36 AGREEMENTS OF Rus' WITH BYZANTIA X V. nikov. And they brought the Russian ambassadors and ordered (them) to speak, and also to write down the speeches of both sides on the charter. List from another (copy) of the contract, which is with the kings Roman, Constantine and Stephen, Christ-loving rulers. (D We, on behalf of the Russian people, ambassadors and merchants, Ivor, ambassador of Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia, and general ambassadors: Vuefast - Svyatoslav, son of Igor; Iskusev - Princess Olga; Sluda - Igor, Igor's nephew; Uleb - Vladislav ; Kanitsar - Predslava; Shikhbern - Sfandry, Uleb's wife; Prasten - Turdov; Libiar - Fostov; Grim - Sfirkov; Prasten 1 - Akun, Igor's nephew; Kara - Studekov; Egri - Yerliskov; Voist - Voikov; Istr - Amindov; Prasten-Bernov; Yatvyag - Gunarev; Shibrid - Aldan; Kol - Klekov; Steggi - Etonov; Sfirka. . .; Alvad - Gudov; Frudi - Tulbov; Mutur - Utin Merchant (? merchants): Adun, Adulb, Iggizlad , Uleb, Frutan, Gomol, Kutsi, Emig, Turbrid, Fursten, Bruny, Ruald, Gunastre, Frasten, Iggeld, Turbern, another Turbern>, Uleb, Turben, Mona, Ruald, Sven, Stir, Aldan, Tiliy , Apubkar, Sven, Vuzlev and Sinko Borich, sent by Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia and every prince and all the people of the Russian land, and they were instructed to renew the old peace treaty, which had been violated for many years, and to establish friendship between Greeks and Russians. 1L our Grand Duke Igor and his boyars and all the Russian people sent us to Roman, Konstantin and Stefan, the great Greek kings, to strengthen friendship with the kings themselves and with all the "boyars and with all the Greek people for all the years (as long as) the sun and the world itself exists, and if (anyone) from the Russian country plans to break this friendship, then let those of them who have received baptism receive retribution and condemnation to perdition from the Almighty God both in this world and IB afterlife; and those of them who are not baptized, may they not receive help from either God or Perun, may they not defend themselves with their shields and may they perish from their swords, from arrows and their other weapons, and may they remain slaves in Treaty of Russia with Byzantium 944 944 AGREEMENT OF RUSSIA WITH BYZANTIA 37 And let the Russian Grand Duke and his boyars send to Greece to the great Greek kings (so many) ships with their ambassadors and merchants If (earlier) it was decreed that ambassadors should bring gold seals, and merchants silver seals, now your prince commanded that letters be sent to our royal majesty; the ambassadors and guests sent by them (i.e., Russians), let 1 bring a letter, where it will be written like this: “sent so many ships”; so that from such (letters) we also learn that they come with peaceful intentions. If they come without a letter and end up in our hands, then we should detain (them until then) until we tell your prince .; if (they) do not allow themselves to be detained and resist, then (if they are killed) let your prince not exact their death; if, having run away, they come to Rus', then we will write to your prince, and let them do (with them) what they want. 4E0a If the Russians do not come for trade, then let them not charge a monthly fee. And let the (Russian) prince forbid his ambassadors and (in general) the Russians arriving here 1 to commit excesses in our villages and in our country. Let those arriving (here) dwell near the monastery of St. Mammoth; and when our royal majesty sends (someone to them) who will rewrite their names, then let them (only) * take the month due to them - first (who came) from Kiev, then from Chernigov and Pereyaslavl. And let them enter the city only through one gate, accompanied; tsarist official, unarmed, 50 people each, and let them trade as much as they need, and go back, and let the tsarist OFFICIAL guard them. If any of the Russians or the Greeks commit an iniquity, let him (the official) judge them. When the Russians enter the city, then let* not commit atrocities - let them not have the right to buy precious fabrics for more than 50 spools (each). And if anyone buys any of those fabrics, then let him show (them) to the royal official, and he, after sealing, will give them to him. And let the Russians departing from here take from us, as needed, food for the road and what is needed / to provide) people, as was established earlier, and let them return unharmed to their country * and they (they) do not have the right to spend the winter at St. Mammoth. 38 AGREEMENTS OF Rus' WITH BYZANTIA X C. If a servant runs away from the Russians who came to the country of our royal majesty and (living) near the holy Mammoth, and if he is found, then let him be taken; if not, then let our Russians - Christians in accordance with their faith, and non-Christians - according to their custom, take the oath, and then they will take from us, according to the previously established rate, 2 precious fabrics per servant. (Q If our servant runs away to you from the people of our royal majesty, or from our capital, or from other cities and brings something (with him), then you should return him; and if everything that he brought, is intact, then take from him (i.e., the owner) two spools for the capture (servant). ; if (he) already takes (something), then let him pay twice; and if the Greek does the same to the Russian, then (he) will undergo the same punishment as that (Russian) was subjected to when committing theft. if a Russian happens to steal something from the Greeks, then not only what was stolen should be returned, but also (paying more) its price; if it turns out that the stolen has already been sold, then let him give twice its price and be punished according to Greek custom and according to the charter And no matter how many captive Christians of our country the Russians bring here, if there is a young man or a good girl, let (at their ransom) give (ours each) 10 spools and take them away; if (there is) an ordinary (prisoner), then they give 8 spools and take him away; if: but it is old or small, then they will give 5 spools. If Russians from among the captives turn out to be slaves to the Greeks, then let the Russians redeem them by 10 spools; if the Greek bought (Russian), then he should swear and take his price, how much he gave for him. 4B0 And about the Korsun country. The Russian prince has no right to fight in those countries, nor in any cities of that land, and that country will not be subject to you; when the Russian prince asks us for soldiers to fight, we will give “mu (as much) as he needs. 4ESH And about the following If the Russians find a Greek ship washed up somewhere on the shore, let them not cause damage to it; if someone takes something from it, or turns any person (from this ship) into slavery or kills, he will be punished according to Russian and Greek custom. 4ECEI If the Russians find the Korsunians fishing at the mouth of the Dnieper, let them not do them any harm. And let the Russians not have the right to spend the winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, in the Beloberezh and at St. Elfery, but with the onset of autumn, let them go to Rus' to their homes. $ W And about the following. If the black Bulgarians come and start fighting in the Korsune country, then we ask the Russian prince not to let them cause damage to his country. SH&SH If any crime is committed by the Greeks, subjects of our royal majesty, then (you) do not have the right to (arbitrarily) punish them, but according to the command of our royal majesty, let them receive (they are punished) to the extent of their misconduct. J£Q/i> If a Christian kills a Russian or a Russian Christian and the killer is caught by the relatives (of the murdered), then let him be killed. If the murderer runs away, but turns out to be a possessor, then let the relatives of the murdered take his property. But if he turns out to be indigent and (at the same time) he fled, then let them search for him until he is found; if found, let him be slain. 4ESh If, however, a Rusyn hits a Greek or a Rusyn Greek with a sword or a spear or any weapon, then let him pay 5 liters of silver for such an iniquity, according to Russian custom. But if he turns out to be indigent, then let everything be sold from him so much that even the clothes in which he walks, and they will be removed from him, but (as for) what is missing, then let him swear, according to his faith, that nothing has, and let him be let go. $EE1 If, however, our royal majesty wishes (to receive) soldiers from you to fight our opponents, and if they write (about this) to your Grand Duke, then let him send us (as many of them ), as much as we wish; and let other countries learn from this what kind of friendship connects the Greeks with the Russians. 4EfU We wrote this agreement on two charters: and one charter is with our royal majesty - on it the cross is depicted and our names are written; and on the other (they wrote the names) your ambassadors and your merchants. Going (back) together with the ambassador of our royal majesty, let (they) escort her to the Grand Duke of Russia Igor and to his people; and those, having received the charter, let them swear 4TOf to truly observe what we have agreed and what we have written on this charter, on which our names are written. But we (swear): those of us who are baptized, we swear in the cathedral church by the church of St. Elijah, presented with an honest cross and this chargiya, to observe everything that is written on it, and not violate anything (what is written in it); and if this is violated (by someone) from our country, whether a prince, or anyone else, baptized or unbaptized, may he not receive help from God, may he be a slave in this life and in the afterlife., and may he be stabbed to death with his own weapon. And the unbaptized Russians, laying down their shields, naked swords, hoops (?) and other weapons, swear that everything written on this charter will be fulfilled by Igor, all the boyars and all the people of the Russian country always, in all future years. If one of the princes or Russian people, Christian or not, violates what is written on this charter, then he should die from his weapon, and may he be cursed by God and Perun as having violated the oath. And if Grand Duke Igor worthily preserves this rightful treaty of friendship, may it not be destroyed (that is, this treaty, as long as) while the sun is shining and the whole world is standing, in modern times and in the afterlife. The messengers sent by Igor returned to him with the Greek ambassadors and told (to him) all the speeches of Tsar Roman. Igor called the Greek ambassadors and said to them: “Tell me, what did the king punish you?” And the ambassadors of the tsar said: “Here the tsar sent us, delighted with the world, (for) 944 AD AGREEMENT OF Rus' WITH BYZANTIA 4 1 wants to have peace and friendship with the Russian prince. And your ambassadors took our kings to the oath, and we were sent to swear you and your warriors. And Igor promised to do so. And in the morning Igor called on ambassadors and came to the hill where Perun stood; and laid down their weapons, shields and gold, and Igor and his warriors swore allegiance, and as many Russian pagans as there were, and Russian Christians were sworn in in the church of St. It was a cathedral church, for many Varangians and Khazars were Christians. Igor, having established peace with the Greeks, dismissed the ambassadors, endowing them with furs, servants and wax. The ambassadors came to the kings and told all the speeches of Igor and his friendship with the Greeks. Historical and legal review Introduction. The introduction consists of an introductory annalistic text and the title of the treaty. To understand the text of the agreement, it should be taken into account that it was concluded after the campaign of Prince Igor in 941 against Tsargrad, which ended in failure. True, the Tale of Bygone Years under 944 speaks of Igor's new campaign against Constantinople. The Greeks, having learned about the campaign, sent an embassy to Igor with a promise of tribute. The campaign was stopped, and Igor returned to Kyiv. In the summer of 6453-944 (according to the September calendar). If we take the annalistic date as an indication of the time the contract was drawn up (the contract itself does not contain a date), then negotiations on signing the contract took place in September-December 944. The Byzantine emperor Roman with his children Stephen and Constantine died between December 16, 944. and January 27, 945. In any case, the agreement was concluded between the summer of 941 (when Russia's campaign against Constantinople took place) and December 944. actions. Art. 1, Article 1 of the treaty of 944 proclaims the inviolability of peaceful friendly relations between the Russian state and Byzantium and establishes, in the religious form inherent in that time, punishment for violation of the peace treaty. The text of this article makes it possible to establish the character-
The agreement - one of the earliest surviving ancient Russian diplomatic documents - was concluded after the successful campaign of the Kyiv prince Oleg and his squad against the Byzantine Empire in 907. It was originally compiled in Greek, but only the Russian translation has survived as part of The Tale of Bygone Years. The articles of the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911 are devoted mainly to the consideration of various offenses and the penalties for them. We are talking about responsibility for murder, for deliberate beatings, for theft and robbery; on the procedure for helping merchants of both countries during their voyage with goods; rules for the ransom of prisoners are regulated; there are points on the allied assistance to the Greeks from Rus' and on the procedure for the service of the Russians in imperial army; on the procedure for the return of fled or stolen servants; the order of inheritance of the property of the Russ who died in Byzantium is described; regulated Russian trade in Byzantium.
Relations with the Byzantine Empire since the 9th century. constituted an essential element foreign policy ancient Russian state. Probably already in the 30s or the very beginning of the 40s. 9th century The Russian fleet raided the Byzantine city of Amastrida on the southern coast of the Black Sea ( modern city Amasra in Turkey). In sufficient detail, Greek sources tell about the attack of the "people of the Ross" on the Byzantine capital - Constantinople. In The Tale of Bygone Years, this campaign is erroneously dated to 866 and is associated with the names of the semi-mythical Kyiv princes Askold and Dir.
The news about the first diplomatic contacts of Rus' with its southern neighbor also date back to this time. As part of the embassy of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus (829-842), who arrived in 839 at the court of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious, there were some “petitioners for peace” from the “people of Ros”. They were sent by their Khakan ruler to the Byzantine court, and now they were returning to their homeland. Peaceful and even allied relations between Byzantium and Russia are evidenced by the sources of the 2nd half of the 860s, primarily by the messages of Patriarch Photius of Constantinople (858-867 and 877-886). During this period, through the efforts of Greek missionaries (their names have not reached us), the process of Christianization of Rus' began. However, this so-called "first baptism" of Rus' did not have significant consequences: its results were destroyed after the capture of Kyiv by the squads of Prince Oleg who came from Northern Rus'.
This event marked the consolidation under the rule of the northern, Scandinavian in origin, Rurik dynasty of lands along the transit Volkhov-Dnieper trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Oleg, the new ruler of Rus' (his name is a variant of the Old Norse Helga - sacred) first of all sought to assert his status in confrontation with powerful neighbors - Khazar Khaganate and the Byzantine Empire. It can be assumed that initially Oleg tried to maintain partnership relations with Byzantium on the basis of an agreement of the 860s. However, his anti-Christian policy led to a confrontation.
The story of Oleg's campaign against Constantinople in 907 is preserved in the Tale of Bygone Years. It contains a number of elements of clearly folklore origin, and therefore many researchers have expressed doubts about its authenticity. In addition, almost nothing is reported about this military campaign by Greek sources. There are only separate references to the "Rose" in documents from the time of Emperor Leo VI the Wise (886-912), as well as an unclear passage in the chronicle of pseudo-Simeon (late 10th century) about the participation of the "Rose" in the Byzantine war against the Arab fleet. The main arguments in favor of the reality of the 907 campaign should be considered the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911. The authenticity of this document is beyond doubt, and the conditions contained therein, extremely beneficial for Rus', could hardly have been achieved without military pressure on Byzantium.
In addition, the description in the "Tale of Bygone Years" of negotiations between Oleg and the Byzantine emperors, co-rulers Leo and Alexander, is consistent with the well-known principles of Byzantine diplomatic practice. After Prince Oleg, together with his army, appeared under the walls of Constantinople and devastated the surroundings of the city, Emperor Leo VI and his co-ruler Alexander were forced to enter into negotiations with him. Oleg sent five ambassadors with his demands to the Byzantine emperors. The Greeks expressed their willingness to pay a one-time tribute to the Rus and allowed them duty-free trade in Constantinople. The agreement reached was secured by both parties through an oath: the emperors kissed the cross, and the Rus swore on their weapons and their deities Perun and Volos. The taking of the oath was apparently preceded by an agreement, since the oath had to refer precisely to the practical articles of the treaty, which it was called upon to approve. What exactly the parties agreed on, we do not know. It is clear, however, that the Russians demanded some kind of payments and benefits from the Greeks, and that they received this in order to then leave the district of Constantinople.
The formal treaty between Rus' and Byzantium was concluded, apparently, in two stages: in 907 negotiations were held, then the agreements reached were sealed with an oath. But the verification of the text of the treaty was delayed in time and took place only in 911. It is worth noting that the most favorable articles of the treaty for the Russians - on the payment by the Greeks of indemnity ("ways") and on the release of Russian merchants in Constantinople from paying duties - are only among the preliminary articles 907, but not in the main text of the treaty of 911. According to one version, the mention of duties was deliberately removed from the article “On Russian Traders”, which was preserved only as a headline. Perhaps the desire of the Byzantine rulers to conclude an agreement with Russia was also caused by the desire to get an ally in the ongoing war against the Arabs. It is known that in the summer of the same year 911, 700 Russian soldiers participated in the campaign of the Byzantines to the island of Crete occupied by the Arabs. Perhaps they remained in the empire, enrolling there on military service, after Oleg's campaigns, and did not return to their homeland.
A detailed textual, diplomatic and legal analysis showed that the texts of the diplomatic protocol, act and legal formulas, preserved in the Old Russian text of the treaty of 911, are either translations of well-known Byzantine clerical formulas, attested in many surviving original Greek acts, or paraphrases of Byzantine monuments. rights. Nestor included in the Tale of Bygone Years a Russian translation made from an authentic (that is, having the power of the original) copy of the act from a special copy book. Unfortunately, it has not yet been established when and by whom the translation was made, under no circumstances were extracts from copies of the books found their way to Rus'.
During the X-XI centuries. wars between Russia and Byzantium alternated with peaceful, and rather long pauses. These periods are marked by the strengthening of diplomatic actions, the two states - by the exchange of embassies, active trade. Priests, architects, artists came from Byzantium to Rus'. After the Christianization of Rus', pilgrims began to travel in the opposite direction to the holy places. The Tale of Bygone Years includes two more Russian-Byzantine treaties: between Prince Igor and Emperor Roman I Lecapenus (944) and between Prince Svyatoslav and Emperor John I Tzimisces (971). As with the agreement of 911, they are translations from Greek originals. Most likely, all three texts fell into the hands of the compiler of The Tale of Bygone Years in the form of a single collection. At the same time, the text of the treaty of 1046 between Yaroslav the Wise and Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh is not in the Tale of Bygone Years.
Treaties with Byzantium are among the oldest written sources of Russian statehood. As international treaty acts, they fixed the norms of international law, as well as the legal norms of the contracting parties, which, thus, was involved in the orbit of another cultural and legal tradition.
The norms of international law include those articles of the treaty of 911 and other Russian-Byzantine agreements, the analogues of which are present in the texts of a number of other treaties of Byzantium. This applies to the limitation of the period of stay of foreigners in Constantinople, as well as to the norms of coastal law, reflected in the treaty of 911. Paragraphs of some Byzantine-Bulgarian agreements can be analogous to the provisions of the same text on fugitive slaves. Byzantine diplomatic agreements included clauses on terms (baths), similar to the corresponding terms of the agreement of 907. Documentation of Russian-Byzantine agreements, as researchers have repeatedly noted, is largely due to the Byzantine clerical protocol. Therefore, they reflected the Greek protocol and legal norms, clerical and diplomatic stereotypes, norms, institutions. This, in particular, is the usual for Byzantine acts mention of co-rulers along with the ruling monarch: Leo, Alexander and Constantine in the treaty of 911, Roman, Constantine and Stephen in the treaty of 944, John Tzimiskes, Basil and Constantine in the treaty of 971. Such there were usually no mentions either in Russian chronicles or in short Byzantine chronicles, on the contrary, in the form of Byzantine official documents it was a common element. The determining influence of Byzantine norms was reflected in the use of Greek weights, monetary measures, as well as the Byzantine system of chronology and dating: an indication of the year from the Creation of the world and an indict (the serial number of the year in the 15-year tax reporting cycle). The price of a slave in the contract as 911, as studies have shown, is close to the fork average price slave in Byzantium at that time.
It is important that the treaty of 911, as well as subsequent agreements, testified to the complete legal equality of both parties. The subjects of law were the subjects of the Russian prince and the Byzantine emperor, regardless of their place of residence, social status and religion. At the same time, the norms governing crimes against the person were based mainly on the “Russian law”. Probably, this refers to a set of legal norms of customary law that were in force in Rus' by the beginning of the 10th century, that is, long before the adoption of Christianity.
From "The Tale of Bygone Years"
In the year 6420 [from the Creation of the world]. Oleg sent his husbands to make peace and establish an agreement between the Greeks and Russians, saying this: “A list from the agreement concluded under the same kings Leo and Alexander. We are from the Russian family - Karla, Inegeld, Farlaf, Veremud, Rulav, Gudy, Ruald, Karn, Frelav, Ruar, Aktevu, Truan, Lidul, Fost, Stemid - sent from Oleg, the Russian Grand Duke, and from everyone who is at hand him, - bright and great princes, and his great boyars, to you, Leo, Alexander and Constantine, great autocrats in God, kings of Greece, to strengthen and to certify the many years of friendship that was between Christians and Russians, at the request of our great princes and by command, from all Russians under his hand. Our Grace, above all desiring in God to strengthen and certify the friendship that has always existed between Christians and Russians, judged fairly, not only in words, but also in writing, and with a firm oath, swearing by their weapons, to affirm such friendship and certify it by faith and according to our law.
Such are the essence of the chapters of the covenant to which we have committed ourselves in God's faith and friendship. With the first words of our treaty, let us make peace with you, Greeks, and begin to love each other with all our hearts and with all our good will, and we will not let happen, since it is in our power, no deceit or crime from our bright princes who are at hand; but we will try, as far as we can, to preserve with you, Greeks, in future years and forever an unalterable and unchanging friendship, by expression and tradition of a letter with confirmation, certified by an oath. Likewise, you Greeks, observe the same unshakable and unchanging friendship towards our bright Russian princes and to all who are under the hand of our bright prince always and in all years.
And about the chapters concerning possible atrocities, we will agree as follows: those atrocities that will be clearly certified, let them be considered indisputably committed; and by whom they will not believe, let the side that strives not to believe this atrocity swear; and when that party swears, let there be such a punishment as the crime will be.
About this: if anyone kills - a Russian Christian or a Russian Christian - let him die at the scene of the murder. If the murderer runs away, but turns out to be a property owner, then let the relative of the murdered person take that part of his property that is due by law, but let the murderer's wife keep what is due to her by law. But if the fugitive murderer turns out to be indigent, then let him remain on trial until he is found, and then let him die.
If someone strikes with a sword or beats with some other weapon, then for that blow or beating let him give 5 liters of silver according to Russian law; if the one who committed this offense is poor, then let him give as much as he can, so that he takes off the very clothes in which he walks, and on the remaining unpaid amount, let him swear by his faith that no one can help him, and let him not this balance is collected from him.
About this: if a Russian steals from a Christian or, on the contrary, a Christian from a Russian, and the thief is caught by the victim at the very time when he commits the theft, or if the thief prepares to steal and is killed, then his death will not be exacted either from Christians or from Russians; but let the afflicted take what is his that he has lost. But if the thief voluntarily surrenders himself, then let him be taken by the one from whom he stole, and let him be bound, and give back what he stole in threefold.
About this: if any of the Christians or of the Russians, through beatings, attempts [on robbery] and obviously by force takes something that belongs to another, then let him return it in a triple amount.
If a boat is thrown out by a strong wind on a foreign land and one of us Russians is there and helps to save the boat with its cargo and send it back to the Greek land, then we will carry it through every dangerous place until he comes to a place of safety; if this boat is delayed by a storm or stranded and cannot return to its places, then we, Russians, will help the rowers of that boat, and see them off with their goods in good health. If, however, the same trouble happens with the Russian boat near the Greek land, then we will lead it to the Russian land and let them sell the goods of that boat, so that if it is possible to sell anything from that boat, then let us, Russians, take [to the Greek coast]. And when [we, Russians] come to the Greek land for trade or as an embassy to your king, then [we, Greeks] let the sold goods of their boat pass with honor. If it happens to any of us, the Russians, who arrived with the boat, be killed or something is taken from the boat, then let the culprits be sentenced to the above punishment.
About these: if a prisoner of one side or another is forcibly held by Russians or Greeks, being sold into their country, and if, in fact, it turns out to be Russian or Greek, then let them ransom and return the ransomed person to his country and take the price of his purchase, or let him be a price was offered for him, which is due for a servant. Also, if he is taken by those Greeks in the war, let him return to his own country anyway and his usual price will be given for him, as already mentioned above.
If there is a recruitment into the army and these [Russians] want to honor your king, and no matter how many of them come at what time, and want to stay with your king of their own free will, then so be it.
More about the Russians, about the prisoners. Those [captive Christians] who came from any country to Rus' and are sold [by Russians] back to Greece, or captive Christians brought to Rus' from any country, all these should be sold for 20 gold coins and return to the Greek land.
About this: if a Russian servant is stolen, either he runs away, or he is forcibly sold and the Russians begin to complain, let them prove this about their servant and take him to Rus', but also the merchants, if they lose the servant and appeal, let them demand a court and, when they find - will take it. If someone does not allow an inquiry to be made, then he will not be recognized as right.
And about the Russians serving in the Greek land with the Greek king. If someone dies without disposing of his property, and he does not have his own [in Greece], then let his property be returned to Rus' to the closest younger relatives. If he makes a will, then the one to whom he wrote to inherit his property will take what was bequeathed to him, and let him inherit it.
About Russian traders.
About various people who go to the Greek land and remain in debt. If the villain does not return to Rus', then let the Russians complain to the Greek kingdom, and he will be captured and forcibly returned to Rus'. Let the Russians do the same to the Greeks if the same happens.
As a sign of the strength and immutability that should be between you, Christians, and Russians, we created this peace treaty by writing Ivan on two charters - your Tsar and with our own hand - we sealed it with an oath by the presenting honest cross and the holy consubstantial Trinity of your one true God and given to our ambassadors. We swore to your king, appointed from God, as a divine creation, according to our faith and custom, not to violate us and anyone from our country any of the established chapters of the peace treaty and friendship. And this writing was given to your kings for approval, so that this agreement would become the basis for establishing and certifying the peace that exists between us. September 2, indict 15, in the year from the creation of the world 6420.
Tsar Leon honored the Russian ambassadors with gifts - gold, and silks, and precious fabrics - and assigned his husbands to them to show them the beauty of the church, the golden chambers and the riches stored in them: a lot of gold, curtains, gems and the passion of the Lord - the crown, nails, scarlet and relics of the saints, teaching them their faith and showing them the true faith. And so he let them go to his land with great honor. The envoys sent by Oleg returned to him and told him all the speeches of both kings, how they made peace and put an agreement between the Greek land and the Russians and established not to break the oath - neither to the Greeks, nor to Rus'.
(translated by D.S. Likhachev).
© Library Russian Academy Sciences
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Which articles of the treaty relate to the economic sphere, and which to the political?
What was ethnic composition Russian ambassadors mentioned in the treaty?
What specifically Greek realities appear in the text of the treaty?
Why are Russians and Christians opposed in the treaty?
Is it possible, on the basis of the treaty, to speak of a military alliance between Rus' and Byzantium?
The second source of law was the Russian-Byzantine treaties of 911, 944 and 971. These are international legal acts that reflect the norms of Byzantine and Old Russian law. They regulated trade relations, determined the rights that Russian merchants used in Byzantium. Here the norms of criminal, civil law, certain rights and privileges of feudal lords are fixed. The treaties also contain norms of oral customary law.
As a result of the campaigns of Russian princes against Constantinople, Russian-Byzantine treaties were concluded that regulated trade and political relations between states.
Three agreements with Byzantium 911, 945, 971 aimed at regulating trade relations between the two countries. The texts contain norms of Byzantine and Russian law relating to international, commercial, procedural and criminal law. They contain references to the Russian Law, which was a set of oral norms of customary law. Being international, these treaties in a number of cases fix interstate norms, but Old Russian law is clearly reflected in them.
· The agreement of September 2, 911 was concluded after the successful campaign of Prince Oleg's squad against Byzantium in 907. He restored the friendly relations of the states, determined the procedure for the ransom of prisoners, punishment for criminal offenses committed by Greek and Russian merchants in Byzantium, the rules of conduct litigation and inheritance, created favorable trading conditions for Russians and Greeks, changed coastal law (instead of capturing a ship thrown ashore and its property, the owners of the coast were obliged to assist in their rescue).
The agreement of 945 was concluded after the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor’s troops against Byzantium in 941 and the second campaign in 944. Confirming the norms of 911 in a slightly modified form, the agreement of 945 obliged Russian ambassadors and merchants to have princely letters to use the established benefits, introduced a number of restrictions for Russian merchants. Rus' pledged not to claim the Crimean possessions of Byzantium, not to leave outposts at the mouth of the Dnieper, and to help each other with military forces.
· The treaty of July 971 was concluded by Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich with Emperor John Tzimiskes after the defeat of the Russian troops in the Bulgarian Dorostol. Compiled in conditions unfavorable for Rus', it contained the obligations of Rus' to refrain from attacks on Byzantium. From treaties with Byzantium in the 10th century. it can be seen that the merchants played a prominent role in international relations Rus', when they not only carried out purchases abroad, but also acted as diplomats who had extensive ties with foreign courts and social leaders.
The contracts also mention the death penalty, penalties, regulated the right to hire, measures to capture runaway slaves, and register certain goods. At the same time, the treaties provided for the implementation of the right of blood feud and other norms of customary law.
Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium are an exceptionally valuable source on the history of state and law Ancient Rus', ancient Russian and international law, Russian-Byzantine relations.
Rich Byzantine culture, which in the X-XI centuries. experienced a renaissance (revival), significantly affected our state. But it cannot be said that the influence of Byzantine law on ancient Russian law was significant. This follows from Russkaya Pravda, as a collection of norms of ancient Russian, in particular customary, law. Slavic conservative customs did not perceive other people's norms.
The legal system of Kievan Rus at the time of the intensification of its relations with Byzantium was almost formed on the basis of the traditions of its own customary law. A striking feature of the legal system of the Old Russian state was, in particular, sanctions in criminal law (the absence of the death penalty, the widespread use of monetary penalties, etc.). On the other hand, Byzantine law was characterized by strict sanctions, including death penalty and corporal punishment.
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_0.jpg" alt=">RUSSIAN-BYZANTINE AGREEMENT OF 944">!}
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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_2.jpg" alt=">"Deep" Russian-Byzantine world 907 -- 911 lasted until 941 Exactly 30"> «Глубокий» русско-византийский мир 907 -- 911 гг. просуществовал до 941 г. Ровно через 30 лет началась новая русско-византийская война. Конечно, вовсе не обязательно, чтобы по истечении срока договора началось военное противоборство; соглашение могло быть продлено, перезаключено и т. д., но этого не случилось.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_3.jpg" alt=">">
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_4.jpg" alt=">Studying the subsequent Russian-Byzantine treaty of 944 shows us the main reasons confrontation between the two countries."> Изучение последующего русско-византийского договора 944 г. показывает нам основные причины противоборства двух стран. И первая из них -- острейшие противоречия в Северном Причерноморье.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_5.jpg" alt=">In the context of renewed strife and quarrels, Byzantium stopped paying annual tribute to Rus' and , probably"> В условиях возобновившихся распрей и ссор Византия прекратила Руси уплату ежегодной дани и, вероятно в одностороннем порядке, отменила право русского купечества на беспошлинную торговлю в Византии. Рухнули основные положения тридцатилетнего русско-византийского договора 907 г.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_6.jpg" alt=">When Igor, after the first defeats in 941, organized in 944 second hike"> Когда Игорь после первых поражений в 941 г. организовал в 944 г. второй поход на Константинополь, то его встретило на Дунае императорское посольство и заявило от имени Романа I: «Не ходи, но возьми дань, юже ималъ Олегъ, придамъ и еще к той дани». Греки предлагали возвратиться к основному пункту договора 907 г.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_7.jpg" alt=">Rus did not enter into a military confrontation alone. If Byzantium enjoyed the support of Bulgaria , and on"> Русь вступила в военное противоборство не одинокой. Если Византия пользовалась поддержкой Болгарии, а на Северном Кавказе ее союзниками были аланы, то Русь также имела союзников. Вместе с Русью выступили давние ее друзья -- венгры. Об этом говорит их нападение на Константинополь в 943 г., в разгар русско-византийской войны.!}
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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_9.jpg" alt=">Igor received the Byzantine ambassadors and, as the chronicle testifies, "verbs" with them about the world."> Игорь принял византийских послов и, как свидетельствует летопись, «глагола» с ними о мире. Именно здесь состоялась выработка принципиальных положений нового договора. Киевская встреча стала той предварительной конференцией, где был разработан его проект. Потом !} Russian embassy moved to Constantinople to develop the final text of the treaty.
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_10.jpg" alt=">In terms of its content, the treaty of 944 stands out sharply not only among Russian-Byzantine agreements,"> По своему содержанию договор 944 г. резко выделяется не только из числа русско-византийских соглашений, но из всего, что дал раннесредневековый дипломатический мир. Масштаб договора, охват им разнообразных политических, экономических, юридических, военно-союзных сюжетов уникален для X в. В его создании видна настойчивая, изощренная мысль византийцев, их знание предмета и мудрость, государственный кругозор, политический размах молодой русской дипломатии. В договоре 944 г. объединены практически идеи и конкретная часть двух прежних соглашений -- 907 и 911 гг., однако, кроме того, они развиты, углублены, дополнены новыми важными положениями.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_11.jpg" alt=">">
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_12.jpg" alt=">The new agreement is a typical interstate agreement of "peace and love", which restored the former peaceful relations"> Новое соглашение -- типичное межгосударственное соглашение «мира и любви», которое восстанавливало прежние мирные отношения между странами. Договор возвращал оба государства к «ветхому миру» прошлого, под которым авторы соглашения имели в виду, конечно, договор 907 г. В договоре подтверждались «мир и любовь», воспроизводились все те идеи дружбы и добрососедских отношений, которые присутствовали в соглашениях 907--911 гг. И вновь декларировалось, что мир устанавливается «на вся лета», т. е. навсегда.!}
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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_14.jpg" alt=">The contract confirmed the order of embassy and trade contacts established back in 907 A"> В договоре был подтвержден порядок посольских и торговых контактов, установленный еще в 907 г.А как известно, «установлено» это было подробно в 907 г. Почти без изменения в !} new treaty entered from the previous text about the order of the arrival of Russian ambassadors and merchants in Byzantium, their receipt of ambassadorial and merchant support, accommodation near the monastery of St. Mamant, their entry into the city. It is also said here that, going on the way back, the Russians have the right to receive food and equipment, "as if it was ordered to eat before."
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_15.jpg" alt=">The obligations of Byzantine officials to rewrite the composition of Russian guests to obtain maintenance and certificates"> Подтверждены и обязанности византийских чиновников переписывать состав русских гостей для получения содержания и удостоверения их личности и цели появления в Византии, вводить руссов в город без оружия, через одни ворота, охранять их, разбирать возникающие недоразумения между руссами и греками: «Да аще кто от Руси или от Грекъ створить криво, да оправляеть то». Они также были должны контролировать характер и масштабы торговых операций, удостоверять своей печатью на товарах законность произведенных сделок. Эта часть договора 907 г. значительно расширена, детализирована, обязанности императорских «мужей» обозначены здесь более подробно, их функции расширены.!}
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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_17.jpg" alt=">But innovations appeared in this part of the contract, and the first among them -- This"> Но появились в этой части договора и новшества, и первое среди них -- это установление порядка удостоверения личности приходящих из Руси послов и купцов. Теперь они должны предъявлять византийским чиновникам специальные грамоты, выданные им великим русским князем, вернее его канцелярией, и адресованные непосредственно на имя византийского императора. В этих грамотах должно быть обозначено, кто и с какими целями пожаловал в Византию.!}
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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_19.jpg" alt=">These new clauses of the treaty clearly indicate the strengthening of state tendencies in Rus', About,"> Эти новые пункты договора ясно говорят об усилении государственных тенденций на Руси, о том, что киевский князь практически берет под свой контроль все контакты русских людей с Византией, откуда бы они ни были -- из Киева, Чернигова, Переяславля, Полоцка, Ростова, Новгорода, других русских городов. Конечно, в значительной степени эти статьи охраняют классовые интересы русских феодалов, ведь теперь любой беглец из Руси -- холоп или феодально-зависимый крестьянин, должник или обедневший ремесленник -- должен был немедленно задерживаться греками и отправлен обратно на Русь.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_20.jpg" alt=">These articles also had one more goal: now to those Russian merchants that were sent"> Была у этих статей и еще одна цель: теперь тем русским купцам, которые отправлялись в Византию на свой страх и риск, без княжеского изволения, грозила суровая кара. Эти строгости сводили до минимума зарождение новых конфликтов между руссами и греками.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_21.jpg" alt=">Other restrictions for Russian people in empires: Russians"> Появились в договоре 944 г. и иные ограничения для русских людей в империи: руссы не имели права зимовать на своем подворье в Византии. А это означало, что и посольские и купеческие караваны должны были в период одной навигации обернуться и возвратиться на родину. Нет уже ни слова о пребывании посольства в Византии, «елико хотяче», или купцов в течение шести месяцев.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_22.jpg" alt=">In the new treaty of 944, it is noticeable that Rus' went to some economic concessions."> В новом договоре 944 г. заметно, что Русь пошла на некоторые экономические уступки. Русским купцам запрещалось покупать на византийских рынках дорогие шелковые ткани более чем на 50 золотников.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_23.jpg" alt=">But the most significant economic loss for Rus', of course, was the abolition of duty-free trade of Russian merchants"> Но самой, конечно, существенной экономической потерей для Руси стала отмена беспошлинной торговли русских купцов в Византии. По этому поводу в договоре просто не сказано ни слова. Эта привилегия была отменена, и в этом вполне можно усматривать следствие военного поражения русского войска в 941 г.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_24.jpg" alt=">The 944 treaty re-formulated the idea of joint defense by both states rights to"> Заново в договоре 944 г. сформулирована идея о совместной защите обоими государствами прав на личность и собственность холопов, рабов.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_26.jpg" alt=">Theft used to be allowed to kill if the thief was caught on the spot. Now more moderate"> Прежде за кражу разрешалось убийство, если вор попадался на месте. Теперь установлено более умеренное наказание, соответственно «законам» греческому и русскому, что отражает развитие правовых норм как в Византии, так и на Руси.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_27.jpg" alt=">But the idea of a new Byzantine-Russian military alliance is substantiated in particular detail. By in essence, Rus' acts here"> Но особо подробно обоснована идея нового византийско-русского военного союза. По существу, Русь выступает здесь впервые на правах равноправного союзника Византии, а сами военно-союзные статьи носят всеохватный, масштабный характер. В этом смысле договор 944 г. также представлял собой уникальное явление. Русь и Византия взяли на себя равные обязательства посылать войска на помощь друг другу.!}
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Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_29.jpg" alt=">The military alliance of the two states was based not only on common political and economic interests , But"> Военный союз двух государств основывался не только на общности политических и экономических интересов, но и на том, что острейшие противоречия между ними, в том числе территориального характера, были разрешены.В новом договоре стороны поладили между собой.!}
Src="https://present5.com/presentacii/20170505/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_images/42-dogovor_944_goda.ppt_30.jpg" alt=">So the dispute was resolved, but... only temporarily. It is quite obvious that the contradictions between Rus' and"> Так был разрешен спор, но... лишь на время. Совершенно очевидно, что противоречия Руси и Византии в спорных районах не были устранены, и очевидно, что их решение переносилось на будущее; пока же был нужен мир и военный союз.!}
The next year after Igor's campaign, Emperor Roman sent envoys to Igor to restore peace. The Tale of Bygone Years dates the peace treaty to 945, but the mention of Roman's name in the treaty points to 944.
In December 944 Roman was overthrown by his sons, Stefan And Constantine, who were immediately removed from power by the new emperor Konstantin Porphyrogenitus.
The text of the Russian-Byzantine treaty, which is of a military-trade nature, is quoted in full in the Tale of Bygone Years. First of all, he regulates the conditions for the stay and trade of Russian merchants in Byzantium, determines the exact amount of fines for various misconduct, and establishes the amount of ransom for captives. It also formulated a provision on mutual military assistance between the Russian Grand Duke and the Byzantine tsars.
A year after the conclusion of the treaty, Grand Duke Igor was killed by the Drevlyans.
 Svyatoslav Igorevich Prince of Novgorod in 945-969, Grand Duke of Kiev from 945 to 972, became famous as a commander. Formally, Svyatoslav became the Grand Duke at the age of 3 after the death of his father, Grand Duke Igor, in 945, but independent rule began around 964. Under Svyatoslav Old Russian state to a large extent, his mother, Princess Olga, ruled, first because of the infancy of Svyatoslav, then because of his constant presence in military campaigns. When returning from a campaign against Bulgaria, Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs in 972 on the Dnieper rapids. | Boris II Tsar of Bulgaria from 969 to 977, since 971 he was in Byzantine captivity, but at home he continued to be considered the Bulgarian king. The eldest son of Tsar Peter I and Tsarina Irina. |
The Russian-Byzantine war of 970-971 is the campaign of Prince Svyatoslav, first in alliance with the Greeks against Bulgaria, and then in alliance with the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II against Byzantium. The war ended with the expulsion of the Rus from Bulgaria.
Russian-Byzantine war of 941-944 - campaigns against Prince Igor's Constantinople. During the first campaign, the Russian army failed at sea, the second campaign ended with the signing of a peace treaty and tribute with the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus II Fok (he sent the noble Chersonesus patrician Kalokir with huge gifts - 15 centinaries (about 450 kilograms) of gold to Prince Svyatoslav in Kiev )), from Byzantium.
The purpose of the diplomatic mission of Kalokir was to redirect the direction of the Russian army to the Danube banks, to the Bulgarian kingdom. Its king Simeon, a former prisoner of the emperor, successfully fought with Byzantium. However, sudden death did not allow him to complete the defeat of the hated empire. Although the new Bulgarian Tsar Peter the Short did not pose a serious threat to Constantinople, they nevertheless decided to get rid of a possible enemy with the forces of the Russians.
In 966, Nicephorus Foka decided to stop paying tribute to the Bulgarians under the agreement of 927, and began to demand that the Bulgarians not allow the Hungarians to pass through the Danube to plunder the Byzantine provinces. The Bulgarian Tsar Peter said that he had peace with the Magyars, he could not break it. This led to a war against Bulgaria.
However, Prince Svyatoslav had his own plans. He decided to expand the borders of Rus', make Bulgaria an ally in the upcoming war with Byzantium, and even planned to move his capital from Kiev to the banks of the Danube, following the example of Prince Oleg, who moved to Kiev from Novgorod.
The Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas triumphed when he learned that the Russian prince had agreed to go on a campaign against the Bulgarian kingdom. Tsar Peter soon died of grief. One of the most famous rulers of Byzantium in history, the most skilful diplomat of his time played a triple game with Svyatoslav:
1. firstly, the military threat of the invasion of the Russians into the Chersonesus theme, the granary Byzantine Empire;
2. secondly, he pushed his foreheads together in a military confrontation, the two most dangerous countries for Byzantium - Kievan Rus and the Bulgarian kingdom;
3. thirdly, he set the nomadic Pechenegs against Rus', exhausted in the war, in order to take over Bulgaria, exhausted in the war with Russia, in the meantime.
In 967, Svyatoslav approached the Danube and was preparing to land, the Bulgarian king, who still continues to demand tribute from Byzantium as usual, hastily collected thirty thousand and threw them against the Russians.
Led by Svyatoslav Russian army lined up in a kind of multi-row monolith and rushed at the Bulgarians like an iron wave. Those were broken. And so much that they did not think about further resistance: all the survivors fled and locked themselves in the strong fortress of Dorostol. Tsar Peter soon died of grief.
The next 968 year gave into the hands of Svyatoslav Pereyaslavets, Dorostol and eighty other fortress cities. In fact, all the towns along the Danube were in the hands of the people of Kiev. The prince took the place of the Bulgarian kings and began to rule his new state. Kalokir was by his side. And only now Nikifor Foka realized what kind of concern he had amassed for himself - instead of the Bulgarian state, which was gradually aging, he received a great warrior as a neighbor, considering no less great plans, in which Byzantium was assigned an important, but by no means a carefree role.
However, Svyatoslav, having occupied part of Bulgaria, opposed Byzantium. As soon as Foka found out about this, he immediately ordered throwing machines to be installed on the fortress walls of the capital, to block the entrance to the harbor with a chain. In the army of Svyatoslav there were Hungarians and right-bank Pechenegs, so the emperor restored the left-bank Pechenegs to attack Kyiv and this forced Svyatoslav and his Kyiv squad to return to the Dnieper region.
The nomads besieged Kyiv, but as soon as a small squad of Russians approached the city and introduced themselves as the advanced detachment of the prince's troops, the Pecheneg Khan faltered and lifted the siege of the city. The Kievans, taking advantage of this, managed to send a messenger to the prince, who, without observing diplomatic politeness, conveyed the voice of the earth to his sovereign and prince: he, the prince, is looking for a foreign land and watches over it, but he renounced his own, and Kyiv, along with his mother and children, almost took the Pechenegs. Doesn't he feel sorry for his homeland, or for his aging mother, or for his children?
Having entrusted power to his grown sons, the prince made it clear that he was leaving Kyiv, most likely forever, and would henceforth reign in Bulgaria, making it the center of his new vast state.
At the same time, the Greeks offered the Bulgarian princesses marriage with the sons of the late emperor. Romana. The Greek ambassadors promised the Bulgarian nobles help in expelling Svyatoslav.
But the Bulgarians - at least some of them - thought differently. New king Boris made peace with Byzantium against Svyatoslav. But the Russian prince also had many allies among the Bulgarians - it seemed to them easier to endure the prince-warrior than their tsar, who was friends with the Greeks and learned from them how to oppress his subjects. When, in August 969, the Russians landed on the Danube with mighty force, their supporters among the Bulgarians became much larger. Svyatoslav easily passed to the capital of Boris Preslav, encountering no resistance anywhere, and just as easily took it, given by the king, who recognized himself as a vassal of the Kyiv prince. Realizing that Byzantium would not leave him alone, the prince decided not to wait for the first blow, and as soon as the passes of the Rhodope Mountains cleared of snow, he struck himself.
