and recognition in the world. To date, there are more than 20 works devoted to both testing its psychometric characteristics and studying the correlations of tanatic anxiety with personal, religious, intellectual and other parameters. The scale is adapted to Arabic, German, Spanish, Indian, Chinese, Korean, Japanese populations. It contains 15 statements that passed the test of content and construct validity and internal consistency. Templer also conducted research on the structure of his scale. DAS has been found to cover four factors: cognitive-affective preoccupation with death, preoccupation with physical change, awareness of the passage of time, preoccupation with pain and stress. According to the author, the structure of the scale established by him indicates that tanatic anxiety is a form of anxiety about two fundamental human states - separation and change. In other words, the thanatic anxiety measured by DAS appears to be a component of existential anxiety, since it is connected with the original problems of human existence.
"Death Anxiety Scale" by D. Templer“
Death Anxiety Scale – DAS
3. Methodology of “Metaphors of Personal Death” by J. McLennan. (Metaphors of Personal Death - RDFS).
This technique was developed in 1992 - 1996 by J. McLennon. He composed two series of metaphors from fantasy images of death discovered by H. Feifel and M. Negi, as well as in his own research. It turned out two subscales - negative metaphors of death and positive metaphors of death. Respondents are asked to rate each of the metaphors on a five-point scale, according to how they describe their own perception of death. The study showed the internal consistency of the scales, and their reliability, validity and relative independence from neuroticism, extraversion and social desirability. This technique has shown its usefulness in the selection of volunteers to work with terminally ill patients in clinics, as well as to study attitudes related to the problem of HIV infection. The author emphasizes that RDFS, in contrast to self-assessment questionnaires, allows one to "capture" the unconscious level of assumptions about one's own death.
Methodology of “Metaphor of Personal Death” by J. McLennan
(Metaphors of Personal Death - RDFS)
Instruction: The following are some of the metaphors (or imagery) people use to describe their understanding of their own death. We ask you to evaluate how each of these metaphors can describe your perspective on your own death. Please rate each metaphor or image below on a five-point scale.
And now, regardless of how you assessed the images proposed above, please describe in your own words metaphor or image that best describes how you might think about your own death.
Subscale of positive death metaphors: 1, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17
Subscale of negative death metaphors: 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 18
Control questions and assignments for module 3
1. Methodology for studying the system of life meanings (Kotlyakov V.S.): its capabilities and limitations.
2. Features of the construction and use of the methodology of M. Rokeach and its modifications in Russian psychology (D.A. Leontieva, E.B. Fantalova).
3. Possibilities and limitations of the methodology of M. Rokeach and its modifications in Russian psychology (D.A. Leontieva, E.B. Fantalova).
4. Questionnaire of terminal values (N.G. Senin) and its modified version: its capabilities and limitations.
5. Features of the construction and use of the methodology for the study and diagnosis of meaningful life orientations (D.A. Leontiev).
6. Questionnaire "On the meaning of life" (Chudnovsky V.E., Vaiser G.A.): features of processing and interpretation of the data obtained with its help.
7. Methodology “Orientation of the personality in communication” (S.L. Bratchenko): its theoretical foundations, possibilities and limitations.
8. Under the orientation of the personality in communication, S.L. Bratchenko understands, first of all, (value-semantic criteria of communication).
9. Techniques for studying attitudes towards death. Features of their construction and use.
10. The basis for the allocation of terminal and instrumental values by M. Rokeach is (their functional value)
Project assignments for module 3
Exercise 1.
With the help of Life-Line techniques and methodological techniques mastered by students, it is proposed to study, describe and analyze the subjective picture of the life of one or two people; determine the goal, objectives and directions of practical psychological work with them in case they apply for practical psychological help.
1. Life-Line and other new methods of psychology life path// Ed. A.A. Kronika.- M. Progress, 1993.
2. Golovakha E.I., Kronik A.A. Psychological time personality. - Kyiv; Naukova Dumka, 1984.
3. Kronik A.A., Golovakha E.I. Psychological age personality // Psychological journal. - 1983.- T.4.- No. 5.- P.57-63.
4. Muzdybaev K. Measuring hope // Psychological journal. - 1999. - Volume 20. - No. 3, No. 4.
Task 2
Acquaintance with some methods of studying the perception and experience of a person's own life: "Index of life satisfaction" (I.V. Panina); methodology for diagnosing the level of subjective feeling of loneliness (D. Russell, M. Fergusson); methodology for diagnosing a mid-life crisis (A.A. Kronik, R.A. Akhmerov). Familiarization with the methods is carried out in the process of self-diagnosis and analysis of its results.
1. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Life strategy. Moscow: Thought, 1991.
2. Eysenck G., Eysenk M. Happiness factor // Study of the human psyche. M.: EKSMO-Press, 2001. S. 255-288.
3. Argyle M. Psychology of happiness. M., 1990.
4. Gabdulina L.I. Life satisfaction, happiness and their conditionality by value and meaningful life orientations // North Caucasian Psychological Bulletin. Appendix 1. Rostov n / D. 2003. S. 59-65.
5. Dzhidaryan I.A. The concept of happiness in the Russian mentality. St. Petersburg, 2001.
6. Kronik A.A., Kronik E.A. Starring: You, We, He, You, Me: The Psychology of Meaningful Relationships. M., 2001.
7. Kronik A.A., Akhmerov Causometry: Methods of self-knowledge, psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy in the psychology of the life path. M., 2003.
8. Panina N.V. Life satisfaction index // Life-line and other new methods of life path psychology. M.: Progress, 1993. S. 107-114.
9. Shukshin N.A. Psychology of happiness: Simple Solutions difficult questions. Ural L.T.D. Arkaim, 2004.
Task 3
Using the methods of research and diagnosis of attitudes towards death mastered by students, it is proposed to study, describe and analyze the attitude to death of one or two people; determine the goal, objectives and directions of practical psychological work with them in case they apply for practical psychological help.
A report on the completion of the task is submitted to writing
1. Aries F. Man in the face of death. Per. from French Moscow: Progress. 1992.– 528 p.
2. Gabdulina L. I. Meaningfulness of life and attitude to death at different stages of the life path of a person. // North Caucasian Psychological Bulletin 2004, No. 2. Rostov n / a. 2004. - S. 13 - 19.
3. Gavrilova T. A. Existential fear of death and tanatical anxiety: research and diagnostic methods. // Applied psychology, 2001 No. 6. - P. 1 - 8.
4. Karandashev VN Live without fear of death./ V. Karandashev. - 2nd ed., Rev. and additional – M.: Meaning: Acad. Project., 1999. - 335 p. – (Psychological culture)
6. Moody Raymond A. Life before life: Exploring past life regressions; Life after life: A study of the phenomenon of "contact with death" / Per. from English: O. Lebedeva, Ya. Senkevich. - Kyiv: Sofia, 1994. - 351 p.
7. Popogrebsky A.P. The meaning of life and attitude to death. // Psychology with a human face: a humanistic perspective in post-Soviet psychology. Ed. D. A. Leontieva, V. G. Shchur: Meaning, 1997 . pp. 177 - 200.
8. Feifel G. Death is a relevant variable in psychology. / existential psychology. Existence. // Per. from English. M. Zanadvorova, Yu. Ovchinnikova. - M.: April Press, Publishing house EKSMO-Press, 2001. - 624 p. (Series "Psychological collection"). pp. 48 - 58.
9. Freud Z. We and death. Beyond the pleasure principle. - Ryazantsev - Thanatology - the science of death. - St. Petersburg, East-Europe. Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1994, 380 p.
10. Shor G.V. On the death of a person. (Introduction to thanatology) / [G. V. Shor]. - St. Petersburg; Publishing House of St. Petersburg State Medical University, 2002. - 271 p.: ill.
11. Yalom I. Existential psychotherapy. M.: Independent firm "Class", 1999.
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This is the first book not only in Russian but also in world literature devoted to the presentation and analysis of one of the most profound and promising approaches in modern world psychology and psychotherapy - the existential-humanistic approach of James Bugenthal. The history of the emergence of this direction, its philosophical and theoretical foundations, as well as the psychological concept of deep communication, on the basis of which the practice of psychological counseling is built, are considered in detail.
To be or not to be, that is the question.
Is it worthy
Humble under the blows of fate
Is it necessary to resist?
William Shakespeare
We don't cure diseases or fix disorders, we free captives...
James Bugenthal
Foreword
This book did not appear suddenly and not by accident. It has its own, already quite large, backstory. In the summer of 1992, at the II International Conference on Humanistic Psychology in Moscow, she spoke Deborah Rahilly(Deborah Rahilly) from USA talking about his teacher's concept - JamesByudzhentala(FOOTNOTE: We should immediately specify the “problem of the name”: perhaps it is James Bugental who has the most diverse form of writing his surname in Russian (I have already counted more than five options!); Without entering into a discussion about how it would be correct “actually ”, I prefer to use the transcription that I heard from J. B. himself) (James Bugental), one of the leaders existential-humanistic approach(EGP). Her post generated a lot of interest. And then a group of Russian psychologists ( Elena Mazur, Dmitry Leontiev and the author of these lines, who by that time had been seriously interested in the humanistic direction for a long time) agreed with Deborah to hold several introductory seminars after the conference, including in Moscow and St. Petersburg. These short but intense meetings were successful, and groups of psychologists and psychotherapists were formed in both cities, interested in a deeper mastery of this approach.
