The text, as defined by I.R. Galperin, is a work of the speech-creative process, which has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document; a work consisting of a title (title) and a number of special units (prose stanzas, see ch. XLIX), united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connections, having a certain purposeful and pragmatic setting.
The purposefulness and pragmatic setting of the text, which ensure the integrity and coherence of its various prose stanzas, are manifested primarily in the forms of presentation of textual information - the author's own or someone else's.
§223. Forms of presentation of copyright information
The author's information itself is presented on behalf of the subject of speech (speaking or writing) in the form of the first, second or third person singular. The form of presentation and its content are mutually dependent. The presentation in the form of the first and second person gives the text subjectivity, and the third - objectivity. The first person gives an element of reliability and at the same time emphasizes the subjectivity, one-sidedness of the assessment itself. The presentation from the second person, with its largely subjective nature, gives the text an additional shade of generalization, multiple comprehension and return to the topic. Wed: I do not remember , in what year, but somewhere far after the war, I sailed on a new steamer down the Yenisei(V. Astafiev); You see, for example, how a bottle is standing, or it is raining, or a peasant is riding a cart, but what is this bottle for, or rain, or a peasant, what is the point in them, to say can not, and even for a thousand rubles I would not say anything(Chekhov). Third-person narration focuses on the content of what is being reported, for example: Benois laughs in his beard, Kuzma Petrovich Petrov-Vodkin speaks temperamentally, Mstislav Valeryanovich Dobuzhinsky is silent, Roerich is strictly concentrated(Polyakova).
Each form of presentation has its own variants and variations. Thus, a third-person presentation can be strictly objective, or it can be authorized by including words should be emphasized and others. Compare: The morning was beautiful– It should be noted that the morning was beautiful. When presented in the first and second person, the form of the number is important, as well as the presence of a pronoun in the verb form, (see §169 p. 2, §178 p. 1 about this).
A single form of presentation is typical only for the genres of official business style. In other types of text, their alternation and various combinations are usually observed. One of the forms of presentation is organizing, playing the role of a framework, the other or others are subordinating. A presentation from the first and second person in a sufficiently detailed text necessarily implies the participation of a presentation from a third person.
§224. Forms of someone else's speech
Alien information (its source is not the author of the text) exists in the form of direct or indirect speech, and the choice of the form of someone else's speech is just as meaningful in terms of content as the choice of the form of presentation.
1. Form of direct speech testifies to the reliability of someone else's statement and indirectly conveys respect for the source of information and what he said. For example, Ludwig Erhard wrote: “The essence of a market economy lies mainly in the fact that the management of the economic process, production, distribution of goods and income is not carried out by coercion...”(From newspapers).
In direct speech, the place of the words of the author is significant. Wed placement of accents in options: The speaker said: “Our economy has remained costly. More to take - here is her main law». “Our economy has remained costly, the speaker said. - take more – this is its main law. “Our economy has remained costly. More to take - this is its main law, the speaker said.
2. Form of indirect speech is the processing of someone else's statement, which can lead to its conscious or unconscious distortion. In this case, it is not the other person’s statement that comes to the fore, but the understanding of it by the author of the text. For example: The speaker revealed one of the theses of the program and agreed that the reforms could be adjusted, but at the same time he complained that many well-known experts initially took the position of rejecting their program(From newspapers).
Indirect speech is very convenient for brief retelling extensive statements and giving them in the direction the author needs, but it can also create suspicion in the reader of an arbitrary interpretation of the statement.
The degree of development and detail of indirect speech can be very different: from striving to include fragments of a literal statement to extremely generalized.
An important technique of "conducting" someone else's information in the form of direct and indirect speech is choice of words that introduce someone else's speech. Wed: said, answered, continued, lamented, insisted, concentrated attention and so on. Verbs are also used to introduce someone else's speech. denoting facial expressions, gestures ( smiled, nodded, frowned ), emotions and feelings ( surprised, delighted, horrified ), actions ( got up ). For example: "Here it is, the dam"– showed with his eyes mechanic(V. Peskov).
3. Close to indirect speech direct author's retelling of someone else's statement with reference to the source of information in the form of introductory words: According to speaker, such a solution will not satisfy anyone(From newspapers). The location of the introductory words in this case is as significant as the words of the author in direct speech.
4. A special place among the forms of someone else's speech is occupied by improper-direct speech that combines the features of direct and indirect speech. In part, it retains the lexical, grammatical and some other features of the speaker's speech, and the form of the person of pronouns and verbs corresponds to indirect speech, but at the same time, no introductory verbs of speech and thought are used in improperly direct speech, that is, there is no formal signal of the transition from the author's speech to stranger. For example: Again the whole day passed in empty, worthless conversations. How tired he was of the guests!(Goncharov); He went outside and quickly walked home. It looked like some kind of conspiracy. It's the devil knows what! .. As agreed. After all, it is clear, it is clear to the child: the wheel cannot but turn. No, you see, it should not spin. Well what is it?(V. Shukshin).
Improperly direct speech is most often used to convey unspoken thoughts, an internal monologue. If in direct and indirect speech the boundary between the author's and someone else's is clearly felt, then in improperly direct speech it is hidden.
5. The text may contain various the ratio of the author's and someone else's speech: the predominance of the author's speech, the predominance of someone else's speech, the mixing of the author's and someone else's speech without any predominance, the separation of the author's and someone else's speech, the ingrowth of the author's speech into someone else's.
When growing in, for example, improperly direct speech and such a kind of authorial speech from a third person, which is called proprietary. It includes position and language features character, but in fragmented form and without the situation of speech and thought. Wed: Matvey looked around, but there was no longer a sleigh or a peasant (Chekhov) with experimental - Matvey looked around and saw that neither the peasant nor the sleigh was gone. In Chekhov's proposal, Matvey's perception is included in the author's text, while in the experimental one it is absent. See also: Beaupre in his own country he was a hairdresser, then a soldier in Prussia, then he came to Russia pour être outchitel not really understanding the meaning of this word(Pushkin), where written in Latin letters Russian word teacher conveys the point of view of Beaupré in the author's presentation from the third person.
The internal integrity of the text is ensured by the image of the subject of speech (“the image of the author”, in the terminology of V.V. Vinogradov). The ratio of the author's and someone else's, the forms of presentation, their combinations and transitions can be of a typical nature ( the laws of the genre), as well as individual.
§225. Relations between the subject and addressee of speech
First of all, the very choice of the forms of presentation of the author's speech and the forms of someone else's speech affects the nature of the relationship with the addressee. For example, first-person narration suggests a more intimate relationship with the addressee than third-person narration. In addition, there is a special set of techniques for regulating the relationship between the subject and the addressee of the text. Among them are distinguished:
1) explicit (explicit); these include questions of all types - rhetorical, non-rhetorical, questions as part of segmented structures, various forms of incentive sentences, references to previously published texts, for example: Market economy. But what? Try, for example, head towards the Marais- to the fish market, which opens at three in the morning, Let's move on to the next questions; As you know from our publications; Of course you remember(all examples from newspapers);
2) hidden (implicit); Among them, three are especially active:
a) the use of negative constructions in a monologue text without relying on the context, for example: Not a single Suzdal painting covered clean log walls; ... frisky Prussians did not wander between the logs and along the window jambs, pensive cockroaches did not hide(Turgenev). See also traditional negative beginnings: Ah, I didn't lock the door, I didn't light the candles.(Akhmatova), contributing to the dialogization and dramatization of the statement;
b) the use of various kinds of explanations (see § 226);
c) the use of literary quotations and allusions, implying that the reader is familiar with the quotation. For example, in Bunin's story "Dark Alleys", the hero and heroine recall poems that he once read to her. She quotes only two of them - "dark alleys", it is two lines: “All around the scarlet rose hips bloomed, Alleys of dark lindens stood.” The citation is based on the belief that the reader will not only remember who these lines belong to (N. Ogarev) and notice the inaccuracy in the quotation (not dark alleys, but dark linden alleys), but will also understand why the quotation is inaccurate.
§226. Making copyright notes
1. In the course of the presentation, the author may need to clarify any statement, term or concept, phenomenon, event. See for example: Arrested Sergey was still “on the rack” (this is the name of the position of the detainee, who stubbornly refuses to admit the facts)(From newspapers). The incidental nature of such a commentary finds its expression in its graphic design. Explanations can be in the text itself and taken in brackets, introduced with special words like: Let's give one little explanation. and so on. They can be quite detailed and independent (a kind of "lyrical digressions"), but they can be very brief and wedged into a sentence. All such explanations in the text are drawn up in accordance with the rules of punctuation (see Chapter XXV and §127 Chapter XXXII).
2. If explanations are given at the end of the text, then continuous numbering is used to refer to them, if - at the bottom of the page, pagination is used. If the text contains off-text and page-by-page explanations, then to refer to the page-by-page explanation, the icon is used - * . In books there are all three types of explanations, in newspapers - mainly textual explanations.
3. When choosing the type of explanation, it is necessary to take into account its communicative function. Inline explanations characterize the addressee as a person who, from the point of view of the subject of speech, may not know something or misunderstand something. Per-page and over-text already characterize the subject of speech, who considers it necessary to explain something.
Wed two excerpts similar in content, but differing in design and communicative orientation, from M. Volkonsky's story "The Maltese Chain":
1) Maman* says you have business with me?Nelidova asked in her wonderful voice, running through the note that Kannih handed her. In a footnote: * Mother. All the institute girls, although they had already finished their course, called Madame Lafont that;
2) Yes, fatherLitta answered quietly. The knights, in a private conversation with the Grand Master, called him directly “father” instead of the title. The conversation was in French.
The less prepared the addressee, the more undesirable are page-by-page and off-text explanations; than the addressee is closer in general cultural and professional level to the subject of speech, the more free the author in choosing explanations.
4. The relationship between what is being explained and what is being explained can be direct or inverse. With direct explanations, the little-known, incomprehensible is explained through the known, understandable, with reverse explanations, the understandable or known is specified, concretized. For example, in order to exclude possible discrepancies in the spelling of proper names of foreign political and public figures, cultural figures, as well as the names of newspapers, magazines, and firms, it is desirable to duplicate their spelling in Latin. For example, general William Burns (Williamburns). Quotations from non-Russian sources are also given in the author's translation: the translation is duplicated by the text in the language of the source.
5. Direct or reverse nature of explanations also forms and regulates the communicative relations between the author and the addressee. With direct explanations, the subject of speech acts as an explainer with a higher level of knowledge than the addressee; with the reverse - he "apologizes" to the addressee for some simplification in his presentation. Wed: It was one moment, but Litta read in them the Latin word "cave!"- "beware"(M. Volkonsky); ... The plan of "blitzkrieg", instant war, which we are talking about here as a matter of course, clearly failed(From newspapers). - He remembered how the commander, for some omission (...) ordered him to be taken out in front of the crew and reprimanded him in front of everyone, not sparing his gray hair, hispello blanhissime...(M. Volkonsky); He was invited to speak in the local parliament, the Knesset(From newspapers).
6. The content of the explanation may be duplicate(explanatory only) and complementary. Wed: Lunch (...) was not complete without fluttering jelly and Spanish winds (cake)(Turgenev). - Wishing to try our luck again before sunrise (you can also go for traction in the morning) ...(Turgenev).
In the practice of reprinting Russian and translated texts, as well as publishing translated literature, there is a need for some clarifications and explanations. All of them must come with a litter Ed. (editor) or Transl. (translator). But, unfortunately, one often observes “free” handling of the author's explanations: rejection of them, replacement of the explained words with explanatory ones, change in the type of explanation, which can lead to distortion of the text.
Logical and semantic analysis of the text
§227. Language means of transferring logical-semantic relations
Since the editor deals with linguistic material - with written speech, it is very important to imagine by what language means the logical-semantic relations between concepts and judgments are transmitted, how the text is connected, how various logical-semantic shades are emphasized and enhanced.
1. Very often, the logical connection between judgments is expressed by unions, allied words and phrases: therefore, because, since, for, although, however, but, nevertheless, therefore, so, thus etc. It is necessary, in the course of reading, to determine the logical meaning of each union, to reveal the presence of certain logical relations between concepts or judgments. So, in a sentence where there is a union between two concepts or judgments And, it is necessary to find out whether these concepts (or judgments) exclude each other, whether they have a single basis for division. For example: The head of the Italian government, Nitti, had no sympathy for the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, And his decision not to intervene was taken under pressure from a general strike of Italian trade unions against any intervention against the Republic of Soviets. If we analyze the use of the coordinating conjunction in this complex sentence And, then it is not difficult to find that it is used incorrectly: from a logical point of view, the facts described are quite obviously opposed, not combined. Editing options: 1) break a complex sentence into two simple ones, after the word revolution, put an end to it, remove the union And; 2) in the second sentence, insert a logically accenting word: solely under the pressure of the general strike...
2. The analysis of those punctuation marks that express certain logical relationships, serve to design the “semantic” division of a phrase, and indicate semantic shades requires great attention. So, comma in a series of homogeneous members should indicate the logical homogeneity of the enumerated concepts, their semantic uniformity. In a non-union complex sentence, the use colons implies either explanatory or causal relationships between the parts. Dash indicates the relationship of the effect. Brackets indicate that the information placed in them is secondary, additional in relation to the main one. Quotes a sign of "foreignness" of the words, phrases and phrases contained in them in the main text. In the course of reading, it is advisable to determine the meaning and correctness of the use of "semantic" punctuation marks, checking the logical relationships in the text. For example: Coal– a source of energy for which demand is steadily increasing: its share in the total balance of energy carriers will certainly increase until the end of this century. The use of a colon in this sentence does not meet the logical and semantic requirements, because the second part complex sentence only adds new information to the content of the first part, but is not explanatory and does not indicate the reason for what is said in the first part. In this complex sentence, it is appropriate to use a connecting union instead of a colon And.
§228. Techniques for identifying and verifying logical and semantic relationships
1. Singling out judgments and reducing them to simple ones. The term “judgment” accepted in logic is usually correlated with the grammatical concept “sentence”. One of the techniques that allows you to identify and check the logical-semantic relationships in the text is the selection of simple sentences (judgments) as part of complex ones for the purpose of subsequent logical-semantic analysis. This type of work is especially preferable in cases where the text contains numerous sentences that are difficult to perceive and understand - with a complicated grammatical structure with a variety of syntactic links between parts. For example: Inevitably, given modern military-strategic doctrines, India's defense policy must be designed to take into account the realities of the world order, even in the face of an active struggle for peace and cooperation, which is an urgent imperative if our planet is to survive and remain habitable. (From newspapers). We single out and simplify judgments (sentences).
First judgment(offer): Taking into account modern military-strategic doctrines, it is inevitable.
Second judgment: The defense policy of India should be designed in this way.
Third judgment: To take into account the realities of the world order, even in the face of an active struggle for peace and cooperation.
Fourth judgment: Which is the imperative of the times.
Fifth judgment: Our planet must survive and remain habitable.
The performed operation makes it possible to detect a number of logical and semantic flaws:
1) in the first sentence there is no grammatical subject with the predicate inevitably;
2) the subject of the action is not indicated in the third sentence, although formally it should be the subject of the second sentence - defense Policy, and logically - the word India;
3) in the third sentence, the meaning of the connecting turnover is not clear even under conditions of active struggle;
4) in the fourth sentence it is not clear which of the words of the previous sentence replaces the allied word What.
Edit option: In view of the modern military-strategic doctrine, India must develop its defense policy in such a way as to take into account the realities of the world order, while not ceasing to actively fight for peace and cooperation. The fight for peace is the imperative of the times if we want our planet to survive and remain habitable. (In this version, only logical and semantic flaws have been corrected, the text itself needs further stylistic editing).
2. Correlation of homogeneous members of a sentence with a generalizing word or among themselves. The logical homogeneity of the concepts included in a single series, as well as their correspondence to a generalizing word (concept) can be revealed by carefully characterizing each word and checking these same characteristics in relation to the next member of the series. For example: With the transfer of the German capital from Bonn to Berlin, the former GDR, which has only a quarter of the country's population, will immediately receive three constituent bodies: parliament, government, president. With general phrase constitutional bodies in this series of homogeneous members word does not match the president . You can correct the logical-semantic error by removing the generalizing words: ... In the former GDR, which has only a quarter of the population of all of Germany, a parliament, government, country president. Another example: To the Federal Constitutional Court federal and state governments, parliamentary factions and other courts may apply. With this construction of a series of homogeneous members, a misreading is possible: the government and factions are equated with "other courts" . The phrase needs to be changed to make it clearer. constitutional court and other courts and thereby avoid the possibility of a double interpretation: The Federal Constitutional Court can be appealed to by courts of various levels, as well as by the governments of the federation and individual states and parliamentary factions.
3. Highlighting logically accenting words. Indicative, amplifying, defining particles act as logically accentuating words: precisely, just, only, this, even, just, exclusively etc., as well as double correlative unions: not only... but also, both... and and others.
To avoid logical errors it is recommended to highlight stressed words to check whether the author's intention and objective is that the word should be accented. For example: Judges of the constitutional court are subject only to the letter and spirit of the Basic Law. Courtsame completely independent in decision-making: parliaments, governments, parties have no right to influence its activities.
accenting particle same in the second sentence used incorrectly: it has here the meaning of an adversative conjunction, while the activities of the judges (in the first sentence) and the court (in the second) are not really opposed. When editing the text, the particle must be removed. Another example: Opposition comes only from malice. Here the error is not in the choice of particle, but in the wrong word order. The accent word should come before the word or phrase that needs to be underlined or reinforced. In this case emanate malice - a phraseological unit can't be broken.
A similar analysis is applicable to correlative unions. Parts of these unions should be at the related words (they are logically accentuated). Authors often break this rule, and editors miss such violations. For example: Information work should guide the reader not only in the literature on the specialty, but also give him the opportunity to receive information about all published publications on issues of interest to him. Here, either objects can be related – specialized literature and publications on other issues, or actions – orient in the literature and provide an opportunity to draw information. But the parts of the union are wrong, therefore, the subject in the first half of the sentence and the action in the second are related. Edit option: Task information work not only to orient the reader in the literature on the specialty, but also to inform him of information about new publications on issues of interest to him. Another example: Perhaps, before anyone else, the Italians felt that perestroika - not a "case of Russians", but concerns everyone. The comparative union is given in the wrong form, which led to a distortion of the meaning. Edit option: ... perestroika - not only "the case of the Russians", but concerns everyone.
§229. Basic logical errors and how to eliminate them
Insufficient knowledge of the laws of formal logic, the lack of proper logical and semantic analysis of the text lead to the appearance logical errors: violation of causal relationships, comparison of disparate concepts, two or more judgments in one sentence, violation of subject-object relations, excessive brevity of the text.
1. In cases where causal relationships are expressed by subordinating conjunctions because, because, since, for, therefore, therefore, as well as introductory words therefore, thus, so and others, it is necessary to establish the correctness of the use of these unions and words, to check the objective causal relationships in this text. For example: In the loading and unloading service, a lot has been done in recent years to mechanize labor-intensive processes, but railway workers work in difficult conditions, because mechanization issues are poorly addressed(From newspapers). The causal relationship in this sentence conveys the union because, but in this case it is misused: the first part of this compound sentence denies the reason given in the last part. The phrase can be corrected only after clarifying the actual content of the text.
In other cases, cause-and-effect relationships are not expressed grammatically with the help of conjunctions and introductory words, which requires additional logical and semantic analysis. For example: While the publication of fiction does not cause controversy among both publishers, the books on socio-political topics that continued to be published served as the basis for some differences in the views of Gorky and Pyatnitsky. (Example from the book by A.E. Milchin "Methods of editing text"). If you ask the logical question: "Can books on social and political issues serve as a basis for differences of opinion?", then the answer is no. Different social and political views of the two publishers could be based on different social consciousness, different social practices, but by no means the publication of socio-political literature. On the contrary, precisely because the publication of political literature led to disputes between the two publishers, that they had a difference of opinion. In this case, the basis was presented as a consequence, so the text needs to clarify the logical relationships. Edit option: While some differences in the views of Gorky and Pyatnitsky on the publication of fiction did not cause much disagreement, disputes arose between publishers when publishing books of socio-political content. Thus, a careful correlation of reason and consequence in relation to specific content helps the editor to reveal logical inaccuracies in the text.
2. Comparative relations, expressed by unions and, if ... then, involves comparing two similar facts on the basis of some common ground. For example: Spain currently has 25% of the unemployed, A in Albania as a result economic crisis – over 40%(From newspapers). Simple sentences in the comparative have the same or similar word order, are characterized by structural parallelism (see ch. XLIX and L). Ignoring the rules for constructing comparative sentences leads to an error. For example: If at the end of the 60s the predominant part of the mined coal was consumed at the place of production, then twelve years later, the volume of its sea transportation has almost tripled: from 106 million tons in 1973 to 260 million in 1985. Here violated the basic principle of matching- a comparison of similar facts: the first part says that coal was consumed at the place of production, the second part says that the volume of its sea transportation has tripled. Different subjects, different predicates, as a result - a different word order. The content of this proposal does not provide a basis for comparison. Editing option - deleting a comparative union: At the end of the 1960s, the predominant part of the mined coal was consumed at the place of extraction. Twelve years later, its maritime traffic has nearly tripled...
3. The correct and quick perception of the text may be hindered by such a construction of a complex sentence, in which it includes several simple sentences (judgments) that have semantic completeness and independence. For example: The director was sure that the majority of the audience, for whom Edith Piaf continued to be a favorite singer for three years after the death, would be well received by Mireille Mathieu, who was the eldest in a family of thirteen children, worked in an envelope factory and attached photographs of John over her bed XXIII and Paul VI. The second part of this sentence (after the words of Mireille Mathieu) is a complete, independent judgment, which in content has little to do with the first part. From the point of view of the reader, the combination of these two sentences (judgments) into one creates, as it were, two semantic centers, making it difficult to perceive the text. Editing options: 1) finish the first sentence with the words Mireille Mathieu; 2) precede the second judgment with a transitional connecting element, for example: The public was certainly impressed by the democratic origin of Mireille ... and further in the text.
4. Ignorance or omission subject and object in some sentences leads to logical and semantic errors. For example: Hoping that we will feed the country alone farmers, unreal. Word farmer should be here subject, not an action object: It is unrealistic to hope that only farmers will feed the country. Another example: With the introduction of the German mark in the GDR, store shelves were filled with long-awaited goods. What this means is impossible to imagine in a well-fed prosperous Germany . The mistake in the second sentence is that the subject is not named - for whom does it mean? A resident of Germany can just imagine full store shelves. Should: What does this mean for a resident of the former GDR, ... and further in the text.
5. Excessive conciseness associated with the omission of a word or phrase that is clear to the author, but unknown to the reader. For example: In 1873, Iskra received three warnings and was suspended for 4 months, after which Kurochkin, who returned to the journal in 1868, stopped publishing it. The phrase is composed in such a way that it is very difficult to understand it. The point is that Kurochkin returned to the journal in 1868; the journal Iskra was suspended after three warnings in 1873 for 4 months and was never resumed. Another example: The miracle of 1966, the little eighteen-year-old Avignon Mireille Mathieu appeared with three of her songs in the black dress of the great Piaf. Excessive conciseness in the construction of the sentence may raise an unnecessary question: Which of the singers owned the black dress? Editing options: like the great Piaf; she was wearing a black dress in the style of Edith Piaf.
On the shift in the plan of presentation and the omission of a logical link, see §218.
Work on language and style
Working on language and style literary work may meet two types of errors: 1) normative and stylistic; 2) actually stylistic. The essence of normative and stylistic errors is in violation of the generally accepted literary norm: in the wrong choice of a word or phraseological unit, in the wrong forms of agreement or control, in the erroneous construction of simple and complex sentences, etc. This kind of normative-stylistic errors subject to unconditional correction, and skipping them by the editor is unacceptable.
The second type of error is associated with stylistic flaws. The main criterion in determining such errors is the expediency of choosing a language unit, its relevance in a given style, genre, specific text (for example, unreasonably frequent use of borrowed or colloquial vocabulary, repetition of words of the same root or syntactic constructions of the same type in a small text, mixing styles and etc.). Correcting errors of this kind requires the editor to have a great literary taste, convincing argumentation, indispensable discussion and coordination of all controversial cases with the author of the text.
For successful correction of both, it is necessary to master two techniques described by A.E. Milchin in the book "Text Editing Technique", the materials of which are used in this chapter. The first such technique is to compare each corrected (corrected) phrase with the original one in terms of its change, appearance or loss of any semantic nuances.
The second technique is the obligatory comparison of each corrected (corrected) phrase in context with the surrounding - previous and subsequent. Firstly, the vocabulary and syntax of each phrase must be linked to the vocabulary and syntax of the preceding and subsequent phrases (otherwise grammatical and stylistic contradictions and inconsistencies will arise). Secondly, each phrase is an element of the composition of the text, closely related to other similar elements, and it cannot be considered in isolation - outside of compositional connections: otherwise they can be destroyed.
§230. Editing units and their processing order
1. The basic unit of editing, regardless of the nature, genre and style of the work, is a complex syntactic whole (see Ch. XLIX), which, with a neutral compositional division of the text, coincides with a paragraph. That's why first stage of literary editing- this is an acquaintance with the composition of the text and the selection of complex syntactic integers in it. After analyzing the division of the text into prose stanzas, clarifying their boundaries, correct construction and design, tracing general development the author's thoughts from paragraph to paragraph, the editor can move on to a logical-semantic analysis. Reliance on a complex syntactic whole makes it possible to combine logical-semantic and compositional analysis, since a complex syntactic whole is characterized not only by a special construction, but also by a single content, thematic coherence.
The recommended order of further processing of the text can be formulated as follows: movement from large syntactic units to smaller ones. Having first corrected errors and shortcomings in a complex syntactic whole, the editor proceeds to correct normative and stylistic errors in the construction of complex sentences, then to work on a simple sentence, then to a phrase and a single word. Compliance with such a sequence ensures the efficiency of editing, minimizes the omission of errors or shortcomings, eliminates "double work" with the same word.
After the processing of the syntactic "framework" of the text is completed, work begins with a single word or phraseological combination. The next step in editing might be to review the author's use of artistic means of expression(tropes, stylistic figures; see ch. L).
2. The main techniques in working on expressive means are neutralization and compensation. In the first case, the editor conveys the content of the trope (see Ch. XXXV) by neutral linguistic means, for example, replacing metaphors like black gold, desert ship interstyle words oil, camel etc. Neutralization is most often resorted to in those cases when the tropes, due to frequent use, lose their original expressiveness, turn into clichés and clichés, as a rule, in newspaper genres. The editor uses the method of compensation in those cases when he needs to remove an artistic trope or figure in any part of the text and compensate for this expressive means in another complex syntactic whole. Most often, this concerns individual authorial techniques, the neutralization of which distorts the manner of presentation of the writer, impoverishes the style, and makes the text inexpressive.
3. Stylistic editing is being completed by work on title. Title is an important element of the text. It can formulate the theme of the work, the main idea of the author, problems of interest to the reader, be debatable, intriguing, expressive. In the most general form, titles are divided into thematic(reflecting content) and expressive(the purpose of which is to influence the reader). Only after getting acquainted with the entire work, the editor can evaluate the choice of the title, offer (if necessary), taking into account the genre-stylistic and individual author's features of the text, his own version.
§231. Ways to identify grammatical and stylistic errors
Since the syntactic level is the leading one when editing the text, the error detection technique is primarily based on the correct conduct of a comprehensive syntactic analysis.
1. First of all, when editing, it is necessary to analyze the syntactic links: 1) to highlight in simple sentences its constituent phrases, and in a complex sentence to establish the boundaries of its constituent simple parts; 2) put a logical question from the main word in phrases to the dependent, and from the main clause to the subordinate clause. For example: Coal is a source of energy, the reserves of which seem almost inexhaustible in the boundless future. We allocate simple sentences and phrases. First suggestion: 1) Coal - source; 2) Source (what?) energy. Second suggestion: 1) Stocks are presented; 2) Represented (what?) inexhaustible; 3) Stocks (what?) whom; 4) Represented (When?) in future; 5) In future (what?) boundless. Question from main clause to subordinate clause: Source (Which?) – reserves whom (coal) appear inexhaustible.
For all its seeming simplicity, the method of schematizing syntactic links in sentences that make up a complex syntactic whole makes it possible to establish and analyze the correctness of grammatical forms and the entire structure of the sentence. If this technique becomes habitual, becomes a stable habit, then the editor's work on language and style will become more effective. Here is a typical case of using the schematization technique and detecting a normative-stylistic error in the construction of a sentence. The recent tour of the La Scala theater in Moscow, in addition to their artistic significance, has become a kind of overture to the Roman meetings at highest level. Let's take a look at the schema: 1) The tour became an overture; 2) Tour (which?) recent; 3) Tour (who? what?) theater "La Scala" (the name forms an indecomposable turn with the word theater); 4) Tour (Where?) in Moscow; 5) Become (besides what?) apart from the value. It is here that a gross stylistic mistake was made, because separate turnover apart from their artistic value depends in this sentence on the verb-predicate become , which governs the instrumental case: by someone ? , and the word meaning depends on another verb, with a different control: have (What?) meaning. Edit option: The recent tour of the La Scala theater in Moscow not only had great artistic significance, but also became a kind of overture to the Roman summits.
2. When correlating, some members of the proposal require agreement. But if the members of the proposal, which should be consistent with each other, are distant from each other, then sometimes there are cases of their inconsistency. To notice inconsistency, one must always correlate the predicate with the subject in number or in number and gender, and the adjective and participle with the word being defined - in gender, number and case. Match- this means, on the basis of the schematization of syntactic links, to mentally or visually connect the members of the sentence that require coordination.
Especially often the agreement of the participle or adjective with the word being defined is violated. For example: This year, several of the largest associations, which grew out of the mining and oil industries, seized control of all operations in the coal sector. (From newspapers). Participle grown up must agree with the noun associations V genitive case plural, in the above proposal was made a grammatical error.
3. Correct word matching is required. "which" in the attributive clause with all related words in the main. Formally word which corresponds to the word in the main, which is immediately before the subordinate clause. However, often in this place there is an addition to the word, the meaning of which is determined by the subordinate clause. In this case, there may be ambiguities in understanding the text. For example: The behind-the-scenes negotiations of the leaders of the reactionary forces were aimed at creating a broad alliance of all right-wing forces in parliament, which the press dubbed the "grand alliance". Immediately before the subordinate clause is the word parliament, although the attributive clause semantically refers to the combination alliance of right-wing forces. With this construction of the phrase, the possibility of a double reading arises. To correct, just move the word parliament to another place: ... to create in parliament a broad union of right-wing forces, which ... and further in the text. Another example: Stuffed dinosaurs were exhibited in this Leningrad museum, which all died due to the bombing. Who died: stuffed animals or dinosaurs? Edit option: ... stuffed dinosaurs restored after the bombing were exhibited.
4. According to the rules of grammatical style, the pronoun replaces the noun closest to it, but in some constructions carelessness in the use of pronouns leads to a double meaning. For example: It is possible to release a person under tension only with the help of special means designed for him. There is a double meaning: are the funds designed for voltage or for a person? Edit option: ... special means designed for such voltage. Thus, when editing such sentences, it is recommended, first of all, to replace the pronoun with the word that it replaces in meaning.
5. It is necessary to pay close attention to the correlation of the word with the subsequent words and phrases with which it governs. Consider an example: State farm "Sevastopol" invites you to a permanent job vegetable processors and lone male and female workers. In this sentence, the possibility of a double reading arises, since formally it is possible to isolate the series of homogeneous members in different ways: 1) invites ... masters and workers; 2) processing vegetables and workers. The second option is, of course, absurd, but with the given construction of the phrase, it is acceptable. Edit option: ...invites lone workers - and vegetable processors. Another example: Within a few years, thanks to the commissioning of large open pits and the creation of special port facilities, coal became one of the most important raw materials transported by sea on ships. (From newspapers). Pretext thanks to manages two homogeneous members offers: (thanks to) input and creation, which should be in the dative case, but in this sentence the second of the words Creation used in the genitive case What is a grammatical error.
§232. The most common lexical and stylistic mistakes and shortcomings
The analysis of lexical and stylistic errors and shortcomings is very important when working on works of any style and genre. The most common ones are: 1) verbosity (or the use of "extra words"); 2) clerk; 3) unjustified use of borrowed vocabulary. Despite the constant comments of scientists-stylists, experts in the theory and practice of teaching the Russian language, famous writers and journalists, the phenomena described below gradually lead to the blurring of criteria in assessing the literary qualities of a work. The reader gets used to these stylistic shortcomings and errors, considers them acceptable, and sometimes includes them in his word usage. The dominance of "extra words", clerical turns and excessive enthusiasm for borrowing is turning into a stable stylistic trend, which leads to a decrease in general level speech culture. The consequence of these processes is the lack of a clear meaning in speech, the standardization of both individual statements and entire works, the poverty of thought, a weak expression of the individual author's principle.
1. Verbosity, or "unnecessary words", weaken the effectiveness of a literary work, make it less accessible to the reader, so the editor's task is to identify and eliminate the so-called "extra words". The word, the use of which cannot be justified and without which the text does not lose anything either in meaning, or in the shade of meaning, or in emotional coloring, is called "superfluous". Many typical "extra words" have become so familiar that both authors and editors stop noticing them. In order to be able to detect and eliminate them in the process of editing the text, the following are main groups of superfluous words:
1) participles, adjectives, verbs, nouns with the meaning of the presence or appearance of the described object (process). This is usually words to exist, to exist, to exist, to exist, to exist etc. For example: Examples available in the book, show; Pavlovsky barracks were created in the process of perestroika already existing building facing Bolshaya Millionnaya street(but you can not rebuild a non-existent building); In the country there are a number of libraries that are characterized by high quantitative and qualitative indicators(the main clause refers to the presence of libraries, the subordinate clause refers to their qualities; it is enough to say that such and such libraries have such and such qualities); In case of occurrence gaps on the sheets, they can be connected with a strip of tissue paper- Wed: Gaps in the sheets can be connected with a strip of tissue paper (if we are talking about eliminating gaps, then they are there);
2) nouns or verbs expressing actions that are not obligatory for the subject. In the examples below, words are highlighted that, by their meaning, cannot act differently and cannot be related to other objects in a different way. For example: All these features can be set with varying degrees of accuracy, depending on the purpose, with which the calculation is made, and the method by which it is produced (instead of depending on the purpose and method of calculation ); Operationis the way how the action(s) is performed; To reduce the time, spent on production(s)…; appliances, employees for measuring…; Advantages, that occur when application(s)...; Requirements, presented to the worker, are diverse;
3) verbs or verbal nouns that convey the action expressed by the adjacent verb or noun. For example: successful coordination (instead of successful coordination ); installation work (instead of installation ); V work period review(instead of during the review ); conditions, necessary in order to carry out thermonuclear fusion in the laboratory(instead of conditions for conducting thermonuclear fusion in the laboratory ).
Words are superfluous work, activities, events combined with a suggestion By: implementation work (instead of implementation ), execution work (instead of performance ), implementation activities (instead of implementation ), procurement activities (instead of purchase );
4) adjectives, participles, pronouns that do not supplement the characteristics of the noun to which they refer. For example: Method– some a set of operations used to solve a specific problem; ...Techniques for building a model in accordance with famous laws of private sciences; The man is depicted in some transitional moment of his emotional life; Playback inner peace human personality; From Right The selected mode depends on the quality of welding.
2. Separate words, phrases and even whole syntactic constructions of the official business (stationery) style in Lately penetrate into journalistic, scientific styles, and sometimes into artistic speech. Most stylists sharply negatively assess this process, rightly believing that the lexical and grammatical features of the clerical style (“clericality”) worsen the text, lead to vagueness, to verbosity. One of the mandatory tasks of the editor is the consistent elimination stationery style in works of journalistic, scientific, popular science nature, in educational and children's literature;
1) replacement of split predicates by forms with a full-fledged verb-predicate. In the vast majority of cases, a split predicate (a combination of a semi-significant verb with a verbal noun; see also §179, paragraph 1) complicates and spoils speech, making it monotonous, verbose and heavy. For example: Necessary conduct the best processing soil (better till the soil ). We have to record these lectures because we don't have a textbook (record lectures ). Girth screen produced right hand (the screen is clasped with the right hand );
2) highlighting verbal nouns and replacing them with equivalent verbal forms. A text saturated with verbal nouns is very difficult to read, therefore, if these nouns are not strict terms in content, it is recommended to use related verb forms. For example: It is necessary to revise the wheat sowing plan to the side his furtherincrease (Necessary increase wheat sowing plan ); First production practiceIt has histhe task of obtaining students of a more completerepresentation about your future profession (The first production practice will enable students to fully present your future profession );
3) highlighting words question, problem, moment, task, fact, circumstance. When these words are used, their original meaning is completely lost, which automatically translates them into the category of "superfluous". For example: The purpose of the conference is to consider question about how the author realizes his intention ...; Necessity problem solving matching supply and demand for consumer goods is dictated by the acuteness question. Edit option: It is necessary to regulate the balance of supply and demand for consumer goods or (with compensation for the metaphor "sharpness of the question": There is an urgent need to resolve... (and further in the text); I want to note fact lack of publicity; It needs to be taken into account circumstance that Iraq is developing nuclear weapons;
4) selection of stationery stamps. Their immoderate use often leads to a double meaning, to an unexpected ironic effect, which the author does not count on. The elimination of clerical stamps contributes to greater accessibility and clarity of the text. For example: Who raised the children through grandparents, the easier. (It is easier for those who are helped to raise children by grandparents ); Bus governed by driver Vasiliev made a collision. (The bus, driven by the driver Vasiliev, collided with a car ); Should lift on due height question about the level of teaching of some disciplines in our institute. (It is necessary to improve the teaching of some disciplines in our institute ); Increasing vigilance at the right time is connected first of all with a fear of failure to complete the task due to increased error rates. (At some point, the employee must be especially vigilant in completing the task, as he is well aware of the increase in the “price of error” in the event of a breakdown in his work. ). The last of the examples clearly shows that a glut of clerical turns and stamps not only spoils the text stylistically, but also makes it almost impossible to understand it.
3. A significant disadvantage is also misuse of borrowed words which is due to two reasons:
1) untranslatable use of foreign borrowing. The source of this error is primarily translated uncorrected texts. For example: Problems India's security is due to three main factors: geographical and geostrategic position; dissonance between India and its surrounding countries; growing arms race. All these factors are attributes strategic doctrines that now prevail in the world. The marked words are given in this text without translation, although the nature of the erroneous usage in each of the three cases is different. Yes, the word problem here either is "redundant" ( India's security is driven by three factors ), or the word conditioned must be replaced by another predicate, followed by a restructuring of the entire sentence ( India's security problems must be tackled with three factors in mind ). Word dissonance it is desirable to replace it with a more understandable - contradictions or disagreements. It is easy to avoid the use of the word attributes, replacing it with the design are essential features. Possible and another edit option: All these factors determine the strategic doctrines that now prevail in the world;
2) ignoring stylistic coloring borrowed word. The natural process of the transition of words from one language to another is sometimes accompanied by a change in their "original" stylistic coloring. A word that is neutral in the source language can acquire additional stylistic characteristics and shades. This is especially noticeable when the word is not yet sufficiently mastered by the Russian language. In such cases, caution is required in its use, especially if the stylistic coloring of the word can affect the perception of the entire text. For example: It was held at the Sports Palace show: "To help the children of Chernobyl." Here is the word show, the meaning of which includes a semantic connotation "bright, festive" combined with the name of the event "To help the children of Chernobyl" clearly inappropriate. Desirable replacement for a charity concert. Another example: first lady confectionery factory(about the beauty contest at the confectionery factory "Red October"). Inconsistency of the "high" coloring of the word lady and described reality causes a comic effect.
§233. Types of editing
Depending on how the text changes as a result of editing, There are types of edits: editing-proofreading, editing-reduction, editing-processing, editing-alteration.
1. At proofreading the task of the editor is to compare the text with the trustworthy original and to correct technical errors in the text. This type of editing is applied when editing: 1) official materials different levels; 2) works of classical literature; 3) book reprints; 4) editions of historical documents.
When preparing documentary or definitive texts for publication, first of all, attention should be paid to the exact correspondence of the republished text to the original, the original, the text of the previous edition.
Only errata in the previous edition, both those noted in the list of errata and newly discovered ones, are subject to correction. Spelling errors and omissions that do not have a semantic meaning are corrected in the text without reservations. Correction of errors and omissions that distort the meaning must be commented in footnotes. Unfinished words are added, abbreviations are deciphered, and the added and deciphered parts of the words are taken in square brackets. The text of historical documents or works is transmitted in modern graphics. But the stylistic features, phraseological turns and specific expressions characteristic of a particular era or environment are completely preserved.
When editing and proofreading, special attention should be paid to more accurate transcription of proper names and geographical names. On title page and the cover should correct the edition number, check the headings of the text with the table of contents, check the numbering of chapters, sections, paragraphs, the correctness of references, the numbers of tables, graphs and formulas. Be sure to pay attention to the sequence of prefaces, if there are several. The preface to this edition is placed first, then to the previous one. The last, therefore, will be the preface to the 1st edition. All imprints of the previous edition must be crossed out.
Editorial proofreading should not replace proofreading, which involves checking the image of all letters and signs of the manuscript, correcting missed errors, unifying the designation and abbreviations of references and footnotes, ensuring that the headings in the text correspond to the content.
2. At edit-cut The main task of the editor is to shorten the text (without compromising the content), which can be caused by:
1) the need to meet a certain number of printed sheets, in a newspaper - a certain number of lines. When publishing dictionaries, reference books, various catalogs, encyclopedic publications, references, abbreviations of names, terms, various explanatory words are widely used;
2) the targeted tasks of the publication (for which reader the book is intended). For example: publishing houses for children publish works by classics of Russian and modern literature with certain abbreviations necessary for this work to be understandable to schoolchildren. In addition, editing-abbreviation can also be applied when publishing collections, anthologies, which do not include whole works, but only those parts that seem most necessary for this publication;
3) such shortcomings of the text as stretching, repetitions, clutter with unnecessary details, and so on. In this case, reduction is a necessary condition for improving the quality of the text.
3. Most widely used in editorial practice editing-processing, during which the editor replaces unsuccessful words and phrases, achieves accuracy of wording, consistency in the construction of the text, compliance of the text with a certain genre and style. But at the same time, the editor should try to preserve the features of the individual style of the author.
4. Edit-remake is used in cases where the editor is working on the manuscript of authors who have poor command of the literary language. This type of editing is used when publishing various kinds of memoirs, articles, brochures, the authors of which are not professional writers, philologists, journalists (military leaders, workers in science and technology, etc.). However, in this case, it is necessary to preserve the specifics of the author's style.
§234. Conventional signs of proofreading
1) Drop, insert and undo marks: one letter | , word or string - ; paragraph ; insert ; undo edit ……… ;
2) Letter substitution sign: replace lowercase with uppercase - ; uppercase lowercase - ;
3) Signs of changing places: swap adjacent letters or words - ; letters, words or paragraphs, located at a distance within one page - ; (if you need to swap a few words, this option is possible:
4) Marks of intervals and paragraph indents: start with a paragraph - ; destroy interval - ; dial with an interval - ; delete paragraph - ; turn off in the red line - ; mark the end of the material - ; put a hyphen - ═ , dash - - ;
5) Signs of font selections: type in discharge - _ _ _ , in italics - ; bold - ____ ; bold ═══ ; direct -; italic bold - ; and so on. (these signs are taken out into the fields and circled).
For clarity, below is an excerpt from the journalistic text, corrected using the above signs.
. Text definition includes at least 2 sentences, and text length does not matter. It is believed that all human culture is one huge text, which is constantly growing.
It is clear that the text is an ordered set of words designed to express a certain . text Wikipedia defines in the same vein:
Text (from Latin textus - “fabric; plexus, connection, combination”) - in general plan connected and complete sequence of characters.
Text value
Since it is assumed that the text can be divided into separate independent sentences, the key in text definition is the presence of several sentences, and not one, even a complex sentence. A person can reproduce the text orally and writing, but it is convenient to analyze it only in written form. Therefore, I. R. Galperin defines the text as follows:
TEXT- this is a written message, objectified in the form of a written document, consisting of a number of statements, united by different types of lexical, grammatical and logical connections, having a certain moral character, a pragmatic attitude and, accordingly, literary processed.
Meaning of the text
Formally, a set of any words creates text, which, however, may be meaningless. Normal people, creating texts, aim to express their thoughts and experiences. Texts have a semantic integrity - a content that reflects those connections and dependencies that exist in reality itself (social events, natural phenomena, a person, his external appearance and inner world, objects of inanimate nature, etc.).
Text, according to M. M. Bakhtin, “this is the primary given” of all humanitarian disciplines and, in general, of all humanitarian and philo logical thinking. The text is that immediate reality, the reality of thought and experience, from which alone these disciplines and this thinking can proceed. Where there is no text, there is no object for research and thought.
At present, there is no single point of view on what a text is, with what class of phenomena - linguistic or speech - it should be correlated. Some researchers study the grammatical nature of the text, while others classify the text as a speech phenomenon, relying primarily on its communicative capabilities. This difference in starting positions in the study of the concept of text is reflected in the definitions of the text, which are contained in the linguistic and methodological literature.
According to I.R. Galperin, a text is a work of a speech process that has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document: a work consisting of a title (title) and a number of special units (superphrasal units) united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection, having a certain purposefulness and pragmatic attitude.
According to A. Kolshansky, the text is a connection of at least two statements, in which the minimum act of communication can be completed - the transfer of information or the exchange of thoughts between partners.
According to L. Zarubin, the text is a speech work written in form, belonging to one participant, complete and correctly designed.
According to V. A. Lukin, a text is a message that exists in the form of such a sequence of signs that has formal coherence, meaningful integrity and arises on the basis of the interaction of a formal semantic structure.
According to A. Solganik, a text (from Latin textus - fabric, plexus, connection) can be defined as a sequence of speech units united by a semantic and grammatical connection: statements, superphrasal units (prose stanzas), fragments, sections, etc.
According to S. Sorokin, the text is something integral (whole), some concept, that mental formation, which in linguistic literature is called the integrity of the text.
The above definitions show that all researchers strive, firstly, to determine the place of the text in the system of language or speech, and secondly, to isolate the actual text categories that are unique to this unit. With all the differences in these definitions, they obviously have a lot in common. First of all, the text is considered as a speech-creative work, as a product of speech, as the main unit of speech. Consequently, for all researchers, it is an indisputable position that the production of texts and their comprehension occurs in the process of cognition of reality and communication. Everyone agrees that the text, as a rule, is realized in writing, that the text is a complete, complete work, and, finally, that it has its own internal structure, a certain structure, has means of connecting its parts, which do not allow it to “crumble » on separate offers. The differences relate, first of all, to the solution of the question of which system the text belongs to: to the system of language or speech.
Is the text always created to achieve the goals of communication and is it always associated with an act of communication? And it is this circumstance that is the main indicator for many researchers in deciding which system the concept of a text belongs to.
Many researchers (I.R. Galperin, O.I. Moskalskaya, E.I. Shendels and others) believe that the text is a simulated unit of language, a microsystem that functions in society as the main language unit, which has semantic communicative completeness in communication.
Such text understanding is confirmed by the possibility of typing a real variety of text forms and structures public speech, description of such typed contexts, basic communicative types of speech (speech registers), types of information contained in texts, etc.
This approach to the description of texts indicates that the text acts not only as a specific unit associated with a real act of communication, but also as an abstract unit of the language of the highest level. In this regard, along with the term text in the linguistic literature, the term discourse appeared (observable, concrete manifestation of language in speech).
Thus, text is what exists in a language, and discourse is a text implemented in .
It is in the text that all means of the language become communicatively significant, communicatively conditioned, combined into a certain system in which each of them most fully manifests its essential features and, in addition, reveals new, text-forming functions. Consequently, the final purpose of each language unit is the contribution that it makes to the formation of a text-message.
This implies another conclusion: the units of the language, combined into a sentence and groups of sentences, form the components of the text, its structural elements.
The text is built from speech variants of various levels, into which language units are transformed in the process of communication. It is characteristic that special terms are used to designate speech variants, correlated with the names of the corresponding language variants, but not duplicating these names. Consequently, for many researchers, sentences and phrases are not synonyms, but names of different phenomena. Sentences are something that exists outside the text, and a phrase (statement, texteme) is a text element facing communication.
V.A. Lukin believes that the concept of the text is formed by:
- character sequence of text,
- connection,
- integrity,
- text code,
- semantic structure text,
- text composition, text function,
- interpretation of the text.
The sum of all components with an established scheme of relations between them forms a system:
AUTHOR<->TEXT<->RECIPIENT.
The literary text, unlike the text in general, has a number of special features. These include:
1) fictitiousness (conventionality, fiction), mediation of the inner world of the text;
2) synergistic complexity;
On the one hand, a literary text is a complex organization system, it is a private system of means of a national language; on the other hand, a literary text has its own code system, which the reader must decipher in order to understand the text.
3) integrity artistic text, formed due to the acquired additional "increments of meaning";
4) the relationship of all elements of the text or the isomorphism of all its levels;
5) the reflexivity of the poetic word, the revival of the internal form of words, the enhanced actualization of the elements of the lexical level;
6) the presence of implicit meanings;
7) influence on the meaning of the artistic text of intertextual connections - intertextuality.
Textuality presupposes the requirement of external coherence, internal meaningfulness, the possibility of timely perception, and compliance with the needs of cultural communication.
The effect of the presumption of textuality is that, having realized a certain text as a whole, we thereby seek its understanding as a whole. This "whole" can be arbitrarily complex and multicomponent. The idea of integrity, which grows on the basis of the presumption of textuality, is manifested only in the fact that, no matter how diverse and heterogeneous the meanings that arise in our thought, they are perceived by us as meanings that are jointly related to given text, which means having some relation to each other within the framework of this text.
As for the distinction between the concepts of text and “work”, Yu.M. Lotman, analyzing in his works how art space works, and the space of the text, notes that the work is inseparable from its carrier text, but not identical to it. Text is one of the components of a work of art.
In modern foreign psycholinguistics of the text, along with the concept of text, the concept of “discourse” is widely used, which often replaces it, and therefore it seems necessary to especially consider the relationship of these concepts and determine to what extent one of them has the right to replace the other.
E. Benveniste, developing the theory of utterance, consistently uses the term "discourse" in a new sense - as a characteristic of "speech appropriated by the speaker."
3. Harris publishes in 1952 the article "Discourse analysis"), devoted to the method of distribution in relation to superphrasal units. These two authoritative scientists lay the tradition of identifying different objects of research: E. Benveniste understands discourse as the explication of the position of the speaker in the statement, in the interpretation of 3. Harris, the object of analysis becomes a sequence of statements, a segment of text larger than a sentence.
The initial ambiguity of the term predetermined the further expansion of semantics.
In the 60s, M. Foucault, developing the ideas of E. Benveniste, offers his own vision of the goals and objectives of discursive analysis. According to M. Foucault and his followers, the priority is to establish the position of the speaker, but not in relation to the generated statement, but in relation to other interchangeable subjects of the statement and the ideology they express in the broad sense of the word. Thus, for french school the term "discourse" - first of all, a certain type of statement inherent in any socio-political group or era, is called "communist discourse".
The concept of M. Foucault, which united linguistics with historical materialism, despite the obvious similarity of methodology, did not find a response in Russian linguistics. However, the understanding of discourse did not become popular, although it was quite consistent with the structural-semantic approach that dominated Soviet linguistics in those years.
The term "discourse" was not consistently used in any of its three central meanings until the late 1980s. The post-Soviet tradition updated the term at the same time in all its ambiguity, which confronted modern researchers with the need to clarify and delineate meanings. Taking into account the traditional understanding of discourse as a social phenomenon in journalism of recent decades (“feminist discourse”, “discourse of violence”), which no doubt goes back to the ideas of the French poststructuralists, there is a duality in the proper linguistic interpretation of the term. "Discourse" in modern studies is both "speech immersed in life" and the movement of the information flow between the participants in communication.
Obviously, these points of view do not exclude, but rather complement each other: the idea of the processes of generation and understanding of the text is impossible without relying on the communicative situation (“immersion in life”); the idea of discourse as a process is also based on the opinion of French researchers about the leading role of the subject of the utterance.
Discourse should be understood as a set of speech-thinking actions of communicants associated with the knowledge, understanding and presentation of the world by the speaker, and understanding,
reconstruction of the linguistic picture of the world of the producer by the recipient. Such a representation lies in line with the dynamic approach to the language.
The idea of discourse as a process allows us to analyze the text as a static phenomenon, a zone of repayment of forces. Such an understanding of the text is not traditional for Russian linguistics, although Z.Ya. Turaeva notes that “as a kind of objective reality, the text exists in certain parameters outside the consciousness of the subject who creates and perceives it. In this sense, it is a closed system, which is characterized by a state of rest.
The description of the text as an intermediate stage of discourse has a greater explanatory power, if we understand by “discourse” the totality of speech-thinking actions of both communicants.
At the same time, the text as an objectively existing fact of reality can be considered as a product (result) of discourse.
W. Chafe's selection of units (clauses) in the information flow, commensurate with the quanta of thinking, leads to the idea of the discrete-wave nature of discourse. Thus, it can be assumed that discreteness is an a priori property of any discourse, and the division of the information flow into clauses occurs regardless of the intentions of the speaker and the communicative situation as a whole. Involuntary and spontaneous discreteness predetermines the establishment of the coherence of the generated text as the dominant strategy of the speaker: “From the point of view of the linguistic structure, the formation of an adequate speech form can be thought of as the process of generating statements from structurally relevant units of a lower order and combining them into larger units, with the help of which a person is able to consolidate and express his thoughts.
The need for transformation is determined by the incompatibility of the discrete structure of the concept and the surface forms of the text; it is associated with a change in the configuration of the mental representation in linear structure. The transformation of a discrete representation into a connected representation is a necessary condition for the success of communication: an incoherent text cannot be adequately decoded by the addressee. This transformation occurs through the establishment of global and local connectivity of discourse.
Global connectivity, understood as the unity of the topic (topic) of the discourse, is established by the producer (author) at the initial stage of discourse development: relevant connections between knowledge structures are established - a connected model of the situation is represented. The establishment of local connectivity takes place at the stage of text formation and requires the identification of connections between propositions and surface structures - the identification of cohesive relations.
The dynamic approach allows us to answer the question of research units, which is significant for text linguistics: the text is the product of this discourse until the producer (recipient) initiates a communication stop, so the study of discourse is impossible without the involvement of psychological, social, and cultural factors in the research field. As Yu.S. Stepanov, “discourse is “language in language”.
I. Typical mistakes. Classification
II. Speech errors
- Misunderstanding the meaning of the word. Lexical compatibility
- The use of synonyms, homonyms, polysemantic words
- Verbosity. Lexical incompleteness of the statement. New words
- Outdated words. Words foreign origin
- Dialectisms. Colloquial and colloquial words. jargon
- Phraseologisms. Cliches and stamps
IV. Logic errors
V. Grammar errors
VI. Syntax errors
I. Typical mistakes. Classification
Communicative literacy is understood as the ability to create texts of different functional and semantic types of speech in the form of different functional styles.
Essays and presentations are the main forms of testing the ability to correctly and consistently express thoughts in accordance with the topic and intent, checking the level of speech training. They are used simultaneously to test spelling and punctuation skills and are evaluated, firstly, from the side of content and structure (sequence of presentation) and, secondly, from the side of language design.
Most of the errors that occur during the performance of students' written work are also characteristic of other kinds of written activity, whether it is writing a business paper (statement, order, contract, etc.), preparing a report, article or text material for WEB pages. Therefore, error analysis of this kind has great importance and for daily activities.
Among common mistakes the following groups can be distinguished:
Speech errors
Violation of the correctness of the transfer of factual material
Logic errors
Grammatical errors
Syntax errors
II. Speech errors
The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, compatibility with other words. Since the violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
The main causes of speech errors:
1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. Use of ambiguous words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement
8. New words
9. Obsolete words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Cliches and stamps
1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word.
1.1. The use of a word in an unusual sense.
Example:
The fire got hotter and hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of the word:
Inflame - 1. Heat up to a very high temperature, get hot. 2. (transl.) To become very excited, to become overcome by some strong feeling.
Flare up - start strongly or well, burn evenly.
1.2. The use of significant and functional words without regard to their semantics.
Example:
Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of \u200b\u200bthe forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb thank and is usually used only in those cases when it refers to the reasons that cause the desired result: thanks to someone's help, support. The error occurs in connection with the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.
1.3. The choice of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example:
We offer a complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced by alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to the use of alcoholic beverages.
1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example:
The man leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive - very similar words, single root. But they have different meanings: festive - an adjective for a holiday (festive dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.
2. Lexical compatibility.
When choosing a word, one should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in literary language but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
good leader should show an example to his subordinates in everything. You can show an example, but not a sample. And a model can be, for example, to follow.
Example:
Their strong friendship, hardened in life's trials, was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
To distinguish from a speech error should be a deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle ... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
IN difficult cases When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.
3. The use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language, make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic coloring. So, the words mistake, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral, commonly used; a hole, an overlay - colloquial; slip - colloquial; blooper - professional slang. The use of one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.
Example:
Having made a mistake, the director of the plant immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express a different degree of manifestation of a sign, action. But, even denoting the same thing, interchangeable in some cases, in others, synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example:
Yesterday I was sad. A synonym for sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences, these synonyms are interchanged. Sadly, I look at our generation ...
4. The use of homonyms.
Due to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a wagon or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that match in sound and spelling in separate forms) often leads to ambiguity. So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must also pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.
5. The use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether it is clear exactly the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation. When using polysemantic words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of the word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a segment of speech that is semantically complete, allowing you to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it happens otherwise.
Example:
He's already cracked up. It is not clear: or he began to sing, got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. The incompleteness of the statement consists in the omission of the necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may not have anything superfluous, but this sentence lacks (and not even one) word. Or: "... do not allow on the pages of the press and television statements that can incite ethnic hatred." So it turns out - "page of television".
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also the scope of distribution. The use of words that have a limited scope (lexical neoplasms, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, professionalism, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.
8. New words.
Unsuccessfully formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example:
And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on patching after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: "patching" is the repair of pits.
9. Obsolete words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Today it was a day at the university open doors. Here the obsolete word now (today, now, at the present time) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denoted: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants can not stand their hard life and go to the chief governor of the city. Governor - the head of some area (for example, a province in tsarist Russia, a state in the US). Therefore, the chief governor is an absurdity, moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.
10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people are addicted to foreign words, sometimes not even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading experts. Limit - set a limit on something, limit. The foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced by the words: goes slower, paused, etc.
11. Dialectisms.
Dialectisms are words or set combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create the speech characteristics of the characters. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates a lack of knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example: A scraper came to me and sat the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the utterance.
12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Spoken words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech especially in the field of everyday communication. Vernacular is a word, grammatical form or turn of predominantly oral speech, used in the literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rude characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple, relaxed speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the whole people.
Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) - full of holes, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur when the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by the context.
13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: a typo - a blunder in the speech of journalists; the steering wheel is a steering wheel in the speech of drivers.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, hearing and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of the limited use and nature of expression (joking, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargon and are integral part jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (jargons of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.
Example: I wanted to invite guests to the holiday, but the shack does not allow. Hibara - home.
14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, figurative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1). Mistakes in mastering the meaning of phraseological units.
a) There is a danger of taking phraseological units literally, which can be perceived as free combinations of words.
b) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls in front of pigs all the time, and everyone believes him. Here, the phraseological unit throwing pearls in front of pigs, which means "it is in vain to talk about something or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it," is used incorrectly - in the meaning of "invent, weave fables."
2). Errors in mastering the form of phraseological unit.
a) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports. Here the form of the number has been changed. There is a phraseological unit to give an account.
Example:
He always sits with his arms folded. Phraseologisms such as folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the participle perfect look with the suffix -а (-я).
In some phraseological units, short forms of adjectives are used, replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
b) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take control of your mind. Most phraseological units are impenetrable: it is impossible to introduce an additional unit into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall! The omission of a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to its own spiral! .. There is a phraseological unit in full circle. Word substitution is not allowed.
3). Changing the lexical compatibility of a phraseological unit.
Example:
These and other questions play an important role in the development of this still young science. There was a mixture of two stable revolutions: plays a role and matters. You could say that questions matter a lot... or questions matter a lot.
15. Cliches and stamps.
Chancery - words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate, they are clichés.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Stamps are words, phrases and even whole sentences that appear as new, stylistically expressive speech means, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up in the vote.
A variety of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by stencil pendants: work is everyday, level is high, support is hot. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), literary criticism (an exciting image, angry protest).
Cliches - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases used as a standard that is easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Cliches are used in official business documents (summit); in the scientific literature (to be proved); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); in different situations of colloquial everyday speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who is the last one?).
III. Factual Errors
Violation of the requirement for the correct transmission of factual material causes factual errors.
Factual errors are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details, for example: "In winter forest the cuckoo crowed loudly." or "The merchants Bobchinsky and Dobchinsky enter."
Factual errors can be detected if the reader of the work knows the factual side of the case and can evaluate each fact from the standpoint of its reliability. The reason for the factual errors is insufficient knowledge of the events described, poverty life experience, an incorrect assessment of the actions and characters of the characters.
In the presentation, various kinds of inaccuracies can be attributed to factual errors:
1) errors in the designation of the place and time of the event;
2) in the transfer of a sequence of actions, causal relationships, etc., for example: instead of "Kirovsky Prospekt" - in the work "Kiev Prospect" or "Kirovskiy Settlement".
In writing, factual errors are
1) distortion of the truth of life;
2) inaccurate reproduction of book sources;
3) proper names;
4) dates;
5) places of events,
for example: "Chadsky", "at Nagulny and Razmetny".
Examples of typical factual errors.
"In the image of Onegin, Pushkin opened a gallery of "superfluous people" in Russian literature: Oblomov, Pechorin, Bazarov. An extra person must have two qualities: to reject the ideals of society and not see the meaning of his existence." In the above example, Oblomov and Bazarov clearly fall out of the proposed chain.
"The literature of classicism (Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Karamzin, etc.) had a great influence on the work of A. S. Griboyedov." There are two mistakes here. First: Fonvizin really "had a great influence" on Woe from Wit, but it is hardly possible to speak of the influence of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The author confuses facts and genres of fiction. The second factual inaccuracy lies in the fact that Karamzin is a representative of the culture of sentimentalism.
IV. Logic errors
Violation of the sequence (logic) of the presentation leads to the appearance of logical errors.
Logical errors consist in violation of the rules of logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of statements;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportion of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the task for the presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the narration is being conducted (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).
V. Grammar errors
Grammatical errors are non-compliance with the norms of word and form formation, the norms of syntactic connection between words in a phrase and sentence.
Grammar errors can be of two types:
1. Word-building.
The structure of the word is broken: "ruthlessness", "immortality", "instead", "publicism".
2. Morphological.
Errors associated with non-normative formation of word forms.
These types of errors include:
a) errors in the formation of noun forms: “clothes”, “Englishmen”, “two banners”, “on the bridge”, “Grinev lived underage”, “He was not afraid of dangers and risks”, “A big swing was built in the yard”.
b) errors in the formation of adjective forms: "One brother was richer than the other", "This book is more interesting."
c) errors in the formation of pronouns: "I went to him", "their house".
d) mistakes in the formation of the verb: “He never made a mistake”, “Mom always makes guests happy”, “Going out to the middle of the room, he spoke”, “A smiling child was sitting in the far corner”.
e) incorrect construction of a specific pair, most often a paired verb imperfect form: "My brother and I cut off all the extra branches, put the tree in the middle of the room and decorate it."
VI. Syntax errors
Syntax errors consist in the incorrect construction of phrases, in violation of the structure of simple, complicated and complex sentences.
Errors in the structure of phrases:
1. Violation of agreement with the main word in gender, number and case of the dependent word, expressed by an adjective, participle, ordinal number, pronoun: "This summer I was in the steppe Trans-Volga."
2. Violation of control.
Mistakes in unpredictable management (wrong choice of pretext): "If you touch a birch on a hot day, you will feel a cool trunk."
3. The wrong choice of case with the right preposition: "He looked like a deadly tired person."
4. Skipping a preposition: "Having had a hasty lunch, sat at the helm, drove (?) the field."
5. The use of an extra preposition "Thirst for fame."
6. Omission of the dependent component of the phrase: "Get back into the hot cabin, again turn the steering wheel shiny from the palms, (?) drive."
Errors in the structure and meaning of the sentence:
1. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: "But neither youth nor summer is eternal", "The sun had already set when we returned."
2. Lack of semantic completeness of the sentence, violation of its boundaries: "Once during the war years. A shell hit a poplar."
3. Syntactic ambiguity: "Their (girls) dream came true, they (fishermen) returned."
4. Violation of the aspectual correlation of verbs in the composition of the sentence: "Grinev sees how Pugachev got into the carriage."
Errors in a simple two-part sentence:
Subject:
- Pronominal duplication of the subject: "Children sitting on an old boat overturned with a keel, they are waiting for their father."
- Violation of the agreement between the subject and the pronoun that replaces the subject in another sentence: "Apparently, there is a storm on the sea, so it is full of dangers."
Predicate:
- Errors in the construction of the predicate: "Everyone was happy."
- Violation of the agreement of the predicate in gender and number with the subject, expressed collective noun, quantitative-nominal phrase, interrogative and indefinite pronoun: "I stayed at home with my mother", "A sheaf of sun rays entered the room."
- Pronominal duplication of the addition: "Many books can be read several times."
Definition:
- Incorrect use of an inconsistent definition: "A lamp and my portrait from the kindergarten hang on the right."
- A heap of coordinated and inconsistent definitions related to one member of the sentence: "The vast, wonderful world of the life of our country and our peers is revealed in millions of books."
- Wrong choice of the morphological form of the circumstance: "I am learning my lessons on the table" (at the table).
Errors in a one-part sentence:
1. The use of two-piece structures in place of one-piece structures.
2. The use of participial turnover in impersonal offer: "When I saw the dog, I felt sorry for her."
Proposals with homogeneous members:
1. The use of different parts of speech as homogeneous members of the sentence: "I like the room because it is light, large, clean."
2. The inclusion in a series of homogeneous members of words denoting heterogeneous concepts: "When it is spring and a clear day, the sun illuminates my whole room."
3. Incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions to connect homogeneous members: "The boy was big-headed, but serious."
4. Incorrect attachment of logically heterogeneous secondary members to one main member: "There are books in the closet, newspapers and glassware are on the shelves."
5. Errors in matching homogeneous subjects with the predicate: "Anxiety and longing froze in her eyes."
6. Violations in the field of homogeneous predicates:
a) the use of different types of predicates as homogeneous: "The sea after the storm is calm, gentle and plays with the rays of the sun";
b) violation of the uniform design of the constituent nominal predicates: the use of different case forms of the nominal part of homogeneous compound nominal predicates: "Their father was an experienced fisherman and a brave sailor"; addition to homogeneous verbal predicates of an addition, which is controlled by only one of the predicates: "Everyone is very much waiting and worried about the soldiers"; the use of short and full forms of adjectives and participles in the nominal part: "My room has recently been renovated: whitewashed and painted."
7. Combining members and parts of different proposals as homogeneous: "Mushrooms, berries grow under a birch, snowdrops bloom in spring." "The children were waiting for their father and when his boat would appear."
Sentences with introductory words and introductory constructions:
1. Wrong choice of introductory word: "The girls peered tensely into the distance of the sea: probably a boat will appear on the horizon."
2. The use of such an introductory word that leads to ambiguity: "According to the fishermen, there was a storm last night, and now it's calm."
3. Use introductory sentence as independent: "The book is a source of knowledge. As many say."
Proposals with separate members:
1. Violation of word order in sentences with participle turnover.
- Separation of participial turnover from the word being defined: "But a misfortune happened to the tree again: its branches were cut off, located low."
- The inclusion of the word being defined in the composition of the participial turnover: "The girls have a fixed look at the sea."
2. Violation of the rules for constructing participial turnover.
- Building participial turnover according to the model subordinate clause: "The picture shows a girl who just got up."
- The use of the participial turnover instead of the participle: "And each time, returning back, we sat down under the poplar and rested."
3. Errors in sentences with isolated circumstances, expressed by a participial turnover: "Resting in an armchair, the picture" March "is hanging in front of me.
Ways of transmitting direct speech. Direct and indirect speech:
1. A combination of direct speech and the words of the author: "Before the war, my father told me:" Take care of the tree and went to the front.
2. The use of direct speech without the words of the author: "The girls saw the boat:" Dad!
3. Mixing direct indirect speech: "Grandfather said that in childhood they had such a law: on birthdays, we gave only what was done with our own hands."
4. Mistakes when introducing quotes: "K. Paustovsky said that" A person who loves and knows how to read is a happy person.
Complex sentences:
1. Violation of the logical and grammatical connection between parts of a compound sentence: "My father did not forget this story for a long time, but he died."
2. The use of a pronoun in the second part of a compound sentence, leading to ambiguity: "May hopes come true, and they will return."
3. Errors in the use of compound unions:
a) connecting - to connect parts of a compound sentence in the absence of adversarial relations between them: "Yesterday there was a storm, and today everything was calm around."
b) adversative - to connect parts of a compound sentence in the absence of adversarial relations between them: "A birch grows in our yard, but buds swell on it too";
c) double and repeating: "It's not like a bird has landed on the water, or the wreckage of a broken boat is floating on the sea";
d) unjustified repetition of unions: "And suddenly the girls saw a small black dot, and they had hope";
e) an unsuccessful choice of alliances: "Mitrasha was ten years old with a ponytail, but her sister was older."
Complex sentences:
1. Inconsistency of the type of the subordinate clause with the meaning of the main one: "But they will still wait for their father, since the fishermen must definitely wait on the shore."
2. Using composition and subordination to connect parts in a complex sentence: "If a person does not play sports, and he is aging quickly."
3. Weighting structures by "stringing" subordinate clauses: "The sail appeared in the sea as happy news that everything is in order with the fishermen and that the girls will soon be able to hug their parents, who were delayed at sea because there was a strong storm."
4. Omission of the necessary index word: "Mom always scolds me that I scatter my things."
5. Unjustified use of a demonstrative word: "I have such an assumption that the fishermen were delayed by a storm."
6. Incorrect use of unions and allied words with the right choice:
a) the use of unions and allied words in the middle of a subordinate clause: "There is a TV in the room on the bedside table, after school I watch entertainment programs";
b) violation of the agreement of the allied word in the subordinate clause with the replaced or attributive word in the main clause: "On two shelves - fiction which I use when preparing for lessons.
7. The use of the same type of subordinate clauses in sequential submission: "Walking along the shore, I saw two girls who were sitting on an overturned boat, which was lying on the shore with a keel."
8. Using a subordinate clause as an independent one: "Girls are worried about their relatives. Therefore, they look so sadly into the distance."
Associative compound sentence:
1. Violation of the unity of the constructions of homogeneous parts as part of a non-union complex sentence: "The picture shows: early morning, the sun is just rising."
2. Decomposition of parts of an allied complex sentence into independent sentences: "The girls are dressed simply. They are wearing summer calico dresses. The elder has a scarf on her head."
3. Simultaneous use of non-union and allied communication: "The clothes on the girls are simple: the older one with a scarf on her head, in a blue skirt and a gray jacket, the younger one without a scarf, in a purple dress and a dark blue jacket."
complex sentence with various types connections:
1. Violation of the order of the parts of the sentence: "The waves are still foaming, but they calm down near the coast; the closer to the horizon, the darker the sea; and therefore the girls have hope that their father will return."
2. Use of pronouns that lead to ambiguity: "We see that the girl's bed is not made, and she confirms that the girl just got up."
Grammar and lexical errors
Grammar mistake - this is a violation of the rules and norms for the use of morphological forms of different parts of speech and syntactic constructions, that is, a violation of the structure of a language unit: the structure of a word, phrase, sentence. This is a violation of any grammatical norm- word-formation, morphological, syntactic.
There are several types of grammatical errors.
1. Erroneous word formation: put down, tranvay. Multiply the numerator of the first fraction by the denominator of the second.
2. Erroneous formation of the noun form: dahlia, two pairs of socks.
3. Erroneous formation of the form of the adjective: more fun, the most interesting.
4. Erroneous formation of the form of the numeral: three hares, at both gates, celebrate two hundred and fifty years.
5. Erroneous formation of the pronoun form: theirs. There is no name for her.
6. Erroneous formation of the verb form: I will win, I will feel. Don't ruin my furniture. The results were summarized.
7. Violation of agreement: We saw a huge cloud covering the entire sky.
8. Violation of control: agree to the plan. We need to make our school cleaner.
9. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: Most of the students defended their diploma well. Thousand people went to retraining. The Moscow News newspaper is published once a week.
10. Violation of the way of expressing the predicate: life path the hero is heavy and tragic.
11. Mistakes in constructing sentences with homogeneous members: People in the park planted trees for them benches. The conference discussed the main problems of youth and how to deal with drug addiction.
12. Mistakes in building a sentence with a participial turnover: Leaving my hometown, I felt sad. Using the new protective equipment, your hands will not be exposed to the harmful effects of chemicals.
13. Mistakes in constructing a sentence with participial turnover: The letter I wrote was finally sent.
14. Errors in the construction of a simple and complex sentence: That day we went to the country house, which I will remember for the rest of my life.
15. Mixing direct and indirect speech: During the lecture, the lecturer said that I considered the reasons for the emergence of new trends in art.
16. Violation of the boundaries of the proposal: When the sun disappeared behind the horizon. Dark darkness enveloped the earth.
17. Incorrect use of unions and allied words: At a meeting where the issue of product quality was discussed, almost every worker spoke.
A lexical error is a violation of the norms and rules for the use of words in speech. This is not a mistake in the structure of the language unit, but in its use.
There are several types of lexical errors.
1. Use of the word in an uncharacteristic sense: The play is terribly well constructed. Mom is sleeping, and the daughter is sleeping, the door is quietly snoring.
2. Mixing shades of meanings of words that differ in prefix or suffix: By nature, it was very economic.
3. Mixing synonymous words: The letter reached the addressee. The team, continuously working, acquired its own face.
4. The use of words, the stylistic coloring of which does not correspond to the context: The old woman Izergil was proud and impregnable, like a tanker.
5. Inappropriate use of emotionally charged words: Sobakevich wanted to sell the souls more expensively, as the first grade.
6. Unjustified use of colloquial words: He lived beyond his means, and always wanted to cheat someone.
7. Violation of lexical compatibility: The boy in the boat quickly rowed with the yokes.
8. The use of superfluous words, including pleonasm: a small supermarket, an intense downpour, a memorable souvenir.
9. The use of words with the same root or similar in meaning (tautology): Everyone had to work hard in order to complete urgent work on time.
10. Unjustified repetition of the word: First, the part is fired, then the part is placed in acid.
11. Uniformity of syntactic constructions: When the guys went camping, they were looking for leaves for the herbarium. When they returned, each brought his collection to class.
12. Violation of the aspect-temporal correlation of verb forms: The sun has gilded the tops of the trees and paints them in pink, purple, golden hues.
13. Unsuccessful use of personal, demonstrative and other pronouns: Turgenev leads the hero to a gradual realization of his mistakes.
14. Lack of connection between sentences: The house stands at a wide clearing, in a calm. Snow at the same time madly and randomly rushes through the forest.
