The most productive in Russian is formation of new words using prefixes, suffixes, postfixes. However, firstly, they do not exhaust all possible ways of the morphological way of forming words, and secondly, within each of these ways, more particular varieties can be distinguished. Let's consider each of them in more detail.
1. Prefix method- the formation of new words with the help of prefixes.
For example, the verb swim across formed from the verb swim using an attachment pen- (re-sail - be← ply - be).
The derivational prefix is attached to the whole word. At the same time, derivative words formed by the prefix method always refer to the same part of speech as the generating words.
The prefix method is used in the formation of all significant parts of speech.
For example: discomfort□ ← comfort □ ; you go-be← go - be; super-gifted-th← gifted - th; to-now← now .
But it is most productive in the formation of new verbs.
Wed: for -ne-be← ne- be; to -ne-be← ne- be; with -ne-be← ne- be; pe-pe-be← ne- be.
2. Suffix way- the formation of a new word with the help of derivational suffixes.
For example: verb resin formed from a noun resin with the help of the verbal suffix -i- (resin- And-be← pitches - A).
The suffix method is one of the most common in the language. With its help, all significant parts of speech are formed in Russian. At the same time, the part of speech of the derivative word can be the same as that of the producing one (cf .: birch- nyak□ ← birches - A; census- ywa-be← census/a - be; ser- ovate-th← ser- th), may be different than that of the generating word (cf .: ser- e-be← ser- th; ser- awn□ ← ser - th; ser- O← ser- th).
3. Postfix way- the formation of a new word with the help of derivational postfixes.
In Russian, as noted, derivational postfixes include:
a) return postfix -sya ;
b) postfixes of indefinite pronouns something, something, something.
Therefore, reflexive verbs, indefinite pronouns and pronominal adverbs are formed in a postfixal way.
For example: learn be-Xia← teach - be; How - Ouch-That← how- Ouch; When- or← when .
Note. If we consider the postfix as a kind of suffix, then this kind of formation can be attributed to the suffixal way of forming words.
4. Zero suffix- the formation of a new noun by meaningful use of the absence of a suffix.
Note. In some manuals, this method is also called unsuffixed.
For example: high -Ø□ ("high space") ← high / ok - uy; bully -Ø-a ("one who bullies") ← bully - be.
The absence of a suffix is significant for a new word, just as the absence of a materially expressed ending is significant in the presence of a zero ending.
For comparison, let's compare the formation of single-root words:
1. ascend- enij-e← sunrise/s - be; notch- To-A← notch/a - be; daring- stv-O← daring - Ouch;
2. sunrise -Ø□ ← sunrise/s - be; notch -Ø□ ← notch/a - be; prowess -Ø□ ← prowess - Ouch.
In the first case ( climb, notch, daring) when forming a verbal noun, a materially expressed suffix was used, in the second case ( sunrise-Ø, notch-Ø, prowess-Ø) - zero suffixation.
Note!
In modern Russian there are a large number of words formed by zero suffixation:
1) Verbal nouns male 2nd declension with the meaning of an abstract action or its result.
Enter ← enter, departure ← depart, twitter ← twitter.
2) Verbal nouns female 1st declension with the meaning of an abstract action or its result.
Payback ← pay off, merit ← deserve.
3) Verbal feminine nouns of the 3rd declension with the meaning of an abstract action or state.
Scold ← scold, tremble ← tremble.
4) Verbal nouns of the general gender on -а, -я, denoting a person according to his characteristic action.
Bully ← bully, roar ← roar.
5) Masculine nouns of the 2nd declension, formed from adjectives, with the meaning of an abstract feature or the name of a person by a distinctive feature.
Primitive ← primitive, original ← original.
6) Feminine nouns of the 1st declension, formed from adjectives, with the meaning of the subject on the basis.
Thick ← thick, steep ← steep.
7) Feminine nouns of the 3rd declension, formed from adjectives, with the meaning of an abstract feature.
Blue ← blue, wilderness ← deaf.
When forming verbal nouns with the help of zero suffixation, the generating stem is usually truncated (the verbal suffix is cut off).
For example: merit -Ø- A← deserving - be; story -Ø□ ← story(s) - be; twitter -Ø□ ← twitter/a - be.
5. Prefixed-suffixal method- the formation of new words by simultaneously adding a prefix and a suffix to the base of the generating word.
The prefix-suffix method forms nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.
For example: under -glass-nick□ ← glass □ ; under chief-th← chef □ ; de-weapons-and-th← weapon- j-e; in his own way← own - th.
Note!
1) The meaning of a derivative word formed by the prefix-suffix method is often derived from a combination of a noun in the indirect case with a preposition, and the prefix homonymous to the preposition is used in the derived word.
Wed: windowsill□ ("under the window") ← window - O; under -glass-nick□ ("under the glass") ← glass □ ; without -lun-j-e("no moon") ← moons - A.
2) Do not forget that the suffix -j- may not be expressed in a word with a special graphic character:
without-people- [ j]-e← people - And.
3) Adverbs are formed in the prefix-suffix way, which are written with a hyphen:
a) from adjectives - with a prefix in - and suffixes -om, -him, -i:
grown-up omu← adult th; in a good way to him← good uy; comradely← friendly uy; by -wolf-[j]-And← Wolf uy;
b) from ordinal numbers - with the prefix in-, in- and the suffix -s, -ih:
first of all ← first th; third-them ← tert uy.
4) Their meaning is usually motivated by a combination of a noun with a preposition, and in the derived adjective a prefix homonymous to the preposition is used:
without legs-Ø- uy("without legs") ← legs - A; without -horn-Ø- uy("without horns") ← horn □ .
Compare the formation of similar adjectives, where, along with the prefix, not a zero, but a materially expressed suffix is used:
without -ticket-n-th("no ticket") ← ticket □ ; without -harm-n-th("no harm") ← harm □ .
6. Because in this manual-sya is considered not as a kind of suffix, but as a postfix, then there are several mixed ways of word formation of verbs with the postfix -sya:
- 1. The suffix -iv- and its derivatives -liv- and -chiv-. The suffix -iv- itself is unproductive. It is found in the stems of adjectives derived from nouns and denoting a constant property, quality, inclination towards something, possession of some quality to a large extent. For example: lazy, deceitful, false, arrogant, merciful, lousy, lousy, flattering, bald, wormy, ambitious, whiny, beautiful, playful, etc. Compare: courteous, zealous, holy fool.
- 2. In parallel with the suffixes -iv- and -liv-, one should put the suffixes -av- (-yav-) and -lav-, both of which are unproductive in the modern language. The suffix -av- (-yav-) stands apart relatively easily, but its meaning is rather vague: characterized, endowed with a rather large dose, big amount something (which is indicated by the generating name): curly (cf. curly), bloody, nasal, full of holes, pimply, slobbery. Wed: thin, lean, youthful. Wed See also: majestic. In some words, the suffix -av- (-yav-) is already generally imperceptible, for example: crafty, lisping.
- 3. The suffix -к- produces qualitative adjectives from verbal stems with the meaning: characterized by some action, such that it is easy, constantly doing something, or one with which something is easily or often done or one can easily do something - either (depending on the meaning of the generating verb). For example: brittle, catchy (which immediately catches the eye), shaky, boggy (such that drowns, such that you can drown), viscous, boiled, fusible, marketable, greedy, sticky, malleable, wearable, shaky, etc. But in some words the suffix -to- already somewhat lost its morphological individuality, for example: strong, sharp, etc.
- 4. Productive colloquial suffix -ast-. It is correlative with the quality-relative suffix -am- that has lost productivity. The suffix -am- originally meant: characterized by the presence of something, possessing something (that which denotes the noun that produces the name), for example: winged - with wings; horned - with horns (cattle); married; belly (in the colloquial meaning - pregnant, cf. Pushkin in letters to his wife); pot-bellied, tailed, feathered, tired, bearded, freckled, striped, shaggy, etc. The property emphasized by this suffix is conceived as a prominent, basic and, therefore, sharp feature. From here a purely qualitative meaning developed in the suffix -am-: having in abundance, with something in excess, endowed with something excessive or something excessive (which is indicated by the stem of the generating noun). For example: hairy, nosy, shaggy, belly (about a man), etc. The spread of this meaning was facilitated by semantic parallelism with the productive suffix -ast-, characteristic of colloquial speech and denoting an excess, excess of some feature (in accordance with the meaning of the generating noun ). For example: big-nosed, busty, belly, lipped, big-eyed, shaggy, "grimy face" (L. Seifullina), bony, toothy, fanged, big-headed, big-headed, bespectacled, loud-mouthed, etc. (cf .: stocky). As can be seen from the examples, these adjectives with the suffix -ast are formed mainly from the designations of the members of the human or animal body or the external qualities of a person, accessories of his appearance.
- 5. The suffix -chat- is close in meaning to the suffix -am-, especially productive in professional and special-scientific dialects. For example: patterned, lattice, mesh, checkered, ruffled, folded, clawed, combed, cranked, smoky, ragged, etc. Cf. also piped, speckled, blocky, tuberculate, etc. Apparently, three meanings stand out more prominently in this suffix: 1) having in in large numbers or to a large extent something (which is denoted by a deriving noun), consisting of a multitude of something: cranked, knobby, folded, log-shaped, bubble-like, trellis, etc.; 2) resembling by some quality, property what is indicated by the generating noun, similar to something, made in the image and pattern of something: fistulate, smoky, notched, onion, oilcloth, etc .; 3) characterized by the ability to show some kind of action (which is indicated by the stem of the generating verb), prone to some kind of action: crumbly, abrupt, iridescent, "flooded laughter" (Dostoevsky). The stress of words with this suffix is on the stem in the syllable immediately preceding the suffix.
- 6. The suffixes -um- and -ist- are close in meaning to the suffix -am- and -ast- (cf. in Dostoevsky in "Idiot": "cheeky face"). But the relationship of these suffixes developed somewhat differently than the suffixes -am-, -ast-. The suffix -um-, which once produced qualitative-relative adjectives from noun stems, is unproductive and dead in modern language. It can be distinguished etymologically in a narrow circle of qualitative words, for example: famous, eminent, venerable; cf. See also: angry. But if the suffix -um- itself is relatively easily separated from the bases, then its meaning (possessing something and sometimes even to a large extent) is already very vaguely recognized. An offshoot of this suffix - the unproductive suffix -ovit (th) appears more clearly: hospitable, dignified, gifted, businesslike, prolific, intelligent, poisonous, arctic, etc. Here, the shade of a significant degree of quality is expressed more sharply.
- 7. By contrast, the productive suffix -ovat- is associated with the suffixes -ast- and -ist- (compare: petty-bourgeois and petty-bourgeois). The suffix -ovat- is located on the border between suffixes that produce new qualitative adjectives from words of other categories, and between suffixes that modify the qualitative meaning of the adjective itself. Rather, this suffix combines both functions.
- 8. A group of suffixes -teln-, -ichn-, -ablen- with a predominant qualitative meaning historically branched off from the suffix -n-, -нн-, which produces both qualitative and relative adjectives. In the modern language, they are already completely isolated, independent formants.
- 9. Qualitative adjectives with the suffix -n-, derived from verbal and verbal-nominal stems, are separated into an independent word-building category. In this morphological type, adjectives derived from nominal verbal stems (for example: secretive, understandable, entertaining, etc.) and direct verbal formations (carved, detachable, incorruptible), etc., mixed and merged. literary language words of this type are directly associated with verb stems. They are mostly understood as pure verbal types of qualitative adjectives - with a hint of the meaning of possibility, potentiality.
- 10. In the system of modern adjectives, the qualitative variants of some verbal suffixes have become very strong. First of all, these include qualitative adjectives with the suffix -m- and the verb stem.
- 11. A more variegated and mixed picture of the correlation and interaction of qualitative and verbal shades is presented by an extensive and productive group of verbal adjectives in -ly. The suffix -l-, related to the verbal suffix -l- in the past tense, in these forms became isolated from the verb system (cf. the history of the words vulgar, vulgar, adult, tall, bold, rotten, mature, etc.).
- 12. The qualitative meaning is no less pronounced, bearing a half-erased touch of verbality, in verbal adjectives with suffixes -uch- (-uch-); -ach- (-yach-). The choice of one or another suffix (-uch- or -yach-) depends primarily on which consonant ends in the root element of the generating verb. If it ends in labial or posterior lingual, then only the suffix -uch- (explosive, effervescent, loose, odorous, burning, pushing) joins it.
- 13. The group of qualitatively verbal forms of word formation also includes unproductive suffixes -(a)n-, -en-. By origin, these are former suffixes of Russian passive participles. As you know, Russian participles were supplanted by Church Slavonic formations into -any, -enny (non-membered forms into -an, -en). The adjectives that the former passive participles have turned into have the following meaning in modern language: subjected to some action to a sufficient extent, such that is the result of some action: baked, fried, ice cream, salty, soaked, learned, tattered, torn , donated, etc.
- 14. It is clear that the circle of these qualitatively verbal adjectives should also include those participial formations in -ying, -yushchy, -yushchy and especially passive on -nyy and -nyy, which closely approached adjectives or even passed into them. But to separate the analysis of the qualitative meanings of participles from the study general techniques and the principles of their formation and use is inappropriate (see the chapter on participles).
- 15. Adjectives, like nouns, are characterized by book suffixes of a very specific meaning. These suffixes consist of semanthemes that form the second part of compound words. These are, for example, compound suffixes of qualitative adjectives:
- 16. The category of qualitative (as well as, by the way, relative) adjectives is significantly replenished with different types of compound words. (cf. different types word combinations in the category of adjectives, for the most part depending on the methods of compounding nouns:
- 1. Suffixes indicating individual and non-individual affiliation: -in-, -ov- (-ev-), -y- (-th-), attached to the names of persons and animals ( dad — daddy, Volodya —Volodin; chicken — chicken, a lion —lion; teenager — teenage, guest — guest; fox - fox, bear - bearish); -as- (-eas-), -ovos- (boy scout from scout, dissident from dissident, Tolstoy from Tolstoy, Shakespearean from Shakespeare).
- 2. Suffixes with the meaning "relating to something": - n-, -enn-, -They-, -ov- (-ev-), attached to nouns ( alternative from alternative, barter from barter, state from state; subsidized from grant, group from group, kitschy from kitsch).
- 3. Suffixes with the meaning "having some distinctive feature", "containing something": - at-, -ovate-, -ist-, -living- attached to nouns ( striped from band, winged from wings; knotted off knot, knotty from bitches; grainy from corn, laminate from layer; talented from talent, happy from happiness).
- 4. Suffixes indicating the relationship of the attribute to the action, attached to the verbs: -teln-, -living-, -chiv- (distributive from distribute, swimming from swim, silent from silent, garrulous from speaking; changeable from change, gullible from trust).
- 5. Suffixes indicating a weak manifestation of a trait, attached to adjectives: -ovate- (-evat-), -enk- (rather weak from weak, whitish from white, bluish from blue; young from young, old from old).
- 1. Prefixes with the meaning of negation, absence, opposite of a sign: Not-, without- (devil-), A-, anti- (non-indigenous from indigenous, non-legal from legal, non-currency from currency, non-contact from contact, immoral from moral, asymmetrical from symmetrical, inhumane from humane, anti-legal from legal).
- 2. Prefixes indicating a high manifestation of a trait: pre-, most-, once- (race-), archi-, above-, super-, ultra- (cold from cold, hot from hot; highest from highest, smallest from smallest; cheerful from cheerful, beautiful from beautiful; archival from important, archreactionary from reactionary; super profitable from profitable, excess from standard; trendy from trendy, ultra-modern from modern; ultra-left from left, ultrapatriotic from patriotic).
- 3. Prefixes with spatial meanings: out-, inside-, behind-, trance- (over-the-counter from exchange, extra-parliamentary from parliamentary; domestic from state, inside federal from federal; polar from polar; transcontinental from continental, Trans-Siberian from Siberian).
- 4. Prefixes with a temporary value: pre-, before-, after-, fast- (penultimate from last, pre-perestroika from perestroika or perestroika, post-war from military or war).
- 1. Adjectives from nouns are formed using the following prefixes and suffixes: without- (devil-)...-n-, -enn- (fruitless result, meaningless from meaning, restless from peace); for-...-n-, -sk- (foreign from hillock, cordon from the cordon; overseas from ocean, overseas from sea);
- 2. Adjectives from verbs are formed using: not-...-n-, -eat-, -them-, -teln-; without- (devil-)...-n- (continuous from interrupted, irreconcilable from reconcile, invincible from win, immediate from slow down; thoughtless from thinking, continuous from interrupt).
- 1. Addition using the connecting vowel o or e (interfix): agrarian-communist from agrarian and communist, electronic computing from electronic and computing, solvent from capable of payments.
- 2. Addition without a connecting vowel: highly liquid from highly and liquid, multipolar from many and polar.
prefix-postfix method- the formation of new words by simultaneously attaching prefixes and postfixes to the base of the generating word;
You are a cry-be-Xia← Plaka - be; in -chita-be-Xia← read - be.
suffix-postfix mode- the formation of new words by simultaneously adding a suffix and a postfix to the base of the generating word;
Spelling of adjective suffixes
1) Spelling of adjectives with n
, nnIn order to accurately determine how much n is written in adjectives, you need to remember how they are formed. All adjectives are derived words either from nouns or from verbs; in accordance with this, the spelling rules for adjective suffixes, including n, nn, apply.
If the adjective is formed from the verb, then the quantity n depends on the type of the verb. One
n written in adjectives formed from verbs not perfect look(Verbs imperfect form answer the question what to do?For example: painted door - from the verb to paint (what to do?), Therefore, one n (add suffix - e n-); smart companion - from the verb to understand (what to do?), therefore, one n(add suffix - en-).
Exceptions: unexpected, unexpected, unexpected, unseen, unseen, unknown, unheard, unheard, unintentional, cutesy, desired, conceited, minted, slow, sacred, promised, made, awake, pecked, homegrown, presumptuous.
Compare verbal adjectives and participles similar to them, in which two n are always written (see the section above):
n are written in adjectives formed from perfective verbs (perfective verbs answer the question what to do?).For example: documents laid out on the table - from the verb to spread out (what to do?), Therefore, nn; abandoned classes - from the verb to quit (what to do?), therefore, nn. (Note: if the stem of the verb has vowels and I) or e, then suffixes are added –n- or –nn-; if the stem of the verb ends in vowel And or at consonant, then suffixes are added –en- or –enn- depending on the type of verb.)
Exceptions: planted father, mother; named brother, sister; finished man; Forgiveness Sunday; dowry.
Two n are written in adjectives formed from imperfective verbs with suffixes -ovann-, -evann-. For example: paved, spoiled, nickel-plated.
Pay attention to the fact that in the words forged, chewed, pecked ov, ev are not suffixes, but are part of the root, therefore, the spelling of these words is subject to general rule(in adjectives formed from imperfective verbs, one is written n). Compare: forged lattice - constrained movements.
If the adjective is formed from the noun, then suffixes should be distinguished: -n-, -an- (-yan-), -in-, -onn-, -enn-.
One n is written in adjectives, if they are formed from nouns with the help of suffixes –an- (-yan-) or -in-. For example: leather (from leather-a + -an-), silver (from silver-o + -yan-), living room (from guest + -in-).
Exceptions: glass, wood, tin.
Two n is written in adjectives formed from nouns with the help of suffixes -onn- or -enn-. For example: operational (from operation -I + -onn-), numerical (from number-o + -enn-).
Exception: windy. (Compare windless, leeward, weathered, etc.)
Two n are written in adjectives formed from a noun with the suffix n if the stem of the noun ends in n.
For example: valuable (from price-a + -n-), millionth (million + -n-).
Note that in adverbs and compound words ah spelling n , nn obeys the general rule (i.e., the number of n depends on the generating basis, in particular, the same amount is written n , as in adjectives from which adverbs are formed, or the same n , how many in words that form a compound word).
For example:
justified - from the adjective justified (from the verb substantiate(what to do?), owls. species, therefore - two n ); confused - from the adjective confused (from the verb confuse(What to do?), Nesov. species, therefore - one n
);multilateral - from the adjective side (side-a + -n- ); fresh-frozen - from the adjective frozen(from the verb to freeze, nonsov. species, therefore - one n); fresh frozen - from the adjective frozen(from the verb to freeze, owl. species, therefore - two n); poorly organized - from the adjective to -ovanny, therefore two nn); long-awaited - from the adjective awaited(an exception, therefore two nn).
You should remember the spelling of complex adjectives with -nn-: pen, soap, distillery, brewing, salt.
Spelling of suffixes -ov-, -ev-, -iv-, -chiv-, -liv-, -sk-, -chat-, -at-, -ovat-, -evat-
Pay attention to the spelling of the suffixes -ov-, -iv-. The suffix -iv- is always stressed, for example: trust (trust + - ov -, easel (machine + - ov -), truthful (truth-a + -iv -), playful (game-a + -iv -). Exception: merciful, holy fool. (See the section above for writing the suffix -ov- after sibilant and q.) Suffix –ev- always unstressed, for example: share (dol-I + -ev-), speech (speech-b + -ev-) enamel (enamel-b + - ev-), gutta-percha (flexible) (gutta-percha-a + - ev-
).In the suffixes -chiv-, -liv-, -ist- it is always written -i-. For example: arrogant (skid + -chiv), sympathetic (participation + -liv-), oily (oily + -ist-), abrupt (cliff + -ist-).
Remember the rules for spelling words with suffixes -chat-; -
am - for example: vaulted, bearded. If the generating stem ends in c, then when forming an adjective with the help of the suffix, -chatz is replaced by t, for example: tile - tiled. If the generating stem ends in To, then when forming an adjective with the help of a suffix - am - to is replaced by h, for example: freckle - freckled. Recall that the spelling of the word plank is regulated by the rule of alternation of consonants in the root: ck alternates with u.Please note that when forming adjective names using the suffix –sk- in some cases, the consonant of the root is preserved, while in others it changes. Root consonants do not change h, s, d, t, c (if before c - there is a consonant), for example: positivist-sk-th, French-sk-th, sailor-sk-th, constanz-sk-th, parliament-sk-th. If an adjective is formed from a noun whose root ends in To or h , That To or h changes to c and add the suffix -To- , for example: weaver - weaving, fisherman - fishing. Exception: Uzbek.
Note that if the noun root ends in ny or p , then when forming an adjective with the help of a suffix –sk- , letter b is not saved. For example: January - January-sk-th; secretary - secretary-sk-th; harbor - harbor-sk-th; huntsman - huntsman-sk-th. Exceptions: September b sky, october b sky, november b sky, december b sky, jun b sky, day-day b skoy. Note that if the stem of a noun ends in l , then before the suffix –sk- put a letter b e.g. ambassador - ambassador b sky.
Writing suffixes -ovate- And -evat- is defined as follows: a suffix is added to the solid consonant at the base of the derived word -ovate- , to a soft consonant, hissing or c added -evat- , for example: angular (angle), bluish (blue), valiant (well done).
§ 7. Methods of suffixal word formation of qualitative adjectives
In modern Russian, suffixes are numerically predominant, through which qualitative adjectives are formed. In terms of productivity, they are much inferior to the suffixes of the subject relation. Qualitative suffixes fall into two groups. To one belong derivational suffixes, by means of which qualitative adjectives are derived from the stems of nouns and verbs. The other includes formative suffixes expressing a subjectively colored modification of the quality indicated by the main adjective, suffixes of subjective evaluation. Suffixes of subjective evaluation for the most part serve as a means of forming expressive forms of words from the same adjectives (for example: healthy - a healthy child; the child was healthy - the child was healthy). A. A. Potebnya very subtly noted that in the use of subjective assessment suffixes, along with the meanings of affection, ironic neglect or reduction, which change the idea of the quality itself (cf. in N. Lyashko's story "Strengthening Wings": "I advise the drunken old owner to repair the machine "), a peculiar principle of expressive-semantic agreement appears much more often. In this case, the diminutive form of the adjective is, as it were, called by the diminutive form of the noun being defined. The adjective agrees with the noun not only in gender, number and case, but also in expressive coloring (for example: scarlet flower, white cat) (39). Then the suffixes of subjective evaluation "denote caress or reduction only in relation to the subject to which the given attribute refers, and not to the attribute itself, which is why such adjectives are used mainly with diminutive nouns ..." (40). All this prompts the allocation of formations with suffixes of subjective evaluation into a special morphological type.
The suffixes of quality adjectives in modern language are:
The secondary suffixes -liv- and -chiv- formed from -iv- are very productive. With the help of the suffix -liv-, most often from verbal stems, as well as from the stems of nouns, mostly verbal, abstract, denoting a state, action and property, adjectives are produced with the meaning: prone to some kind of action or having some kind of quality, property 17: silent, patient, boastful, talkative, talkative, vigorous, squeamish, pliable, understanding, annoying, shy, cowardly, caring, affable, swaggering, conscientious, noisy, hasty, grumpy, mocking, sloppy, thrifty, pugnacious, dodgy, dodgy, ugly, compassionate, envious, talented, happy, lucky, sleepy, gluttonous, gluttonous, dreary, squeaky, noisy, whimsical, lustful, etc. Compare: importunate (from importunate), polite, fair and other similar. Wed Turgenev in the "Inn": "The female sex is brittle and whimsical."
Through the suffix -chiv-, qualitative adjectives with the same meaning are formed from verbal stems (originally from the stems of verbal nouns with the suffix -ka) with the same meaning: capable, inclined to do something, to show some property. For example: quarrelsome (cf. also: quarrelsome), quick-tempered, quick-witted, intelligible, arrogant, quick-tempered, evasive, accommodating, changeable, receptive, accommodating, etc. Compare: reckless, shy.
For adjectives with the suffixes -liv- and -chiv-, in some words (with a disyllabic and polysyllabic stem) the stress falls on the root element, in others (mainly with a monosyllabic, less often with a disyllabic stem) - on the suffix.
The suffix -lav- is also unproductive, which branched off from the suffix -yav- (-av-) and produced adjectives with the meaning from the stems of both nouns and verbs: characterized by a special propensity for something, discovering or producing a lot of something (with a hint of censure or neglect): bony, squeaky, fidgety, rotten, brainy, etc.
The semantic deadening of the suffix -k- was more clearly defined in words with a verb-nominal stem, for example: lively (cf. boy-woman), voiced, etc. Adjectives with the suffix -k- are made from unprefixed verbal stems of various types (sticky - sticky ; stagger - shaky; break - break - brittle; wear - rush - wearable; walk - walkable, etc.), and voice differences are completely leveled in the forms of the adjective (cf .: tenacious, catchy, weighty, shaky, etc. p.) 18 .
The confusion of the suffixes -ati and -asty was already noted by F.I. Buslaev: "Now you need to explain how the endings -ty and -sty differ from each other, saying that the first actually means belonging, and the second - excess and superiority, for example: horned means with horns, and horned means with big horns." Wed N. S. Leskov in the "Pechersk Antiques": "He was of a wide-faced Great Russian appearance, muzzle and gubast."
On the contrary, the suffix -ist is alive and very productive, denoting an abundance of something, the possession of a lot of something (which is indicated by the basis of a generating noun, less often a verb) and free from that shade of colloquial familiarity and, therefore, some neglect, which characterizes the suffix -ast-. For example: stony (stony soil), dewy (on dewy grass), vociferous (vociferous bird), swampy, hilly, branchy, clayey, mountainous, fragrant, sinewy, earthy (earthy sand - and earthy complexion), granular, wooded, icy, calloused, fleshy, broad-shouldered, spotty, articulate, shady, bumpy, petty-bourgeois, etc.; cf. in Turgenev's "Diary of a superfluous person": "teary orshad". With a verbal or verbal-nominal stem, the suffix -ist- means: inclined to do something or one that has a strong inclination, the ability to do something. For example: accelerating lines; in the "Inn": "tobacco is extremely strong"; in Novi, in Paklin's speech: "These gentlemen are as slick as prison"; cf. colloquial: cocky, short-haired, sprawling gait, spreading tree.
The stress is on the suffix if the noun that produces the name has a mobile stress or a fixed stress at the end (branchy, wooded, shady, needle, broad-shouldered, streamy, icy, etc.). On the contrary: the fixed stress on the basis of the generating noun is preserved in the adjective (for example: muddy, sinewy, bumpy, marshy). These are the dominant groups of words with the suffix -ist-. Words derived from verbal or verbal-nominal stems also adjoin here in terms of meaning and stress: tight-fisted, compact, spreading, assertive, weighty, fried, etc.
The other two groups of adjectives with the suffix -ist- are few and stable. These are: 1) words derived from relative adjectives (most often in -yany, less often in -ny). Here the suffix -ist retains the meaning of an excessive amount of something (which is indicated by the stem), indicates the presence of a large admixture of something: watery, bloody, oily, herbaceous, sulphurous, farinaceous, cf. squat; 2) words derived from noun stems and having the meaning: similar to something, resembling in its qualities that substance, that object that is indicated by the stem: golden, silvery, fluffy, velvety, cf. silky; cf .: streamy, wavy (wavy line), thick-set (similar to a ridge)19. Wed from L. Leonov: "Sergey Andreevich saw, in addition to the dacha, - an exit, a very shed apartment" ("Skutarevsky") and others like that.
So, first of all, the productive suffix -ovat-, -evat-, joining the bases of the qualitative adjectives themselves, introduces a tinge of mitigation, a decrease in quality. It corresponds to the adverb - somewhat, slightly: yellowish, stupid, rather poor, difficult, whitish, reddish, bluish, broad, rough, etc. Cf. in Gogol's "Overcoat": "The official cannot be said to be very remarkable: short in stature, somewhat pockmarked, somewhat reddish, somewhat even blind in appearance."
But, in addition, the suffix -ovat- produces qualitative adjectives from the stems of nouns with the meaning: somewhat or partially, slightly similar to someone with some qualities. For example: “pike police chief” (Saltykov-Shchedrin), bourgeois (by M. Gorky), peasant, thieving, roguish, clubbed, baggy, hooked, ragged, etc. In this morphological type of adjectives, there is also a shade of weakened quality, an indication of some approximation to the properties of something: cf. "felt hair" (Leskov, "Islanders"). Wed in Chekhov: "On her red-cheeked, freckled face, so much stupid importance was written ..." ("The Last Mohican").
One might think that the suffix -ovat- also has a third, almost fading meaning: having something to some extent (as indicated by the stem of the noun). For example: acne, nostril, knotty, angular, etc. (cf. also: guilty). The stress of words with the suffix -ovat- is consistently stored on the suffix. The suffix -ovat- does not join the stems of qualitative adjectives that already contain another suffix (for example: -iv-, -chiv-, -liv-, -av-, -aln-, -enn-).
1) In the bookish language, the suffix -teln-, which produces adjectives from verbal stems, stands out most sharply (cf. nouns in -tel and -telnitsa). For example: soothing, captivating, interrogative, preparatory, preventive, laxative, lingering, unforgivable, diligent, observant, wonderful, charming, satisfying, insistent, intoxicating, affirmative, stunning, etc.
Formations with the suffix -teln- fluctuate within the boundaries of three main meanings:
a) active, close to the value of a qualified participle in -sch20: saving (bringing salvation, saving), outrageous (disturbing, capable of causing indignation), vigilant, observant, life-giving, approving, final, cooling, contemptuous, convincing, dizzying, sentimental and etc.;
b) passive: worthy of something, such that it obliges to do something (exactly what is indicated by the stem of the generating verb), or such that it is constantly subjected to some action, bears the imprint of some action. For example: wonderful (worthy of being noticed), respectful, forgiving, impermissible, common, etc.;
c) relative, indicating a definitive connection with the action indicated by the stem of the verb, in relation to the action, for example: preparatory period (preparation period), suffrage, defensive alliance, probationary period, etc. Cf. in Saltykov-Shchedrin: "eavesdropping interest", "restraining project", "head-scratching amusements", etc.
Obviously, this relative meaning of the suffix -teln- is especially widespread in the language of science and technology. In special and professional technical terms the suffix -teln- in a relative sense is synonymous with the suffix -ln-. But, apparently, a more bookish stylistic connotation is associated with the suffix -teln-, and it bears a more distinct imprint of active meaning. It is clear that in some cases these differences can become almost completely imperceptible. For example: washing (washing machine) and washing (washing drum); incendiary and incendiary, etc. (43).
Of course, many adjectives with the suffix -teln- in the modern language already directly express qualitative meanings and are not associated with the idea of the verb and with the meaning of the action. For example: exceptional, significant, consistent, significant, unpretentious, etc.
2) The suffix -ichn- (variant -tichn-) in borrowed words corresponds to fr. -ique (Greek -ikos). It forms qualitative adjectives with the meaning: imbued with something, revealing the property indicated by the basis (for the most part, in accordance with abstract concepts on -ism-, -ost, -ika, -iya, etc., but compare . also: catastrophic, anecdotal, heroic, etc.): dramatic, artistic, dogmatic, problematic, anemic, energetic, allegorical, etc. Compare: synonymous, homonymous, metaphorical, syntactic and other similar.
Often the suffix -ichn- serves to more visually express those qualitative meanings that develop in adjectives in -ic (from borrowed stems; cf.: critical, heroic, dramatic, artistic, etc.), and to form from words with the suffix -ic (s) correlative short forms and degrees of comparison (for example: "The situation was extremely tragic"; "The benefits of this innovation are rather problematic", etc.).
3) The suffix -ablen- (French -able, German -abel) means: possessing some property, capable of something: cost-effective, comfortable, respectable, readable (colloquial-joking)21. The circle of use of this suffix is very narrow, but the brightness of its awareness is undeniable22.
In this category, a group of words stands out most prominently in the modern language, denoting the impossibility or possibility of some action (according to the meaning of the stem): such that it can or cannot do something, or such that it is possible or impossible to do something . For example: inaccessible, unawakening, irrepressible, steady, immense, inconsolable, inflexible, impregnable, intelligible, obvious, noticeable, composite, sliding, purchased, etc. Cf. Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin":
I knew inaccessible beauties,
Cold, clean, like winter.
Relentless, incorruptible,
Incomprehensible to the mind ...
Adjectives of this type are adjoined by very productive words in vocational dialects with the suffix -n-, derived from verbal nouns and having a broad relative meaning: associated with some action (which is indicated by the stem of the verbal noun), referring to some action. For example: washing, washing, carbon-cutting, stuffing, lifting, etc.
The suffix -m- serves as a means of forming the present participles of the passive voice. But only a small part of participles from non-derivative (from the point of view of modern consciousness) verb stems underwent a qualitative transformation. For example: beloved, visible (often invisible; but cf. visible thing), imaginary, respected, etc. Participles in -my from non-derivative verbal stems, having lost correlation with passive participles in -ny, in the 19th century. are gradually dying out. Their extinction was also facilitated by the fact that in the second half of the 18th century. has become a very productive way of forming quality adjectives from verbal stems of the perfect and imperfect form through the suffix -m- (-im-, -em-) with the meaning: such that you can do something (what the generating word means), suitable for some kind of action: achievable (such that one can achieve), extensible, surmountable (such that one can overcome), etc. (easy, barely, etc.): unrewardable, unattainable, inexorable, indelible, inexhaustible, indestructible, inevitable (cf. inevitable), insoluble, hardly soluble, elusive, irreplaceable, imperceptible, indisputable, unimaginable, unacceptable, irresistible, inexpressible, indomitable, incommensurable, intolerable, easily performed, etc. Some of these words in the appropriate context can enhance the connotation of the verb (at least by adding the instrumental case of a noun to designate an instrument of action). The shade of verbality in words with -im was more significant, brighter in the Russian literary language of the first half of XIX V. Compare, for example, in Pushkin's "Stone Guest": "How quiet the sky; the warm air is motionless." Much earlier and stronger, qualitative shades of meaning penetrated into the group of verbal adjectives in -emy (derived, for the most part, from intransitive verbs): inimitable, unfading, intangible, fireproof, waterproof, indisputable, impenetrable, indescribable, etc. (44) .
Adjectives with the suffix -l (y) once separated, broke away from participles into -l and got the meaning: being in some state (in accordance with the result of the action denoted by the stem of that intransitive verb from which the adjective is formed) or such as it became under the influence of some action: runaway, shabby, alien, past, faded, flabby, saggy, swollen, cold, rotten, rotten, etc.
Among the adjectives of this type, first of all, a closed group of words is distinguished, formed from the stems of intransitive verbs to the final consonant (like to peel off, etc.) or the vowel of the root - to rot, to ripen, without a thematic, connecting morpheme in the infinitive and from verbs to -nut, denoting a state; being in some state (freezing, etc.) and losing -well- in shape on -l.
Since these classes of verbs are unproductive, the adjectives derived from them also constitute a petrified group of words, at least half related not to grammar, but to vocabulary. The suffix -l- in formations of this genus is already unproductive, and sometimes even dead, and some of the words produced through it have already lost their connection with the corresponding verbs. Wed: bold, sour, flabby, decrepit, lethargic, frozen, dank, hoarse, dull, hoarse, stunted, etc. But cf. in combination with a verb prefix:
The lynx ripped the [moose] carcass with relish,
Crawled into the casing, clinging to the spray.
(early Selvinsky)
On the contrary, the suffix -l- is lively and productive in combination with the stem of intransitive verbs in -et, -at, -yat. He produces from verbal stems of this type, usually complicated by prefixes and subsumed under the category of the perfective, adjectives with the same meaning: such as they become under the influence of some action (according to the generating stem): stale, gray-haired, icy, tanned, dumbfounded , dazed, crazy, outdated, hardened, petrified, frenzied, desolated, mature, dilapidated, russified, faded, moldy, emaciated, etc. Cf. also the word seasoned.
All adjectives of this type are formed only from intransitive irreflexive verbs. From the stems of the imperfect form of transitive verbs, adjectives are produced only with the suffix -ln- (maternity, grinding, washing, etc.). Wed formations from the stems of transitive verbs of nouns denoting characters(suffixes -(i)la, -(a)la) or instruments of action (suffixes -lo, -alo, -ilo).
It is even more significant that adjectives in -ly, -elsh, -scarlet were and are produced only from those intransitive verbal stems in which quantitative and specific differences are not expressed. Therefore, they are not formed from verbs with the one-time suffix -nu-, with the duration and iterative suffix -yva- and -va- (but cf. experienced) (45).
Here lies a deep boundary line between the category of the adjective and the category of the verb. The categories of aspect and voice are the main organizational forms of verb word formation.
In addition, in order to characterize the relationship between the verb and the adjective, it should be noted that for adjectives in -ly, non-membered forms are used only in cases where they are not homonymous with the past tense forms of the verb or when this homonymy does not create inconvenience for understanding, does not lead to ambiguity (for example: “How young and bold he is!” and “How dare he make such an offer to you!”; “This apple is not quite ripe” and “This decision has ripened in it for a long time”; “The face was plump” and “The writing was plump , acquiring a multitude of references and citations", etc.). In feminine forms, homonymy is paralyzed by the accentological opposition of forms (prela - adjective, prela - verb; sour - sour; sluggish - sluggish; puffy - puffy; dull - dull, etc.)
In adjectives ending in -ly, formed from verb stem roots into a consonant, short forms singular masculine gender differ from the corresponding verbal forms of the past tense and in their sound appearance (for example: hoarse, but wheezing; sour, sour - kis; plump, but fluff, etc.). The short forms plural all adjectives in -ly differ from the corresponding forms of the past tense of the verb by the ending, and if the stem is monosyllabic, they also have stress (cf. sour, but sour, puffy; but puffy; tanned, but tanned, etc.).
In other provisions, the use of the suffixes -uch- and -yach- is determined by such a rule. The suffix -yach- (-ach-) is combined only with the root elements (ending not in the labial and not in the back language) of those verbs that form the forms of the 3rd l. pl. h. on -yat (i.e., belong to the second conjugation), for example: recumbent, stray, sedentary, walking, standing, etc. In all other cases, the suffix -uch- (-yuch-) is used (for example: epilepsy , creeping, smelly, simple, sticky, etc.).
The suffixes -uch- (-yuch-), -ach- (-yach-), historically ascending to the Old Russian suffixes of participial forms, denote: characterized by some action or state as permanent and hallmark prone to some kind of action (according to the meaning of the verb stem): melodious, ebullient, odorous, fluid, pushy (pushy market), quicksand, free-flowing (loose sand), crackling ("burning frost crackling"), molting, smelly, recumbent , sedentary, hanging, standing, walking, etc. But some words of this group have already lost the transparency of their morphological composition (cf. sighted); in others there is no longer a direct correlation with the forms of the verb, for example: mighty (cf. powerful), crackling (cf. noun crack), flying (cf. years), etc.
Among these participial formations there are no derivatives from transitive verbs, from verbs with the suffix -sya, from verbal stems with pronounced aspectual shades, for example, from the stems of denominative verbs into -et, -eyut (darken) and -nut (freeze), in which one feels specific shade of gradual growth, intensification of action (47). Unlike adjectives ending in -ly, in adjectives ending in -yachi, -uchy, all stems are unprefixed.
1) -visible: similar to someone, something, having the appearance of someone, something, for example: vitreous, spherical, ovoid, thyroid, etc. Cf. at Gleb Uspensky: "The sorcerer was a small figure with a bird-like physiognomy" ("Rasteryaevsky types", the scene "Need sings a song");
2) -shaped (th): powdery, arcuate, elephantine, wedge-shaped, wavy, cone-shaped, etc.;
3) -like (th): angelic, monkey-like, animal-like, masculine, effeminate, etc.;
4) less common and more associated with the lexical meaning of the stem is the element -nosn (th): order-bearing, victorious, gold-bearing, etc. Cf. -creative: fruitful, nauseating, hypnotic, life-giving, etc.
1) water carrier (water nag), vacuum cleaner;
2) calico-printed, aircraft-building;
3) autocratic, allegorical;
4) highly experienced, numerous;
5) impenetrable, perishable, highly educated;
6) railway, Old Russian;
7) thoracic, fruit and vegetable, horticultural;
8) otherworldly, ubiquitous and some others.)
But detailed description methods of adding and combining several semanthemes in the structure of a compound word - the task of lexicology, the task of semantics. In a general outline of the methods of forming qualitative adjectives, it is advisable only to emphasize the variety of types of word composition in this area and to note those types of complex adjectives that do not rely on suffixes with a qualitative meaning.
The number of non-independent morpheme words that serve to form complex adjectives directly with the help of the ending -th, -th (-th, -th) in the modern language is very limited: -legged, -skinned, -faced, -faced, -fingered , -handed, -nosed, -eyed, -bellied, -rear, -foreheaded, -toothed, -hairy, -bearded, -sided, -mouthed, -woolly, -breasted, -thigh, -eared, -eyebrowed, - voiced and some others (cf. Mayakovsky: fat belly).
As you can see, these morphemes for the most part go back to the designations of the members of the human body or the body of animals.
In the first part of such compound words can be: prefix bez-, form genitive numerals or the basis of an adjective (adverb), and in poetic speech - and a noun, cf. in individual poetic style Mayakovsky: "ring-footed gymnasts"; "cinema americolyceum"; "massive bull-faced horde"; "scream-lipped" and others; cf. in Vsevolod Ivanov: "scarlet sun" ("Andreysha") and others like it25. The new formation of L. Leonov is hardly successful: "a headstrong man" ("Skutarevsky").
suffix way. The most productive adjective suffixes are the following:
Attachment method. Adjectives with prefixes are formed less often than with the use of suffixes. Prefixes are attached to adjectives. The most common of these prefixes include the following.
The prefix-suffix method is the simultaneous attachment of a prefix and a suffix to the generating word. The generating word can be a noun and a verb.
Compounding is the addition of two or more generating layers (bases).
The addition of generating words may be accompanied by the addition of a suffix ( bipolar from two poles, oil and gas from oil, gas and wear, Upper Volga from Upper Volga).
