- Specialty HAC RF10.02.01
- Number of pages 309
CHAPTER I. Archaic vocabulary and the principles of its inclusion in explanatory dictionaries
§ 1. Obsolete vocabulary: qualifications.
§ 2. The history of the study of archaic vocabulary and its reflection in explanatory dictionaries Russian language.
§ 3. Archaic vocabulary in modern dictionaries of obsolete words.
CHAPTER II. Proper lexical archaisms in modern Russian and the typology of archaic vocabulary
§ 1. Archaisms: the problem of typology and definition of criteria.
§ 2. Qualification signs of the category of proper lexical archaisms.:.
§ 3. Reasons for the emergence of proper lexical archaisms.
§ 4. Typology of archaic vocabulary of the lexico-semantic level of the language.
CHAPTER III. The history of proper lexical archaisms in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the 18th-20th centuries.
§ 1. Principles of selection and general characteristics of the category of proper lexical archaisms.
§ 2. Actually lexical archaisms - agentive names.
§ 3. Actually lexical archaisms are abstract names.
§ 4. Actually lexical archaisms - borrowings from non-Slavic languages.
Recommended list of dissertations
Stylistic function - a new meaning of the existence of lexical archaisms 2003, candidate of philological sciences Shpotova, Irina Vladimirovna
Archaization of the vocabulary of the Russian language of the XX century 2002, candidate of philological sciences Lesnykh, Elena Vladimirovna
Obsolete vocabulary of the Kumyk language 2013, candidate of philological sciences Asadulaeva, Patimat Uryatovna
Outdated vocabulary of the Nogai language 1999, candidate of philological sciences Karakaev, Yumav Imanyazovich
The phenomenon of archaization in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language: according to the editions of the "Dictionary of the Russian Language" S.I. Ozhegov 2007, candidate of philological sciences Kadantseva, Elena Evgenievna
Introduction to the thesis (part of the abstract) on the topic "Archaic vocabulary of the modern Russian language according to the explanatory dictionaries of the 18th-20th centuries."
The outdated vocabulary of the Russian language attracts the attention of many scientists. It is considered in connection with the solution of general issues of the development of the language in the works of V.V. Vinogradova, J1.B. Shcherby, A.A. Khaburgaeva, Yu.S. Sorokina, V.V. Veselitsky, N.M. Shansky, S.I. Ozhegov, as well as in the works of G.O. Vinokura, D.N. Shmeleva, F.P. Filina, E.P. Voitseva, A.N. Kozhin and others, who describe the functioning of obsolete and obsolete vocabulary in fiction and journalism. The reasons for the archaization of the vocabulary of the Russian language are studied in the works of E.P. Khodakov, L.N. Granovskaya, JI.J1. Kutina, E.E. Birzhakova, I.M. Maltseva, E.H. Prokopovich and others.
Archaic vocabulary is the most valuable material not only in terms of linguistic heritage, but also in terms of language learning. A versatile study of the processes of archaization of the modern Russian language and generalization of the results of such studies helps, first of all, to further comprehend the general laws of language development, explains some of the processes of the formation of Russian national language, reveals the dynamics of the evolution of its vocabulary (semantic and stylistic shifts in the lexical system at certain stages of its development, nomination processes, the development of new meanings in some words and the reasons for the archaization of certain meanings in others, or the obsolescence of the word as a whole, the reflection of "diachrony in synchrony" ).
The functional aspect of the study of archaism has been developed in sufficient detail; a large number of works. Traditionally, archaism is considered as a stylistic category, with a strictly defined scope, i.e. as a means of historical stylization in fiction or as one of the varieties of high vocabulary.
The question of the systemic nature of archaisms in modern linguistics is still controversial, since some researchers emphasize the non-systemic nature of the category, while others talk about the systemic connections of the category of archaisms with the modern language system.
Since the 50s. 20th century there is an increase in interest in archaic vocabulary, in particular, there are works devoted to its classification.
The founder of the most common approach to the typology of archaisms today is N.M. Shansky, who in 1954 in the article "Obsolete Words in the Vocabulary of the Modern Russian Language" for the first time proposed his own classification of obsolete words (in addition to dividing them into historicisms and archaisms), based on the fact that a word as a linguistic sign can also be archaized in terms of expression ( form), and in terms of content (meaning) [Shansky 1954, 27-33]. Later, this principle formed the basis of the classifications of A.C. Belousova, I.B. Golub, N.G. Goltsova, F.K. Guzhva, A.B. Kalinina, L.P. Krysin and T.G. Terekhova and others, reflected in textbooks on lexicology.
In addition to the above, there are other approaches to the typology of obsolete words. Archaic vocabulary can also be classified not only by the type of archaization within the word itself, but also a) by the nature of the causes of obsolescence (external or internal); in accordance with this, archaisms and historicisms are traditionally distinguished (some researchers propose to consider groups of a limited sphere of use as independent categories - biblicalisms, mythologisms, church-cult vocabulary); b) according to the degree of obsolescence of the word (one of the achievements in this area of research is the inclusion of the label "obsolete" in modern explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language).
However, despite the existing variety of classifications of archaic vocabulary, the complexity and diversity of the object of research allows us to continue working in this direction.
The study of the processes of archaization of vocabulary is important for its more rigorous lexicographic reflection. Clarification of the qualification criteria of an obsolete word will help develop common approaches to the designation of archaic vocabulary in explanatory dictionaries and solve the problem of its universal marker, which, unfortunately, is not given enough attention in theoretical lexicography.
The formation of a common understanding of the concept of an obsolete word will contribute to a more rigorous selection of lexical material when creating specialized dictionaries of archaic vocabulary, which until recently were absent in the system of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. The gap in this area began to be eliminated from the second half of the 1990s. XX century: since 1996, seven dictionaries of obsolete words have been published, incl. two school-type dictionaries. And although publications today are subjected to justified criticism, in general, this phenomenon, in our opinion, should be considered positive, because now when reading Russian fiction, albeit partially, the difficulties of making inquiries about not well-known words are still resolved.
The relevance of the study is determined primarily by the functional, semantic and stylistic specifics of the archaic vocabulary, its place in the system of the Russian literary language and in the language of modern fiction, especially poetry. The active use of archaic vocabulary in the functional styles of the Russian literary language requires a comprehensive theoretical development of a range of issues that have not received a sufficiently clear solution in linguistics.
So, there is still no exact terminological definition of the concept of archaic vocabulary; unified criteria for selection and designation of obsolete words are not defined.
Currently, there are no studies that systematize the principles of including obsolete words in explanatory dictionaries; the criteria for selecting archaic vocabulary for specialized dictionaries have not been finally formed.
While there is no unified approach to marks for obsolete words, the history of formation and the process of development and change in the semantic volume of markers have not been considered, there is no consensus on the issue of their status.
The problem of typology remains open, which is associated with the undeveloped composition of the qualification features of specific categories of archaisms, as a result of which linguists to this day are forced to use vaguely established criteria for an obsolete word, and underestimation of such phenomena when considering archaic vocabulary leads either only to a description of the core of various types of archaisms, or to an approximate and, moreover, often incorrect qualification of one or another obsolete word.
A comprehensive analysis of proper lexical archaisms is of interest not only for linguistic research itself, but also for teaching the Russian language at school and university.
The object of the dissertation research is the archaic vocabulary of the modern Russian language.
The subject of the study was the system of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the 18th-20th centuries, which included obsolete vocabulary in their dictionaries.
The main purpose of the work is the analysis of the archaic vocabulary of the modern Russian language in explanatory dictionaries of the 18th-20th centuries. - led to the solution of the following specific tasks:
Clarify the qualification features of archaic vocabulary;
Explore the history of the study of archaic vocabulary and its reflection in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language;
To trace the history of the formation of the semantic volume of the label for obsolete words and to establish its status;
To identify the main criteria for belonging of obsolete words to the category of proper lexical archaisms;
Determine the types of intralinguistic reasons that contribute to the emergence of proper lexical archaisms in the Russian language;
Based on the refined categorical features of the category, develop its typology;
Develop a classification of archaic vocabulary of the lexico-semantic level of the language;
To trace the history of the formation of proper lexical archaisms in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.
The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the fact that this work is the first study in which an attempt is made to comprehensively analyze the category of proper lexical archaisms within the chronological framework of the modern Russian language.
IN this study qualification signs of archaic vocabulary are specified.
Based on the refined features of the category of proper lexical archaisms and their comparison with the criteria of other types of obsolete words, a classification of archaisms is proposed, the peculiarity of which is due to the fact that it is based not only on the level approach and the specifics of the archaization of the expression plan, but also on the nature of the basis of the lexeme.
The paper establishes the characteristic reasons for the appearance of proper lexical archaisms, due to the semantic and structural relations of the word with its modern synonymic equivalent; statistical data on the part-of-speech composition and the origin of the category under study are given, and the history of the formation of the semantic volume of the obsolete words marker is considered.
The study develops for the first time a typology of proper lexical archaisms.
The theoretical significance of the study lies primarily in the fact that the study of the category of proper lexical archaisms of the modern Russian language makes a certain contribution not only to linguistic research proper, but also solves some problems of lexicography.
Revealing the lexicological specifics of proper lexical archaisms, developing a typology of this category, identifying the causes and conditions for the emergence of proper lexical archaisms in the Russian language is of some importance for solving theoretical problems of lexicology (for example, predicting the further development of a language system), and also helps to better understand the mechanism of archaization processes in system of the modern Russian language.
The practical significance of the work is determined by the fact that identifying the causes and conditions for the formation of proper lexical archaisms is also important for lexicographic practice, as this will contribute to a more compelling justification for including them in explanatory dictionaries, as well as clarifying the main composition of obsolete words that need to be presented in modern dictionaries. Russian language; the words selected for the dissertation research can be included in the card index of the future dictionary of obsolete words.
The use of research materials, its main provisions and conclusions is possible in the practice of teaching the Russian language, in special courses and special seminars on the Russian language (in the "Lexicology" section), as well as in textbooks on the lexicology of the Russian language.
Research materials can be involved in the work of university and school electives, scientific circles devoted to the study of the word. Compiled on the material of explanatory dictionaries of the XX century. as an appendix "Dictionary of proper lexical archaisms of the Russian language", which reflects all varieties of labels that characterize this lexical and stylistic category, can be used as a guide to historical lexicology and historical stylistics of the Russian language
Research methods are based on the understanding of language as a materialistic phenomenon. The work uses a descriptive method, a method of component analysis based on dictionary definitions, historical method, comparative and statistical methods, etc.
Defense provisions.
1. The archaization of vocabulary is facilitated by a) the stylistic diversity of competing lexemes when used in literary language, as a result of which those lexical units that could not overcome the stylistic barrier pass into the passive stock of the language; b) the competition of lexemes acting as members of a synonymic series, as a result of which those words that were incapable of semantic development fall out of the active composition of the language; c) frequency of use of the word.
2. Actually lexical archaisms are unambiguous obsolete words, represented in some cases by word-building, phonetic or morphological parallels and forced into the passive stock by their active equivalents - synonymous words, synonymous phrases or brief interpretations.
3. One of the reasons contributing to the emergence of proper lexical archaisms is the violation from the standpoint of the modern language of the word-formation motivation of the lexeme, caused by a) the motivation of the derived word by secondary or connotative LSVs of the active producer; b) a high degree of obsolescence of the generating base, which for a modern native speaker no longer fills the derivative education with lexical content.
4. In the category of proper lexical archaisms, SSGs are distinguished, concentrating words on the basis of origin, on the designation of the negative qualities of a person, on the name of a person by craft, profession, occupation.
Approbation of work. The main provisions of the dissertation were presented in the form of reports and communications at scientific conferences of the faculty of the Bryansk State Pedagogical University in 1990, 1992, 1998, on scientific conference on problems of regional lexicology and lexicography (Orel, 1994), at the All-Russian Scientific Conference on Problems and Trends in the Development of Spiritual Culture (Syktyvkar, 1994), at the All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference on topical issues student education primary school(Saransk, 1998), at a regional conference on moral and patriotic education young students (Bryansk, 1998), at the interuniversity scientific conference on problems of Russian lexicology and lexicography (Vologda, 1998). The content of the study is reflected in 8 publications.
Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and an appendix.
Similar theses in the specialty "Russian language", 10.02.01 VAK code
Obsolete vocabulary in the Avar language 2013, candidate of philological sciences Umarova, Pazilat Usmanovna
Outdated and innovative vocabulary of the Lezgi language 2008, candidate of philological sciences Seyfaddinova, Diana Seyfaddinovna
Changes in the Vocabulary of the Modern Russian Literary Language: Comparing the Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, 1952 Edition and the Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova, 1995 2001 Ph.D. in Philology Kim Song Wan
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Dissertation conclusion on the topic "Russian language", Shestakova, Natalya Alekseevna
The history of the archaization of vocabulary and the trend in the formation of the category of proper lexical archaisms can be quite fully represented, based on the data of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language of the 18th-20th centuries.
Based on the specifics of the designation of archaic vocabulary in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, we have developed our own system of marks for the dynamics of the functioning of proper lexical archaisms in the modern Russian language and, with its help, reflected this dynamics in the appendix "Properly lexical archaisms of the Russian language according to the explanatory dictionaries of the 18th-20th centuries. ".
By origin, proper lexical archaisms are presented as borrowings from non-Slavic languages, tracing papers and vocabulary Slavic origin(originally Russian, Old Slavonic).
Among thematic associations, both in obsolete borrowings and Slavic archaisms, the most regular are groups of negatively colored vocabulary related to the qualities or actions of a person, as well as the names of persons by profession, craft, occupation.
The archaization of the category of proper lexical archaisms was primarily influenced by general reasons - semantic and stylistic shifts in the lexical system during the formation of the national Russian language, which were identified and described by V.V. Vinogradov, V.V. Veselitsky, Yu.S. Sorokin, E.E. Birzhakova and others.
The history of lexemes included in the SG "restored from explanatory dictionaries" negative qualities or properties of a person", confirms that if a neologism appears in the literary language - a synonym for an already well-known, established nomination of an object, attribute, phenomenon, then as a result of competition, these lexemes must either diverge semantically, i.e. desemantize, or change stylistic coloring. The inability to stylistic changes and semantic development leads to the fact that in a competing group of words, some of the lexemes with such criteria eventually become archaic.
In addition to general reasons, the replenishment of the category of proper lexical archaisms is influenced by the following factors:
1. The vast majority of proper lexical archaisms of Slavic origin has a derivative character. This allows us to state that the generative basis also influences the archaization of a word: approximately 50% of such words are formed from obsolete generative stems.
2. Homonymy plays an important role in the obsolescence of words (this is confirmed by quantitative data: 7.5% of proper lexical archaisms are part of homonymous pairs or groups).
3. In those cases when the actual lexical archaism, derived from the modern basis, is found in modern language active equivalent-lexeme, the reason for the archaization of the word is a violation of its word-formation motivation, expressed in the fact that its morphemic composition does not reflect the nuclear meaning semantic structure words. Violation of word-formation motivation in an obsolete word occurs because these archaisms are either "fragments" of old lexemes (since at the time of archaization, many of them completely lose their primary meanings that can semantically support secondary LSVs), or are motivated by secondary or obsolete LSVs of active producers. words.
CONCLUSION
Outdated vocabulary is the most valuable material not only in terms of linguistic heritage, but also in terms of language learning. A versatile study of the processes of archaization of the modern Russian language and generalization of the results of such studies helps, first of all, to further comprehend the general laws of the development of the language, explains some processes of the formation of the Russian national language, and reveals the dynamics of the evolution of its vocabulary.
The criteria for obsolete vocabulary are determined by the presence of specific causes of obsolescence, the fact that the word belongs to the passive stock, the degree of its obsolescence and the nature of its use (stylistic aspect).
An analysis of the wordings available in the scientific and scientific-educational literature allows us to conclude that obsolete vocabulary is a category of words belonging to the passive stock of stylistically neutral vocabulary or the corresponding functional style.
The outdated vocabulary of the Russian language consists of words with a partially or completely lost nominative function in the process of their historical development under the influence of internal linguistic factors. The degree of loss of nominativeness can be directly proportional to the degree of obsolescence of the word. A low degree of loss of nominativity in most cases allows the obsolete word to function in other styles or perform special stylistic tasks in the modern literary language, because in this case the lost nominativity of the lexeme is compensated by the expressive-synonymous function.
Outdated vocabulary is an integral part of the Russian language, and, consequently, its explanatory dictionaries from the Dictionary of the Russian Academy of the late 18th century. to the explanatory dictionaries of our century.
The principles for including obsolete words are determined by the conceptual tasks of dictionary compilers: 1) all obsolete vocabulary (SCRL) is introduced into the dictionary, 2) the number of obsolete words may be limited by the "period embraced by the dictionary" (Grott-Shakhmatov Dictionary), 3) obsolete words are introduced into the dictionary " from Pushkin to the present day", the knowledge of which is necessary for the correct reading of fiction and journalism of the late 18th - early 20th centuries. (explanatory dictionaries published in the 20th century).
The first experiments in compiling dictionaries of obsolete words (1996-1997) show that the principles for selecting obsolete vocabulary in them are somewhat different from the principles of explanatory dictionaries. So, for example, in dictionaries of obsolete words, both historical-thematic and functional approaches can be used simultaneously with the general cultural one.
Unfortunately, the term obsolete vocabulary itself is understood differently by the authors of dictionaries of obsolete words, because there is no consensus on the set of its qualification features. As a result, the absence of clear criteria for an obsolete word in these dictionaries makes it possible to combine archaic vocabulary with functionally limited lexical units either on the basis of their low frequency, or classify active vocabulary that is not included in the vocabulary of a school student as obsolete words.
On the example of explanatory dictionaries of the late XVIII - early XX centuries. the history of the lexicographic designation of obsolete words is traced (from "old" /old /, "old" /old /, "weathered." /dilapidated word/ to "obsolete" /obsolete/), as well as the history of the formation of the semantic content of markers that fix archaic vocabulary.
A different understanding of the nature of the signal of obsolete words resulted in two positions in the 20th century on the issue of the content of the mark. Some authors of explanatory dictionaries (BASM, BAS-2, MAS-1, MAS-2) classify it as stylistic marks, some compilers (SU) - as exclusively diachronic. In contrast to theoretical disagreements, practical use Notes illustrates the non-normativeness of an obsolete word for the modern language, and its special stylistic tasks are characterized by the second component of the double mark or special indications in the content of the dictionary entry.
Based on a comparison of data from explanatory dictionaries of the 18th - 20th centuries. marks of archaic vocabulary can characterize an obsolete lexeme according to the following features: 1) the degree of obsolescence ([obet., old, obsolete, obsolete; historical, new. istor.): 2) the stylistic characteristic of the word (church., whole., church .-bookish, obsolete poet.); 3) the diachronic characteristic of the word (the absence of the second component in the litter old, obsolete, etc.); 4) an indication of certain lexical properties (obsolete, historical, pre-revolutionary, new historical); 4) grammatical signs (old, gram., old. binary h); 5) syntactic signs (old, pogov.).
The way of expressing the criterion is formed as follows: 1) a single marker, 2) a double marker, 3) in a definition using indications of chronology, the words old, ancient, etc., as well as past participles.
Up to the release of BAS-1 in dictionary practice, the conventions of obsolete words were quite diverse, and this allowed the user of the dictionary to quite accurately imagine the place of the obsolete word and its chronological framework in the system of the modern Russian language (SU and the Grot-Shakhmatov Dictionary are especially clear in this regard) . Subsequently, the quantitative indicator of markers for linguistically close vocabulary became one of the aspects of the problem of choosing labels, since there was a tendency towards their universalization.
The search for a universal marker led to the fact that in BAS-2 only one litter began to be used - obsolete, which in the broad sense is still not absolute, because. the compilers of the dictionary designate historicisms that they classify as obsolete words in the dictionary entry with the help of past participles.
Despite the tendency to unify labels for linguistically the same type of vocabulary, due to the complexity and diversity of the subject of research, it seems to us the most rational to leave three markers - old, (or old.), outdated. and obsolete, which will characterize the degree of obsolescence of archaism (subject to solving the problem of the degree of archaization of the lexeme), and in combination with other marks - indicate its stylistic affiliation (obsolete high, obsolete simple) and the ability to be used in a modern language in a different stylistic status or with a certain emotional coloring (obsolete and colloquial; obsolete and joke). The markers of archaic vocabulary themselves should be defined as one of the varieties of marks of the speech usage of the word (the other variety will be stylistic marks).
Linguistic studies of the second half of the XX century. show that archaic vocabulary is heterogeneous in terms of obsolescence, and this has led to the emergence of classifications of obsolete words on this basis. However, the unequal understanding of the chronological characteristics of the archaization of a word still prevents the emergence of a clear and complete typology of archaic vocabulary in terms of its obsolescence, and the designated issue in modern linguistics is still at the development stage.
Since the 50s. XX century., Of great interest to linguists is the classification of archaic vocabulary according to the nature of the internal causes of obsolescence. Approaches to the typology of obsolete words that are correct in themselves and exist in the scientific literature are still not universal enough to fully cover it, because to this day there are no clear criteria for delimiting archaic vocabulary from other linguistic units and there is a problem of selecting qualifying features of specific categories of obsolete words.
The archaization of vocabulary is facilitated by a variety of intralinguistic reasons. The specificity of the causes of obsolescence within the word itself determines the allocation of certain categories of archaisms, however, the lack of reasonable criteria for the types of obsolete words sometimes leads to an approximate and, moreover, often incorrect qualification of a particular archaic unit or to a description of only the nuclear part of a particular category.
Unfortunately, the defining features of each of the parameters in various classifications are often fundamentally different from each other, since they do not have strong justifications or are offered as given. In this situation, one of the possible solutions to the problem may be to clarify the qualification features of the category of proper lexical archaisms, which will help to more rigorously characterize other categories and, possibly, to identify new types of obsolete words.
Having studied various positions on the issue of classifying obsolete words, we propose to take a systematic approach as the basis for the typology of archaic units of the language, i.e. take into account that the language as a system has interdependent levels, each of which is subject to archaization and has its own obsolete specific elements.
At the lexico-semantic level, when classifying archaisms, we, following N.M. Shansky, we consider archaism as a two-sided lexical unit, in which both the plan of expression (lexical archaisms) and the plan of content (semantic archaisms) can become obsolete, while simultaneously taking into account the nature of the generating stem of the word.
Having considered the qualifying features of the category, we define proper lexical archaisms as obsolete single-valued words, represented in some cases by phonetic, derivational or morphological variants and displaced in the modern language by their active equivalents - synonymous words with a different non-derivative stem (root), synonymous phrases or brief interpretations . A certain part of the proper lexical archaisms is the potential vocabulary.
The study of lexical archaisms proper made it possible to identify the immediate causes of their appearance.
In modern language, along with common causes archaization, to which a sufficient number of studies have been devoted, when comparing some of the proper lexical archaisms with their active equivalents, there is a violation of the word-formation motivation of an obsolete derivative word, which is associated with the peculiarities of the structural-semantic relations between the derivative and the generating bases and is expressed as follows:
1) proper lexical archaism, (directly or indirectly) formed from an active stem (except for potential vocabulary), is motivated not by the entire (or main) meaning of the generating word, but by its secondary LSV (active or obsolete) or individual components of meanings. With absolute use, such a derivative word, obeying the modern laws of word formation, is perceived as motivated by the entire meaning of the generating word, as a result of which there is a discrepancy between the morphemic composition of the lexeme and its general semantic structure, which is resolved by choosing new form, more in line with modern word-formation laws;
2) archaism, formed from a completely obsolete basis, for a modern native speaker retains only a structural analogy with the corresponding lexico-grammatical category of words, and the lexical correlation with the semantics of the motivating word disappears.
The specific material selected for analysis shows that, in addition to general reasons, the replenishment of the category of proper lexical archaisms depends on the following factors: b) homonymy (this is confirmed by quantitative data: 7.5% of proper lexical archaisms are part of homonymous pairs or groups); c) belonging to the so-called potential vocabulary.
By origin, proper lexical archaisms are presented as borrowings from non-Slavic languages or calques (mainly with Greek), and vocabulary of Slavic origin (originally Russian, Old Slavonic).
Among the borrowings, the largest are actually lexical archaisms - Gallicisms, Latinisms and Germanisms, among derivatives - abstract names in -ie and -stv(o) and agentive nouns with suffixes -schik, -nik and -tel.
Both in obsolete borrowings and Slavic archaisms, the most regular are groups of negatively colored vocabulary denoting the qualities or actions of a person, and agentive names by profession, craft, occupation.
The history of lexemes reconstructed from explanatory dictionaries included in the semantic groups "negative qualities or properties of a person" and "names of persons by craft, profession" confirms general patterns formation of the lexical composition of the language: if a neologism appears in the literary language - a synonym for an already well-known, established nomination of an object, attribute, phenomenon, then as a result of competition, these lexemes must either disperse semantically, i.e. desemantize, or change stylistic coloring. The reasons for the obsolescence of expressively or stylistically colored words (SH "negative qualities or properties of a person") are mainly associated with their inability to stylistic changes, stylistically neutral vocabulary - to semantic development, and as a result, in a competing group of words, representatives of these groups eventually become archaic.
The analysis of the archaic lexicon carried out is far from final and complete: a systematic examination of only one of the types of obsolete words, the category of proper lexical archaisms, has begun. - actually lexical archaisms, as well as to continue an in-depth study of other types of archaisms (the most interesting in this regard, in our opinion, are semantic archaisms)
The qualification of archaic vocabulary proposed on the basis of refined features of one of the categories is not final and complete. Further research in this direction will help to find new criteria for a more accurate systematization of archaisms, as well as to discover new categories of obsolete words.
A promising direction in the further study of archaic vocabulary, as well as the category of proper lexical archaisms, is the cognitive approach.
On the material of explanatory dictionaries (SU, BAS-1, MAS-1, MAS-2, BAS-2), as an appendix to the dissertation, a "Dictionary of proper lexical archaisms of the Russian language" was compiled, which includes more than 2000 lexemes. The Dictionary reflects all varieties of labels that characterize this lexical and stylistic category, which will make it possible to use it as a guide to historical lexicology and historical stylistics of the Russian language.
The material of the dissertation research makes it possible to create tutorial"Archaic Vocabulary of the Modern Russian Language"
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N. A. SHESTAKOVA
Proper lexical archaisms in Russian
The article deals with the archaic vocabulary that forms the category of proper lexical archaisms, shows the features of motivational relations between derivative and generating words, which determine the transition of the lexeme to the category of proper lexical archaisms, as well as other reasons that cause the appearance of these words in the language.
Key words: proper lexical archaism; derivative basis; producing basis; word-formation motivation; potential vocabulary; homonymy.
The processes of enrichment of the vocabulary of the Russian language and the archaization of a certain part of it go in parallel. Activation and weakening of the functioning of the word are associated with the peculiarities of the development of the lexical system of the Russian language, which is sensitive to the processes taking place in the modern world.
The period of vocabulary archaization is very long and not as noticeable as the emergence of new words, and, according to some linguists, not as significant as the development of the national language as a whole, however, the study of the reasons for the obsolescence of words plays an important role in understanding the processes of further formation of the system of Russian vocabulary and , respectively, changes taking place in the world. The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary should be sought not only in the language processes of our time, but also throughout the entire period of formation and development of the Russian national language.
In the scientific literature, the following factors are identified that contribute to the obsolescence of words: the active formation of the Russian literary language (XVIII century), associated with the formation of the Russian state, which led to a tendency to eliminate redundant names that duplicate each other; semantic change in the lexical system of the Russian literary language that occurred in the 19th century.
Archaization of vocabulary is caused by changes
Shestakova Natalya Alekseevna, Ph.D. Sciences, Associate Professor, Belarusian State University. Email: [email protected]
opinions in the state and public life country, as a result of which the scope of the use of words associated with the former way of life is limited, there is a conscious rejection of certain groups of vocabulary (in particular, from some thematic groups Old Slavonicisms), as well as the fight against the so-called gallomania, which had a negative impact on the formation of the national language.
The obsolescence of vocabulary is affected by the low frequency or low use of the word, leading to the fact that the word is forgotten by contemporaries or becomes incomprehensible.
Depending on the nature of the internal causes of obsolescence, various types of archaic vocabulary are distinguished: lexical proper, word-formation (derivational), phonetic, etc.
In our opinion, the category of proper lexical archaisms is the most interesting in this regard. Undoubtedly, the formation of the category is influenced by the general language factors outlined above, however, the analysis of specific material (according to the explanatory dictionaries of the 17th-20th centuries, more than two thousand lexemes were qualified by us as proper lexical archaisms) made it possible to establish the linguistic reasons that cause the appearance of this group words.
By proper lexical archaisms, we include obsolete, mostly unambiguous words, displaced in the modern language by active equivalents with a different basis: atomless -
nuclear-free, dishonor - dishonor, dishonor, hawk - drunkard, reveler, bucket - clear, sunny, dry (about the weather); vzrachnost - beauty, attractiveness; sighing - sad, plaintive; clearance - dismissal (from service); harpagon - miser, miser; guny - bald, bald; sassy - daring, lively, etc. One of the reasons for the emergence of proper lexical archaisms lies in the nature of the generating basis and in the features of the motivational relationship between derivative and generating words, because more than 80% of the total number of proper lexical archaisms considered by us have a derivative basis, and only about 20% are non-derivative words (15% are borrowings, 5% are Old Slavic words and native Russian vocabulary).
Among the derivatives of proper lexical archaisms, about half of the words are motivated by active vocabulary, the other by obsolete ones.
The main reason for the emergence of proper lexical archaisms, formed from active stems, is the violation of the word-formation motivation of the derived obsolete word from the standpoint of the modern language (we believe this is one of the reasons that prevent many modern neoplasms from gaining a foothold in the group of active vocabulary).
The lexical meaning of a word, according to the definition of V.V. Vinogradov, is “a subject-material content, designed according to the laws of the grammar of a given language and being an element of the general semantic system of the language” [Vinogradov 1986: 10].
In modern Russian, the semantics of a motivated word is defined through the meaning of a single-root word that is either in relation to word-formation motivation, or it is “identical to the meaning of another in all its components, except for the grammatical meaning of a part of speech” [Russian Grammar 1980: 133].
The semantics of a derived word can also be determined through its morphemic
composition, where each morpheme is the corresponding representative of one of the components of the meaning of the segmented word. “The division of a word into meaningful parts is the selection in its lexical meaning of the semantic components expressed by these parts” [Ulukhanov 1977: 83].
We will proceed from the fact that in explanatory dictionaries the dictionary definition reflects the general semantic structure of the lexeme, the representative of the semantic core of which is the root, which contains the "main element lexical meaning words” [Russian Grammar 1980: 124].
When comparing the semantics determined by the structure of lexical archaisms proper with their general semantic structure, the following regularities are revealed.
From the standpoint of the modern language, in the morphemic structure of many proper lexical archaisms formed from active stems, the root is not a representative of the nuclear meaning of the general semantic structure of the word, but represents minor or connotative components of its semantics. Such a discrepancy between the form of the word and the content invested in it is due to the fact that derivative archaism is motivated not by the entire semantics of the generator, but by its secondary meanings or connotative shades. In the modern language, with absolutive use, the derivative word is perceived as motivated by the whole meaning of the generating one, and in this case the root of proper lexical archaism also returns to itself the main, nuclear meaning. As a result, there is a discrepancy between the meaning of archaism, due to the morphemic composition, and its general semantic structure.
So, for example, the actual lexical archaism of the sensory (cognitive and mental abilities of a person), based on its morphemic structure, can be interpreted as “a place (or object) where feelings are located, i.e. a receptacle of feelings” or as “an object, possessing
giving the ability to feel. An analysis of the general semantic structure of archaism sensibility shows that the active generating verb feel motivates the obsolete name not with the main, but with one of the secondary meanings: “to be able to perceive and understand.” -l. feeling, to feel), as a result of which the root -feelings - returns to itself the main meaning "the ability to experience, perceive external influences, as well as such a sensation itself." As a result, the semantics of archaism, determined by the morphemic composition, ceases to correspond to its general semantic structure. This contradiction is resolved by the transition of the name sensibility into a passive vocabulary, and in the modern language the active nouns intellect (thinking ability, mental beginning in a person) and mind (the ability to think logically and creatively) remain functioning; the highest level in human cognitive activity; mind, intellect), the general semantic structure of which is similar to the meaning of archaism - sensibility.
The semantics of the root with the synonymous meaning of word-forming affixes does not correspond to the nuclear part of the general semantic structure of the word in archaisms sosoprosnik (interlocutor, debater), collaborator (rival), vzlizina (bald patch), black man (monk), non-evening (non-extinguishing, non-fading), lying ( siege, encirclement), departing (remote), translator (settler), povalush (common bedroom), podblyudnik (saddle), predecessor (predecessor) and many others.
Motivation by non-primary (secondary or connotative) meanings of active deriving words awakens figurativeness and expressiveness in derivative lexical archaisms proper, which allow the derivative name to function in various styles of speech, but at the same time require certain
context, with the greatest completeness revealing the semantics of an obsolete word (for example: peacock - "take an arrogant, arrogant look"; "proud, swagger"; vynit - "cleverly run from place to place, slipping imperceptibly"; star - "make sparkle, sparkle " and etc.).
Properly lexical archaisms motivated by obsolete words can be grouped into three groups. In this case, the structural and semantic features of the generating basis become a qualifying feature.
The first group includes words motivated by lexemes with a high degree of obsolete, either already dropped out of the vocabulary of the language, or on the verge of being released. In most cases, such generating bases are non-derivative (initial). They can be different in origin: duvan (Turk.) "booty" -> duvanit "distribute the booty among the participants"); ferlakur (fr.) "red tape" -> ferlakurit "take care of women, be red tape, ladies' man", frishtik (German) "breakfast" -> frisch-tick "breakfast", etc.
Ashurkova T.G. - 2009
VENDINA T. I. - 2010
Archaisms (from the Greek "ancient") - words, individual meanings of words, phrases, as well as some grammatical forms and syntactic constructions, obsolete and out of active use V. Dahl. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. T.1 - M., 1998 - S. 330.
Among the archaisms, a group of historicisms stands out, the disappearance of which from the active vocabulary is associated with the disappearance of certain objects and phenomena from public life, for example, “sub-boy”. "petition", "chain mail", "horse", "nepman". Usually, archaisms give way to other words with the same meaning: “victoria” - “victory”, “stogna” - “square”, “rescript” - “decree”, “face”, “eye”, “vezhda”, “young ". "hail", giving the speech a color of solemnity. Some non-archaic words lose their former meaning. For example, “Everything that scrupulous London sells for a plentiful whim” (A.S. Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”); here "scrupulous" has for the present time the archaic meaning of "haberdashery". Or: “For the last time, Gudal mounted a white-maned horse, and the train started moving” (M.Yu. Lermontov, “Demon”). "Train" is not "a set of railway cars", but "a row of horsemen riding one after another". In some cases, archaisms can come back to life (compare the history of the words “council”, “decree” or “general”, “officer” in the Russian language of the 20th century). Sometimes archaic words that have become incomprehensible continue to live in some stable combinations: “You can’t see a thing” - “you can’t see anything at all”, “The cheese caught fire” - “a commotion began”.
In fiction, archaisms are widely used as a stylistic means to give solemnity to speech, to create the color of an era, and also for satirical purposes. The masters of using archaisms were A.S. Pushkin ("Boris Godunov"), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“History of one city”), V.V. Mayakovsky ("Cloud in Pants"), A.N. Tolstoy ("Peter the Great"), Yu.N. Tynyanov ("Kyukhlya") and others Budagov R.A. Introduction to the science of language. M.. 1958. S. 88-92 ..
Language, as a system, is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples are falling out of use.
In each period of development, words belonging to the active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore have acquired an archaic coloring function in it. At the same time, new words are distinguished in the lexical system, which are just entering it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness, novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary of the passive vocabulary.
Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For some time they are still understandable to speakers of a given language, they are known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the vocabulary of the passive stock and are listed in explanatory dictionaries marked "outdated".
According to researchers, the process of archaization of a part of the dictionary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among obsolete words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, vorog, speech, scarlet, therefore, this); others are isolated from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, as they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest possible time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in recent period. For comparison: Shkrab - in the 20s. replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - workers' and peasants' inspection; Enkavedist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.
The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshchy, odesnoy (on the left, on the right) disappeared from the active dictionary, because the generating nouns shuytsa became archaic - “ left hand"and the right hand -" right hand ". In such cases, the systemic relations of lexical units played a decisive role. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also fell apart (for example, the word Shulga did not stay in the language in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname ascending to a nickname). Antomic pairs were destroyed (shuytsa - right hand, left hand - right hand), synonymous connections (left hand, left) Moiseeva L.F. Linguistic and stylistic analysis artistic text. Kyiv, 1984. S. 5.
By its origin, the outdated vocabulary is heterogeneous: it contains a lot of primordially Russian words (lzya, so that, this, semo), old Slavonicisms (smooth, kiss, loins), borrowings from other languages (abshid - “resignation”, voyage - “journey”, politeness - "politeness").
There are known cases of the revival of obsolete words, their return to the active vocabulary. So, in modern Russian, such nouns as soldier, officer, warrant officer, minister and a number of others are actively used, which after October became archaic, giving way to new ones: Red Army soldier, commander, people's commissar, etc. In the 20s. the word leader was extracted from the composition of the passive vocabulary, which even in the Pushkin era was perceived as obsolete and was cited in the dictionaries of that time with the appropriate stylistic mark. Now it is archaic again.
Analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech, one cannot ignore the fact that their use in some cases (as well as the use of other lexical means) may not be associated with a specific stylistic task, but is due to the peculiarities of the author's style, individual preferences of the writer. So, for M. Gorky, many obsolete words were stylistically neutral, and he used them without a special stylistic setting: “People passed us slowly, dragging long shadows behind them ...”.
In the poetic speech of Pushkin's time, the appeal to non-vowel words and other Old Slavonic words with consonant Russian equivalents was often due to versification: in accordance with the requirement of rhythm and rhyme, the poet preferred one or another variant (as "poetic liberties"): "I will breathe, and my languid voice, like a harp’s voice, will die quietly in the air” (Bat); “Onegin, my good friend, was born on the banks of the Neva ... - Go to the Neva shores, newborn creation ...” (Pushkin). TO late XIX centuries, poetic liberties were eliminated and the amount of obsolete vocabulary in the poetic language decreased sharply. However, even Blok, and Yesenin, and Mayakovsky, and Bryusov, and other poets of the early 20th century paid tribute to obsolete words traditionally assigned to poetic speech (although Mayakovsky already turned to archaisms mainly as a means of irony, satire). Echoes of this tradition are found even today: “Winter is a solid regional city, and no village” (Yevtushenko).
In addition, it is important to emphasize that when analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in one or another work of art one should take into account the time of its writing, know the general language norms that were in force in that era. After all, for a writer who lived a hundred or two hundred years ago, many words could be quite modern, commonly used units that have not yet passed into the passive vocabulary.
The need to refer to an outdated dictionary also arises among the authors of scientific and historical works. To describe the past of Russia, its realities that have gone into oblivion, historicisms are involved, which in such cases act in their own nominative function. So, academician D.S. Likhachev in his works “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “The Culture of Rus' in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise” uses many words unknown to a modern native speaker, mainly historicism, explaining their meaning.
Sometimes the opinion is expressed that obsolete words are also used in official business speech. Indeed, in legal documents sometimes there are words that, under other conditions, we can attribute to archaisms: deed, punishment, retribution, deed. In business papers they write: this is attached, this kind, the undersigned, the above named. Such words should be treated as special. They are fixed in an official business style and do not carry any expressive and stylistic load in the context. However, the use of obsolete words that do not have a strict terminological meaning can cause unjustified archaization of the business language.
In highly stratified developed languages, such as English, archaisms can serve as professional jargon, which is especially true for jurisprudence.
Archaism - a lexical unit that has fallen into disuse, although the corresponding object (phenomenon) remains in real life and receives other names (obsolete words, supplanted or replaced by modern synonyms). The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in updating its vocabulary: one word is replaced by another.
Displaced words do not disappear without a trace, they are preserved in the literature of the past, they are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and language coloring of the era. Examples: forehead - forehead, finger - finger, mouth - lips, etc.
Any language is constantly changing over time. New words appear, and some lexical units quietly disappear into the past, cease to be used in speech. Words that are out of use are called archaisms. Their use when writing poetic works is highly undesirable - for some readers, as a result of this, the meaning may be partially lost.
However, for certain categories of texts, archaisms are quite acceptable and even desirable. Among them are works written on historical and religious themes. In this case, skillfully used archaism will allow the author to more accurately describe events, actions, objects, or his feelings.
Archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason supplanted by others, more modern names. For example: every day - “always”, a comedian - “actor”, it is necessary - “it is necessary”, Persian - “chest”, verb - “to speak”, to know - “to know”.
Other scholars consider historicisms a subspecies of archaisms. If we adhere to this, simpler position, then a logical and easy-to-remember definition of archaisms is as follows: archaisms are obsolete and obsolete names or names of objects and phenomena that have gone into history.
Among the archaisms proper, which have synonyms in the modern language, a distinction must be made between words that are already completely obsolete and therefore sometimes incomprehensible to members of the community who speak the given language, and such archaisms that are in the process of becoming obsolete. Their meanings are clear, however, they are almost never used.
Thus, it seems appropriate to divide archaisms into words ancient or forgotten, which are terms of antiquity and are resurrected only for special stylistic purposes in the modern literary language, and obsolete words, i.e. that have not yet lost their significance in the system of vocabulary of the modern literary language.
Archaisms should also include obsolete forms of the word, although the latter should be considered not in the vocabulary section, but in the morphology section. However, since the very form of the word gives a certain archaic connotation to the whole word and therefore is often used for stylistic purposes, we consider them together with lexical archaisms.
The role of archaizing vocabulary is diverse. First, historicisms and archaisms perform their own nominative function in scientific and historical works. When characterizing this or that era, it is necessary to name its basic concepts, objects, details of life with words corresponding to the given time.
In artistic and historical prose, outdated vocabulary performs nominative and stylistic functions. Contributing to the reconstruction of the color of the era, it at the same time serves as a stylistic means of its artistic characterization. For this purpose, historicisms and archaisms are used.
Lexico-semantic and lexical-derivative archaisms contribute to the temporal characteristic.
Obsolete words also perform proper stylistic functions. So, they are often a means of creating a special solemnity, loftiness of the text - in A.S. Pushkin:
... Chain mail and swords sound!
Fear, O army of foreigners
Russia's sons moved;
Both old and young have risen: they fly on the daring.
They are used as a figurative and expressive means, especially in combination with new words - y. E. Yevtushenko: “... And the elevators are cold and empty. Raised above the earth, like God's fingers.
Archaizing vocabulary can serve as a means of creating humor, irony, satire. In this case, such words are used in a semantically alien environment.
"THE POWERFUL RUSSIAN WORD...". ARCHAIC VOCABULARY IN THE POETRY OF NIKOLAY TRYAPKIN
Ryzhkova-Grishina Lyubov Vladimirovna
Ryazan Institute of Business and Management
candidate pedagogical sciences, vice-rector for scientific work and international relations
annotation
The article raises the issue of using obsolete words and expressions in poetic speech that perform a certain stylistic or semantic function in the text. On the example of N.I. Tryapkina (1918 - 1999) discusses specific cases of using archaic vocabulary that help convey various psychological states lyrical hero, to reflect the subtle feeling of folk speech, to solve visual and expressive tasks. In addition, the ability to use outdated vocabulary is evidence of a perfect literary ear, which is necessary for a real poet who knows how to feel folk speech.
"MAJESTIC RUSSIAN WORD...". ARCHAIC LEXICON IN NIKOLAY TRYAPKIN'S POETRY
Ryzhkova-Grishina Lyubov Vladimirovna
NSEI of HE "Ryazan Institute of Business and Management"
Candidate of Pedagogy, pro-rector on scientific work, fellow-member of the Union of writers of the Russian Federation, the winner of literary competitions
Abstract
In article the question of use in poetic speech of outdated words and the expressions which are carrying out in the text a certain stylistic or semantic function is brought up. On the example of Tryapkin's creativity (1918 - 1999) it is considered concrete cases of use of the archaic lexicon, helping to transfer various psychological conditions of the lyrical hero, to reflect a thin feeling of folk speech, to solve graphic and expressive problems.In addition, the ability to apply outdated lexicon is the sign of the perfect literary hearing necessary for the real poet, able to feel folk speech.
It is known that there are poets who passionately want to be known as “folk” and in order to look like that, they deliberately use colloquial speech expressions, outdated turns, archaic vocabulary in order to attract the attention of the reader, although the reader (and this does not depend on the degree of his preparedness and intelligence) sees this artificiality, strain, unnaturalness and does not follow their lead. And if for some time they can still mislead them, then deceit and a kind of posturing will sooner or later be discovered. No matter what clothes a fake wears, it will always remain a fake. People stop reading such poets, quickly lose interest in them and forget. Summer is their lot.
But there are other poets who speak in the most simple and sincere words, and they sound as if they were spoken by the people in some incredibly deep antiquity, they are so natural, intelligible, pure and penetrating. Nikolai Ivanovich Tryapkin is just such a poet, it was enough for him to write any of these lines:
“Here, great-grandfather Svyatogor in the tablets does not age ...”,
"Do you hear, father? August is noisy...
"You walk - do not walk, the north wind ...",
“I went out to the red hill at night ...”,
"I bow to the lonely mountain ash ...",
"Ay you bitter share, malicious fate ...",
"How many blizzards rustled outside the snowy window ...",
“He fired the stove. Fine!",
“Flowered cereals were full of flowers in the valley…”,
"I fell to the beginnings of the rivers ...",
"Who is with us for spring plows?",
“The night is dark, autumn, there are lights in the village. Oh, yes!"
And each of these lines is a picture, a drawing, a plot, a revelation. And each of them seems to be taken from folk life and folk speech, so it is artlessly good, good-quality harmonious and natural.
But N.I. Tryapkin, there are actually obsolete words and expressions. Let us turn to the 1969 poem "What's behind the vytna? .."
What is there for vytny? What is there for vytny?
Hey look!
Do thunderstorms come with night fires?
Are haystacks burning behind willow bushes?
Is it dawn?
What's in the reserve? What's in the reserve?
Hey call back!
Does the owl groan with the night shishigami?
Do prankster thieves cut down pine trees?
Does the lynx jump?
What's behind the farm? What's behind the farm?
Choo, bells!
Does a wedding jump with cheerful matchmakers?
Div whether stenitis about some troubles for us?
Is it the sound of dew?
What's behind the heap? What's behind the heap?
Hey, show yourself!
Guests at night klunkoy hiding?
Is my heart overflowing with rustle?
Is it a lynx again?
What does it sound like? What do we broadcast?
Heat or hail?
Terrible flashes light up in the night,
Murmuring ear under the wind worries,
Children don't sleep....
Obsolete words that are found here literally in every stanza immediately attract attention: vytny (howl), shishigi, div, prophesied, moaning, klunka. Let's turn to explanatory dictionaries.
howl (vytyn)- the ancient division of land into vyti, that is, plots of land, allotments, mowing.
Shishiga- the old name for a dashing person, a thief.
Div- a mythical creature of Indo-European (Aryan) mythology.
moan- moan, scream with a groan.
Klunka- barn, barn.
Broadcast- prophesy, foretell the future.
Before us is a picture of the night, but the night is not calm and pacifying, but disturbing, full of menacing forebodings, where everything is vague and unclear, and everything is drowning in darkness ... And only some kind of unkind forebodings torment the lyrical hero, preventing him from falling asleep.
The night is full of noise and rustles - is it the dull rumbling of a distant thunderstorm, or an eagle owl hoots somewhere nearby, or night robbers are mischievous, or a lynx makes its way along its familiar paths, or is the sleepless and fabulous Div moaning? Why is the lyrical hero so anxious? Why such anxiety in the heart? There are no answers to these questions.
But we can assume that this poem, as a static picture, instantly fixed exactly this - the anxious, timid, restless, restless state of the lyrical hero, because lyric poem- this, as you know, is a picture of a captured moment. So, these were exactly the feelings of the poet in this year, month, day, hour, minute, moment ... And these feelings seemed to flow over, reincarnated into poetic lines, remaining forever in them.
And now we can only guess why the lyrical hero (or the poet himself) was so anxious, scared, vague, restless that night? Why did the flashes flare menacingly that night, why did the children not sleep, and why did the ear of wheat wave in the wind?
We can say with confidence that archaic vocabulary helped the poet to create just such a picture and convey such a mood in this poem, since the stylistic load that it carries contributes to the creation of a mysterious and even frightening color with its incomprehensible antiquity.
In the poem "What's behind the vytna?" there is an amazing line. Lyrical hero, disturbed by night rustles, is tormented by forebodings, and this state of confusion, as we have seen, is brilliantly conveyed by the poet. But this line would be unique in any context - its content is so unusual, here it is: "Does the sound of dew...".
To some, it may not seem like it, but for us it has become a kind of revelation and evidence of a genuine poetic insight that N.I. Tryapkin, being a poet of a sensitive and receptive soul.
Let's think about it, this short and sonorous, like a drop, line. And let us ask ourselves the question: can a common person hear the sound of dew? Is it even possible? And does it exist in nature?
But before us is the Master of the Word, a real magician, sensitive to the slightest manifestations of natural elements. He seems to be subject to a lot, and even the growth of grass and the sound of dew are clearly audible to him. This is evidence of a fine mental organization, in our opinion, of the same Literary hearing without which there is not and cannot be a true poet.
Archaisms appeared in the poems of N.I. Tryapkin, as we see, is far from accidental, they always performed one or another function in the poem.
Firstly, they were not obsolete words for him at all, but common, everyday, daily.
Secondly, archaisms were used by the poet for a specific purpose, determined by a stylistic or semantic task.
Thirdly, the poet understood that obsolete words had and have an educational value, as they encourage an ignorant reader to look into the dictionary to find out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Not every reader now knows, for example, what is suzem and who is leshuga, which we meet in the poem “Song of the Great Spawning”: “August nights! AND suzem, And leshuga, / And earthly semi-nonsense. / It was on Tansy, near the Arctic Circle, / Near the frozen comets.
Suzem in the dictionary of V.I. Dalia - "deaf, continuous forest", distant lands, breadth, space. Leshuga- this is a forest spirit, forest man, goblin.
Words that have fallen out of use for various reasons have always attracted N.I. Tryapkin, he treated them with great interest and attention, meticulously studied them, collected them, tried to comprehend the deep meaning and masterfully used them. Finally, he simply knew them well, and these obsolete words were alive for him, modern, filled with a certain meaning, the specifics of peasant life, the aroma of rural life. All these vytny, vyti, suzems, shishigs, shavings, ottol, mov, vyi, storage sheds, saddles, firewood, hooves were his habitat, a reflection of the interests and needs of his soul, evidence of wealth inner peace and a consequence of the extraordinary closeness to folk culture and inseparable connection with it.
In the 1977 poem "Triptych", dedicated to memory Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl, the poet is talking about the "sovereign Russian Word" and the "house of folk concepts." The question immediately arises: what is hatul, in this case - hut? But first, let's take a look at the poem.
Somewhere out there, in the midnight glow,
Above the earth, glimmering for a moment,
Rises by an ancient vision
Immense as the sky, old man.
And over the roar of rivers full of water
Giant hand holding
House of folk concepts
And the sovereign purse of the tongue.
The dictionary of V. I. Dahl gives an answer to the question of what is hatul or catul, This knapsack, bag. And it immediately becomes clear that the appearance of these obsolete words is not accidental, and most importantly, the depth of Tryapkin's lines, why this "immense as the sky, the old man" holds with his gigantic hand "hatulishche", that is, a huge bag of folk words and expressions and sovereign, regal " tongue purse.
This depth became possible thanks to the skill of the poet, which in this case is expressed in a subtle feeling of folk speech, in the skillful use of its richest visual and expressive means. And that truly brilliant insight of the poet N.I. Tryapkin, whose work is a phenomenon in Russian literature, still underestimated and, apparently, not fully realized by his contemporaries. literary world and the public still did not seem to realize the greatness of the soul, the transcendent skill and scale of the poetry of Nikolai Ivanovich Tryapkin, "the ringer of all Rus'."
Language as a system is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples are falling out of use.
In each period of the development of the language, words belonging to the active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore have acquired an archaic coloring function in it. At the same time, new words are distinguished in the lexical system, which are just entering it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness, novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary of the passive vocabulary.
obsolete words
Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For some time, they are still understandable to speakers of a given language, known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the vocabulary of the passive stock and are listed in explanatory dictionaries marked obsolete.
The process of archaization of a part of the dictionary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among obsolete words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, enemy, speech); others are removed from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, as they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest period of time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in the newest period; cf .: shkrab - in the 20s replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - Workers' and Peasants' Inspection; Enkavedist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.
The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs oshuyu, odesnaya (left, right) disappeared from the active dictionary, because the generating nouns shuytsa - “left hand” and right hand - “right hand” were archaic. In such cases, the systemic relations of lexical units played a decisive role. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also fell apart (for example, the word shulga did not stay in the language in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname ascending to a nickname). Collapsed antonymic pairs (shuytsa - right hand, oshuyu - right hand), synonymous connections (oshuyu, left). However, the word right hand, despite the archaization of words associated with it by systemic relations, was retained in the language for some time. In the Pushkin era, for example, it was used in the "high style" of poetic speech; cf: And I put the sting of the wise snake into my frozen mouth with a bloody right hand (P.), while oshuyu was only an echo of dilapidated archaism, and its use was possible only in a satirical context: Oshuyu sits here with me the eighth wonder of the world (Bat .)
By its origin, the outdated vocabulary is heterogeneous: it contains a lot of primordially Russian words (lzya, so that, this, semo), old Slavonicisms (smooth, kiss, loins), borrowings from other languages (abshid - “resignation”, voyage - “journey”, politeness - "politeness").
There are known cases of the revival of obsolete words, their return to the active vocabulary. So, in modern Russian, such nouns as soldier, officer, warrant officer, minister and a number of others are actively used, which after October became archaic, giving way to new ones: Red Army soldier, commander, people's commissar, etc. In the 20s, from the composition of the passive vocabulary, the word leader was extracted, which even in the Pushkin era was perceived as obsolete and was cited in the dictionaries of that time with the appropriate stylistic mark. Now it is archaizing again. Relatively recently, the Old Slavonic word parasite has lost its archaic tinge.
However, the return of some obsolete words to the active vocabulary is possible only in special cases and is always due to extralinguistic factors. If the archaization of a word is dictated by linguistic laws and is reflected in the systemic connections of the vocabulary, then its revival is excluded.
historicisms
Among obsolete words special group make up historicisms - the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: guardsman, chain mail, gendarme, policeman, hussar, tutor, college student, etc. The appearance of historicisms, as a rule, is caused by extralinguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, the renewal of weapons, household items, etc.
Historicisms, unlike other obsolete words, do not have synonyms in modern Russian. This is explained by the fact that the realities themselves, for which these words served as names, have become outdated. Thus, when describing distant times, recreating the color of bygone eras, historicisms perform the function of a special vocabulary: they act as a kind of terms that do not have competing equivalents.
Words that differ in the time of their appearance in the language become historicisms: they can be associated with very distant eras (tiun, governor, oprichnina), and with recent events (tax in kind, provincial committee, county).
Archaisms, their types
Archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to the active vocabulary; cf. everyday - always, comedian - actor, it is necessary - it is necessary, percy - chest, verb - to speak, to know - to know. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in the modern language, devoid of a hint of archaism.
Words can be archaized only partially, for example, in their suffixal design (height - height), in their sound (eighth - eighth, hospital - hospital), in their individual meanings (nature - "nature", fairly - "excellent", disorder - " mess"). This gives grounds to single out several groups in the composition of archaisms.
- Lexical archaisms are words that are obsolete in all their meanings: lying (possible), barber (hairdresser), very (very), therefore, know, it is coming.
- Lexical and derivational archaisms are words in which separate word-forming elements are outdated: fisherman, flirt, since (because), it is necessary, handicrafts (craft), transgress.
- Lexico-phonetic archaisms are words in which their phonetic design has become outdated, which has undergone some changes in the process of the historical development of the language: licorice, vorog, young, breg, night, Svei (Swedish), English (English), iroism, apheism.
- Lexico-semantic archaisms are words that have lost their separate meanings: guest - "merchant", shame - "spectacle", vulgar "popular", dream - "thought".
The largest group is actually lexical archaisms, which can be subjected to further systematization by highlighting words that are close in time to the transition to the passive stock, or by delimiting, for example, words that have the same root in the composition modern vocabulary(lzya - impossible, ryahaya - slob), and words devoid of family ties with modern nominations: uy - “maternal uncle”, strinya - “uncle’s wife”, cherevye - “skin” (cf .: Ukrainian chereviki), vezha - "tent, wagon", etc.
Neologisms, their types
The passive composition of the vocabulary also includes neologisms - new words that have not yet become the usual and everyday names of the corresponding objects, concepts.
The lexicon of the language is constantly updated, but over time, new words are mastered and move from a passive vocabulary to an active one. And as soon as a new word begins to be used frequently, becomes familiar, it is assimilated and stylistically no longer stands out against the background of the rest of the vocabulary. Therefore, new words mastered by the language cannot be included in the composition of neologisms. Thus, the term "neologism" narrows and concretizes the concept of "new word": when highlighting new words, only the time of their appearance in the language is taken into account, while classifying words as neologisms emphasizes their special stylistic properties associated with the perception of these words as unusual names.
Each era enriches the language with new lexical units. They can be grouped according to the time of their appearance: new words of the Petrine era; new words introduced by Karamzin (Lomonosov, Radishchev, Belinsky, and other writers), new words of the beginning of the 20th century, the first years of the revolution, etc. During periods of the greatest activity in the socio-political and cultural life of the country, the influx of new words especially increases.
The classifications of neologisms are based on various criteria for their selection and evaluation.
1. Depending on the method of appearance, lexical neologisms are distinguished, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic neologisms, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words.
Among the lexical neologisms, on the basis of word-formation, one can single out words produced with the help of suffixes (earthlings), prefixes (pro-Western), as well as suffix-prefix formations (landing on the moon, undock), names created by compounding (moon rover, hydroweightlessness), complex abbreviated words (omon , special forces, CIS, GKChP) and abbreviated words (help, deputy).
Abbreviation (abbreviation) in the modern Russian language has become one of the most common ways to create neologisms. However, it should be borne in mind that not all neologisms-abbreviations are perceived adequately by speakers. For example, the word ilon is an abbreviation, based on the name and surname of the inventor - Ivan Losev. Unlike ordinary abbreviations, such abbreviations are not connected by direct semantic relations with the phrases underlying their formation.
Semantic neologisms include, for example, such words as a bush in the meaning - "association of enterprises", a signal - "a message about something undesirable to the administrative authorities", etc.
2. Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into general language neologisms, which appeared along with a new concept or new reality, and individual authorial ones, put into use by specific authors. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group; Thus, the neologisms collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plan, and many others that appeared at the beginning of the century are characterized by their usualness.
To the second group of neologisms belongs, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky, who were in session. Having crossed the boundaries of individual authorial use, having become the property of the language, these words have now joined the active vocabulary. The language also has long mastered the terms constellation, full moon, attraction introduced by M.V. Lomonosov; used for the first time by N.M. Karamzin words industry, future, etc.
The same group of neologisms also includes the so-called occasionalisms (lat. occasionalis random) - lexical units, the emergence of which is due to a certain context. All of the above neologisms are linguistic, they have become the property of Russian vocabulary, are recorded in dictionaries, like any lexical unit, with all the meanings assigned to them.
Occasional neologisms are words formed by writers and publicists according to the existing word-formation models in the language and used only once in a certain work - wide-noise oak trees (P.), in heavy snake hair (Bl.), fiery twigs of elderberry (Tsv.). The authors of such neologisms can be not only writers; we ourselves, without noticing it, often come up with words in case (such as opener, unpack, overload). Especially many occasionalisms are created by children: I messed up; See how the rain poured; I am no longer a baby, but a big one and under.
In order to distinguish between artistic and literary occasionalisms and purely everyday ones, which are not a fact of artistic speech, the former are called individual stylistic. If everyday occasionalisms usually arise in oral speech, involuntarily, without being fixed anywhere, then individual stylistic ones are the result of a conscious creative process, they are imprinted on the pages of literary works and perform a certain stylistic function in them.
In terms of their artistic significance, individual stylistic neologisms are similar to metaphors: their creation is based on the same desire to discover new semantic facets in the word, to create an expressive image with economical speech means. Like the brightest, freshest metaphors, individual stylistic neologisms are original and unique. At the same time, the writer does not set himself the task of putting into use the words he invented. The purpose of these words is different - to serve means of expression in the context of one particular work.
In rare cases, such neologisms can be repeated, but at the same time they are still not reproduced, but are “born again”. For example, A. Blok in the poem "On the Islands" (1909) used the occasional definition of snow-covered: Newly snow-covered columns, Elagin bridge and two fires. In A. Akhmatova's poem "October 9, 1913" (1915) we read: I realized that no words are needed, snow-covered branches are light. However, no one will argue that such a coincidence indicates the dependence of the style of one poet on another, especially imitation, repetition of a “poetic find”.
3. Depending on the purpose of creating new words, their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a purely nominative function in the language, while the latter give a figurative description of objects that already have names.
Nominative neologisms include, for example, the following: futurology, feminization, pre-perestroika (period), pluralism. The appearance of nominative neologisms is dictated by the needs of the development of society, the success of science and technology. These neologisms arise as the names of new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous emergence of competing names (cosmonaut - astronaut) is possible, one of which, as a rule, subsequently displaces the other. The bulk of nominative neologisms are highly specialized terms that are constantly replenishing the scientific vocabulary and may become commonly used over time; cf .: moon rover, dock, spaceport.
Stylistic neologisms are created as figurative names of already known objects, phenomena pioneer, atomograd, motor city, starship. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are inferior to them in intensity of expressive coloring; cf: starship - spaceship. However, the frequent use of these neologisms in speech translates them into an active vocabulary, neutralizes their stylistic coloring. For example, the word health resort, which came into the language as a stylistic neologism, is now perceived as a neutral synonym for the words sanatorium, rest home.
Stylistic use of obsolete and new words
Obsolete words in the modern literary language can perform various stylistic functions.
1. Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, which have replenished the passive composition of the vocabulary, give the speech an elevated, solemn sound: Arise, prophet, and see, and listen, be fulfilled by my will, and, bypassing the seas and lands, burn the hearts of people with a verb! (P.).
Old Slavonic vocabulary was used in this function even in Old Russian literature. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component of the odic dictionary, Old Slavonicisms determined the solemn style of "high poetry". In 19th century poetry with the archaizing Old Slavonic vocabulary, the obsolete vocabulary of other sources, and above all Old Russianisms, was stylistically equalized: Alas! wherever I cast my eyes - everywhere there are scourges, everywhere there are glands, laws are a disastrous shame, bondage is feeble tears (P.). Archaisms were the source of the national-patriotic sound of Pushkin's freedom-loving lyrics, the poetry of the Decembrists. The tradition of writers turning to outdated high vocabulary in works of civil and patriotic themes is maintained in the Russian literary language in our time.
2. Archaisms and historicisms are used in works of art about the historical past of our country to recreate the color of the era; cf .: How the prophetic Oleg is now going to take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars, their villages and fields for a violent raid, he doomed to swords and fires; with his retinue, in Constantinople armor, the prince rides across the field on a faithful horse (P.). In the same stylistic function, obsolete words are used in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin "Boris Godunov", in the novels of A.N. Tolstoy "Peter I", A. P. Chapygin "Razin Stepan", V. Ya. Shishkov "Emelyan Pugachev", etc.
3. Obsolete words can be a means of speech characterization of characters, such as clergymen, monarchs. Wed Pushkin's stylization of the tsar's speech:
I [Boris Godunov] have reached the highest power;
For the sixth year I reign quietly.
But my soul is not happy. Is not it
We fall in love from a young age and are hungry
The joys of love, but only quench
Heart smoothness by instant possession,
Already, having cooled, we miss and languish?
4. Archaisms, and especially Old Slavonicisms, are used to recreate the ancient oriental flavor, which is explained by the proximity of the Old Slavonic speech culture to biblical imagery. Examples are also easy to find in Pushkin's poetry ("Imitation of the Koran", "Gavriiliada") and other writers ("Shulamith" by A. I. Kuprin).
5. High outdated vocabulary can be subjected to ironic rethinking and act as a means of humor, satire. The comical sound of obsolete words is noted in the everyday story and satire of the 17th century, and later in epigrams, jokes, parodies, which were written by participants in the linguistic polemics of the early 19th century. (members of the Arzamas society), who opposed the archaization of the Russian literary language.
In modern humorous and satirical poetry, obsolete words are also often used as a means of creating an ironic coloring of speech: The worm, skillfully impaled on a hook, enthusiastically uttered: - How favored is Providence for me, I am finally completely independent (N. Mizin).
Analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in artistic speech, one cannot ignore the fact that their use in some cases (as well as the use of other lexical means) may not be associated with a specific stylistic task, but is due to the peculiarities of the author's style, individual preferences of the writer. So, for M. Gorky, many outdated words were stylistically neutral, and he used them without a special stylistic setting: People passed us slowly, dragging long shadows behind them; [Pavel Odintsov] philosophized ... that all work disappears, some do something, while others destroy what has been created, not appreciating or understanding it.
In the poetic speech of Pushkin's time, the appeal to non-vowel words and other Old Slavonic words with consonant Russian equivalents was often due to versification: in accordance with the requirement of rhythm and rhyme, the poet preferred one or another variant (on the rights of "poetic liberties") I will sigh, and the voice my languid, like a harp's voice, will die quietly in the air (Bat.); Onegin, my good friend, was born on the banks of the Neva ... - Go to the banks of the Neva, newborn creation ... (P.) By the end of the 19th century. poetic liberties were eliminated and the amount of obsolete vocabulary in the poetic language decreased sharply. However, even Blok, and Yesenin, and Mayakovsky, and Bryusov, and other poets of the early 20th century. paid tribute to obsolete words traditionally assigned to poetic speech (although Mayakovsky already turned to archaisms mainly as a means of irony and satire). Echoes of this tradition are found in our day; cf .: Winter is a solid regional city, and not a village at all (Evt.)
In addition, it is important to emphasize that when analyzing the stylistic functions of obsolete words in a particular work of art, one should take into account the time of its writing, know the general language norms that were in force in that era. After all, for a writer who lived a hundred or two hundred years ago, many words could be quite modern, commonly used units that have not yet passed into the passive composition of the vocabulary.
The need to refer to an outdated dictionary also arises among the authors of scientific and historical works. To describe the past of Russia, its realities that have gone into oblivion, historicisms are involved, which in such cases act in their own nominative function. Yes, acad. D. S. Likhachev in his works “The Tale of Igor's Campaign”, “The Culture of Rus' in the Time of Andrei Rublev and Epiphanius the Wise” uses many words unknown to the modern native speaker, mostly historicisms, explaining their meaning.
Sometimes the opinion is expressed that obsolete words are also used in official business speech. Indeed, in legal documents sometimes there are words that, under other conditions, we can attribute to archaisms: deed, punishment, retribution, deed. In business papers they write: attached to this, this year, the undersigned, the above named. Such words should be treated as special. They are fixed in an official business style and do not carry any expressive and stylistic load in the context. However, the use of obsolete words that do not have a strict terminological meaning can cause unjustified archaization of the business language.
In the previous paragraph, we have already partly touched upon the problem of the stylistic use of new words. Special attention should be paid to the writers' appeal to occasionalisms. Being a fact not of language, but of speech, individual author's occasionalisms are of considerable interest to stylists, since they reflect the style of the writer, his word creation.
Occasionalisms acting as a means artistic expressiveness speech, do not lose their freshness and novelty over the centuries. We meet them in Russian folklore [Carpenters without axes cut down a neckless gorenka - (mystery)], in the works of every original writer, for example, in G.R. Derzhavin: juicy-yellow fruits, a fire-star ocean, densely curly gloomy spruce, A.S. Pushkin: heavy galloping, And idle thinking was a joy to me, I'm in love, I'm fascinated, in a word, I'm saddened; by N. V. Gogol: Eyelids, edged with long, like arrows, eyelashes, Were you born like a bear, or did provincial life bear you, etc. Motivated by the context, individual stylistic neologisms do not go beyond it, but this does not mean them " lifelessness" they give the text expressiveness, vivid imagery, make you rethink well-known words or phrases, thereby creating that unique flavor of the language that distinguishes great artists.
Questions for self-examination
- What words are in the passive vocabulary?
- What is the composition of obsolete words?
- What are archaisms?
- What are the reasons for the archaization of words?
- What types of archaisms stand out in the composition of obsolete vocabulary?
- Is it possible to return some archaisms to the active vocabulary?
- What are historicisms?
- What is the main difference between archaisms and historicisms?
- What is the stylistic use of obsolete words?
- What are neologisms?
- What is the terminological difference between neologisms and new words?
- What types of neologisms are distinguished in the language?
- How do lexical neologisms differ from semantic ones?
- What is the specificity of individual author's neologisms?
- What is the difference between linguistic neologisms and occasionalisms?
- What was the basis for highlighting nominative and stylistic neologisms?
Exercises
26. Highlight historicisms and archaisms in the text. Indicate the words that have returned from the passive vocabulary to the active one.
Major Kovalev came to St. Petersburg out of necessity, namely, to look for a place decent to his rank: if possible, then vice-governor, and not that - an executor in some prominent department. Major Kovalev was not averse to getting married; but only in such a case, when two hundred thousand capital will happen for the bride.<...>
Suddenly he stood rooted to the spot at the door of a house, an inexplicable phenomenon occurred in his eyes: a carriage stopped in front of the entrance, the doors opened; jumped out, bent over, a gentleman in uniform and ran up the stairs. What was the horror and at the same time the amazement of Kovalev when he found out that it was his own nose! At this extraordinary spectacle, it seemed to him that everything turned upside down in his eyes ... He was in a uniform embroidered with gold, with a large standing collar, he was wearing suede trousers; at the side of the sword. From the plumed hat, it could be concluded that he was considered to have the rank of an adviser.
(N. V. Gogol)
27. In an excerpt from the "History of the Russian State" N.M. Karamzin, indicate historicisms, archaisms; in the composition of the latter, single out Church Slavonicisms and Old Russianisms. Find also semantic archaisms.
Boris still postponed his royal wedding until September 1, in order to perform this important ceremony in the new summer, on the day of general goodwill and hopes, flattering to the heart. Meanwhile, the electoral letter was written on behalf of the Zemstvo Duma, with the following addition: “To all those who disobey the tsar’s will, an unblessing and an oath from the church, revenge and execution from the synclite and the state, an oath and execution to any rebel, schismatic, amorous, who dares to contradict the action of the conciliar and shake the minds people with evil rumors, no matter who he is, whether he is a priest or a boyar, a duma or a military man, a citizen or a nobleman: may his memory perish forever! This charter was approved on August 1 with their signatures and seals by Boris and the young Theodore, Job, all the saints, archimandrites, abbots, archpriests, cellars, elders of bureaucrats ..
Finally, Boris was married to the kingdom, even more magnificent and solemn than Theodore, for he accepted Monomakhov's utensils from the hands of the ecumenical patriarch. The people were in awe in silence, but when the tsar, overshadowed by the right hand of the primate, in a fit of living feeling, as if forgetting the charter of the church, in the middle of the liturgy cried loudly: “Father, great patriarch Job! God is my witness that in my kingdom there will be neither an orphan nor a poor one," and, shaking the top of his shirt, he said: "I will give this last people also," then unanimous delight interrupted the ceremony: only cries of tenderness and gratitude were heard in the temple, the boyars praised the monarch, the people wept. They assure that the new crowned bearer, touched by signs of common love for him, at the same time made another important vow: to spare the life and blood of the most criminals and only remove them to the Siberian deserts. In a word, no royal wedding in Russia had a stronger effect on the imagination and feeling of people than Borisov.
28. Highlight historicisms and archaisms of different types in the text.
The English pigs swept sixteen piglets each, - the prince-caesar himself came to marvel ... Your parent, Ivan Artemich, is like, like, poor, in the upper rooms: “I’m bored, says Agapovna, why not go again to the manufactories ... »<...>We have one annoyance, with this black-nosed one ... Of course, our house cannot be without such a person now, they say in Moscow - as if they didn’t give Ivan Artemich a title ... The Prussian king was a majordomo, as long as his nose, or something, is not took a bite... We had a big table on Midsummer's Day, the tsarina Praskovya Fyodorovna granted us, and without Karla, of course, it would be difficult for us. He put on a caftan, my dear, braids, fringes on it about ten pounds, he put on elk mittens with fingers; he takes a golden dish, puts a bowl worth a thousand rubles, and kneeling down, gives it to the queen...
While the housekeeper was talking, the room serf, who, with the appearance of the majordomo in the house, now became known as the valet, took off Gavrila's dusty caftan, doublet, unraveled his tie and, groaning, began to pull off his boots.
(A. N. Tolstoy)
29. Highlight neologisms in sentences from E. Zamyatin's novel "We". Try to explain their meaning. Distinguish between lexical and semantic neologisms.
1. You will have to finish after: clicked the numerator. 2. When she entered, the logical flywheel was still buzzing in me, and out of inertia I started talking about the formula I had just established, which included all of us, and the machines, and the dance. 3. You are perfect, you are machine-equal, the path to 100% happiness is free. 4. Hurry to the auditoriums where the Great Operation is being performed. 5. And cast-iron clouds are collapsing overhead... 6. The engine is buzzing with might and main, aero shakes and rushes, but there is no steering wheel - and I don’t know where I’m rushing... 7. Probably, the same silent cold is there, in blue , silent interplanetary spaces. 8. This morning I was at Elling, where the Integral is being built ... 9. At parting, I is still X-smile - she smiled at me. 10 At the same hour, we start work with one million, and finish with one million. And, merging into a single, million-armed body into one and the same second appointed by the Tablet, we bring spoons to our mouths and at the same second we go for a walk and go to the auditorium, to the hall of Taylor's exercises, we go to sleep ... eleven. Auditorium Huge, sun-drenched hemisphere of glass arrays. 12. And I hardly turned on my attention only when the phonolector had already moved on to the main topic: to our music, to mathematical composition, to a description of the recently invented musicometer. 13. He looked at me, laughed sharply, lanceolately. 14. He, the other one, heard the tumbler stomped out of his office ... 15. - Ah, - he mumbled and tumbled back to his office. 16. Corridor Thousand-pood silence.
30. Highlight new words in sentences, determine their type. Indicate the stylistic functions of these words in the context (giving speech a special imagery, sound expressiveness, ironic sounding, creating a pun, etc.).
1. The doctor listened to the baby. And then he says: - Influenza-simulenza, pretender, loafer! (March.) 2. As if thunder rumbles, heavy-voiced galloping along the shaken pavement. (P.) 3. You did not boo yourself, but used to (Ch.). 4. Morning flowed through the stars; the dawn was woven transparently, scarlet, and mud in pinkish tracing paper on the grandeur of Monte Carlo, filthy Monte-dwarfs. (M.). 5. The moon shines. Blue and sleepy. The horse is hoofing well. (Es.). 6. The clouds have gone weightless, and everything around is radiant for a moment. Warm and pine. Warm and sleepy. (Korn.) 7. And next to it stands a merry, like a child, all in the leaves, a bare euka liptenok (V. G.). 8. Metrotram - this is the name of the underground high-speed tram (From the gas.). 9. The main brainchild of the institute is the aquatron. This is a large indoor aquarium for fish with controlled environmental parameters (From gas.) 10. Friends, elements of kindergartenism are still strong in many of us (From gas.).
31. Highlight passive vocabulary, distinguishing between neologisms and archaisms. Determine the types of neologisms and archaisms.
The other day one of the most famous fools reproached me for saying that you write for the Foolovites, you are a Foolovist writer! (...) Did you really think, dear sir, that I am not writing for the Foolovites, but want to enlighten the Chinese Bogdykhan? No, I don’t even have such a lofty thought in my thoughts and I present it to nonsense high school. I am a modest figure, and in this capacity I am modestly developing a modest Foolovsky heliport. That is why I speak to the Foolovites in a language they understand, and I am very glad if my writings are kind to them.
(M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin)
