The physiological basis of sensations is the activity of complex complexes of anatomical structures, called by I. P. Pavlov analyzers. Analyzer- anatomical and physiological apparatus for receiving influences from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations. Each analyzer consists of three parts:
1) peripheral department, called a receptor (the receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, a specialized nerve ending, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
2) conducting nerve pathways(afferent department - transmits excitation to the central department; efferent department - a response is transmitted through it from the center to the periphery);
3) analyzer core- the cortical sections of the analyzer (they are also called the central sections of the analyzers), in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections takes place. The cortical part of each analyzer includes an area that is a projection of the periphery (i.e., a projection of the sense organ) in the cerebral cortex, since certain areas of the cortex correspond to certain receptors.
Thus, the organ of sensation is the central section of the analyzer.
Conditions for the sensation
For the sensation to arise, it is necessary to use all the components of the analyzer. If any part of the analyzer is destroyed, the occurrence of the corresponding sensations becomes impossible. So, visual sensations stop when the eyes are damaged, and when the integrity of the optic nerves is violated, and when the occipital lobes of both hemispheres are destroyed. For blind people, visual sensations do not exist.
In addition, for sensations to arise, 2 more conditions must be present:
Sources of irritation (irritants)
· Environment or energy, which is distributed in the environment from the source to the subject.
For example, there are no auditory sensations in a vacuum. The energy emitted by the source may be so small that we do not feel it, but this energy can be registered by instruments. That. energy, in order to become tangible, must reach a certain value of the thresholds of the analyzer system.
Also, the subject may be awake or may be asleep. This should also be taken into account. In sleep, the thresholds of the analyzers are significantly increased.
Thus, sensation is a mental phenomenon, which is the result of the interaction of an energy source with the corresponding analyzer of a person. At the same time, we mean an elementary single source of energy that creates a homogeneous sensation (of light, sound, etc.).
Thus, existence is necessary 5 Conditions for Feelings:
Receptors
Analyzer core (in the cerebral cortex)
Conductive paths (with directions of impulse flows)
source of irritation
Environment or energy (from source to subject)
It should be noted that human sensations are a product historical development and therefore they are qualitatively different from the sensations of animals. In animals, the development of sensations is entirely limited by their biological, instinctive needs. In humans, the ability to feel is not limited by biological needs. Labor created for him an incomparably wider range of needs than for animals, and in activities aimed at satisfying these needs, human abilities, including the ability to feel, constantly developed. Therefore, a person can feel much large quantity properties of the objects around him than an animal.
In addition, sensations are not only the source of our knowledge of the world, but also of our feelings and emotions. The simplest form of emotional experience is the so-called sensual, or emotional, tone of sensation, that is, a feeling directly connected with sensation. For example, it is well known that certain colors, sounds, smells can by themselves, regardless of their meaning, memories and thoughts associated with them, cause us a pleasant or unpleasant feeling. The sound of a beautiful voice, the taste of an orange, the smell of a rose are pleasant, have a positive emotional tone. The creak of a knife on glass, the smell of hydrogen sulfide, the taste of cinchona are unpleasant, have a negative emotional tone. Such simple emotional experiences play a comparatively insignificant role in the life of an adult, but from the point of view of the origin and development of emotions, their significance is very great.
Classification of sensations
Exist different approaches to the classification of sensations. It has long been customary to distinguish five (according to the number of sensory organs) basic types of sensations: smell, taste, touch, sight and hearing. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. B. G. Ananiev spoke about eleven types of sensations. A. R. Luria believed that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic and genetic (in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity or level of their construction, on the other).
Consider systematic classification sensations (Fig. 3). This classification was proposed by the English physiologist Ch. Sherrington. Considering the largest and most significant groups of sensations, he divided them into three main types: interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive Feel. The former combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body; the latter transmit information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, provide regulation of our movements; finally, others provide signals from the outside world and provide the basis for our conscious behavior. Consider the main types of sensations separately.
Interoceptive sensations that signal the state of the internal processes of the body arise due to receptors located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, the heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. This is the oldest and most elementary group of sensations. Receptors that receive information about the state of internal organs, muscles, etc., are called internal receptors. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensation and always retain their proximity to emotional states. It should also be noted that interoceptive sensations are often referred to as organic.
proprioceptive sensations transmit signals about the position of the body in space and form the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. The described group of sensations includes a sense of balance, or a static sensation, as well as a motor, or kinesthetic, sensation.
Peripheral receptors for proprioceptive sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and are called Pacchini corpuscles.
Peripheral balance receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.
The third and largest group of sensations are exteroceptive Feel. They bring information from the outside world to a person and are the main group of sensations that connects a person with the external environment. The whole group of exteroceptive sensations is conventionally divided into two subgroups: to contact And distant Feel.
Contact Feel caused by the direct impact of the object on the senses. Taste and touch are examples of contact sensation.
distant sensations reflect the qualities of objects that are at some distance from the senses. These senses include hearing and sight. It should be noted that the sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations, since formally olfactory sensations occur at a distance from the object, but at the same time, the molecules that characterize the smell of the object, with which the olfactory receptor contacts, undoubtedly belong to to this subject. This is the duality of the position occupied by the sense of smell in the classification of sensations.
Since a sensation arises as a result of the action of a certain physical stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the primary classification of sensations that we have considered naturally proceeds from the type of receptor that gives the sensation of a given quality, or “modality”.#
However, there are sensations that cannot be associated with any particular modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include, for example, vibration sensitivity, which connects the tactile-motor sphere with the auditory one.
Feeling the vibration is the sensitivity to vibrations caused by a moving body. According to most researchers, the vibrational sense is an intermediate, transitional form between tactile and auditory sensitivity.
In particular, some authors believe that tactile-vibrational sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. With normal hearing, it does not particularly protrude, but with damage to the auditory organ, this function of it is clearly manifested. Vibration sensitivity is of particular practical importance in visual and hearing impairments. It plays an important role in the lives of deaf and deaf-blind people. deaf-blind thanks to high development vibration sensitivity, learned about the approach of a truck and other vehicles at a great distance. In the same way, deaf-blind-mute people know by vibrational sense when someone enters their room.
Consequently, sensations, being the simplest kind of mental processes, are in fact very complex and not fully understood.
It should be noted that there are other approaches to the classification of sensations.
Basic properties of sensations
All sensations can be characterized in terms of their properties. Moreover, properties can be not only specific, but also common to all types of sensations. The main properties of sensations include:
· quality,
· intensity,
· duration,
· spatial localization,
· absolute and relative thresholds of sensations
Quality - this is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type of sensation. For example, taste sensations provide information about certain chemical characteristics of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty. The sense of smell also provides information about the chemical characteristics of the object, but of a different kind: the smell of flowers, the smell of almonds, the smell of hydrogen sulfide, etc.
It should be noted that often, when speaking about the quality of sensations, they mean the modality of sensations, since it is the modality that reflects the main quality of the corresponding sensation.
Intensity sensation is its quantitative characteristic and depends on the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions. For example, with a runny nose, the intensity of perceived odors can be distorted.
Duration Feelings are a temporal characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. It is also determined by the functional state of the sense organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. It should be noted that sensations have a so-called latent (hidden) period. When a stimulus is applied to the sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. latent period various kinds feelings are not the same. For example, for tactile sensations, it is 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, and for taste - only 50 ms.
And finally for sensations characteristic spatial localization irritant. The analysis carried out by the receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, that is, we can tell where the light comes from, the heat comes from, or which part of the body is affected by the stimulus.
All of the above properties to some extent reflect the qualitative characteristics of sensations. However, the quantitative parameters of the main characteristics of sensations are no less important, in other words, degree of sensitivity. The human sense organs are surprisingly fine working apparatuses. For example, the human eye is a very sensitive instrument. He can distinguish about half a million shades and colors. If the air were perfectly clean, we could see the flame of a candle at a distance of 27 km. Water vapor and dust drastically impair visibility, so an ordinary fire is practically visible only 6-8 km away, and a lit match - about 1.5 km away. Each sense organ has its own limits of sensitivity.
Sensations arise only with the direct impact of objects on the sense organs. The sense organ is an anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in the internal organs and specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external environment and internal organs. The main part of each sense organ is the nerve endings, which are called receptors. The receptor is a part of the analyzer, the function of which is to transform external energy into a nervous process. Such sense organs as the eye, ear, uniting dozens of receptor endings. A receptor, nerves that conduct information about teasing, and a site in the cerebral cortex, which represent a single morphological structure. IP. Pavlov called the analyzer analyzer.
Each analyzer is a nervous mechanism, which consists of three parts: 1) a peripheral section - a receptor, 2) an afferent or sensory nerve (centripetal), which conducts excitation to nerve centers three (the central section of the analyzer), 3) cortical sections of the analyzer, in which is the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral parts. The cork part of the analyzer includes a single region, which is a projection of the periphery in the cerebral cortex, since certain cells of the periphery (receptors) correspond to certain regions of the cortical cells. For a sensation to arise, the work of the entire analyzer as a whole is necessary.
Objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called stimuli. The influence of stimuli on the sense organs is called irritation. Irritation causes excitation in the nervous tissue. Wee seems to arise as a reaction nervous system to one or another stimulus and has a reflex character. The action of the stimulus on the receptor leads to the emergence of a nerve impulse, which is transmitted along the afferent nerves to certain parts of the cerebral cortex. Reaction - the response is transmitted along the efferent (motor) nerve to the organ that responds to feelings. So, when a person touches a hot object with his hand, the signal goes to the brain and along the efferent nerves to the muscles, as a result of which they contract.
23 Feelings
Even the ancient Greeks distinguished five sense organs and their corresponding sensations: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. modern science significantly expanded the concept of the types of sensations. OR. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to less than two basic principles - systematic and genetic (in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity ab in the level of their construction, on the other).
Systematic classification of sensations
According to the placement of receptors on the surface of the body or inside the body, the following types of sensations are distinguished:
1) exteroceptive;
2) interoceptive;
3) proprioceptive
exteroceptive sensation- This is the largest group of sensations. They provide signals from the outside world and form the basis for our consciousness. Exteroceptive sensations include visual, auditory, olfactory, sensory, tactile (tactile), thermal (temperature) and pain sensations.
interoceptive sensation- these are organic sensations, they signal the state of the internal processes of the body, bring irritation to the brain from the walls of the stomach and intestines, the heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. This is the oldest and most elementary group of sensations. They are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensation and are always closely associated with emotional states.
proprioceptive sensation provide signals about the position of the body in space and form the basis of human movements, playing an important role in their regulation. Peripheral receptors for proprioceptive sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and have the form of special nerve bodies (bodies. Paccini). The excitation that occurs in these bodies reflects the sensations that occur when calculating muscle tension and changing the position of the joints. This group of sensations includes a specific type of sensitivity called the sense of balance, or static sensation, their peripheral receptors are located in the canals of the inner ear. Kinesthetic and static sensations belong to proprioceptive ones.
exteroceptive sensation is usually divided, depending on the presence or absence of direct contact of the receptor with the stimulus that causes sensation, into:
1) contact;
2) sufficient
Contact sensations are caused by exposure directly applied to the surface of the body of the corresponding organ of perception. Examples of contact sensations are taste, touch
Distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the sense organs at some distance. These include smell, hearing and vision.
Genetic classification allows us to distinguish two types of sensitivity:
1) protopathic (more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized), which includes organic sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.);
2) epicritical (more finely differentiated, objectified and rational), to which the main human senses belong. Epicritical sensitivity is the youngest in the genetic plan, and it exercises control over protopathic sensitivity.
Let us dwell in more detail on the characteristics of certain types of sensations.
Visual sensations play an important role in human interaction with the environment. The apparatus of vision is the eye - a sensory organ with a complex anatomical structure. The physical cause of visual sensations?. The human eye perceives only a small part of electromagnetic vibrations. Light waves that are reflected by an object are refracted as they pass through the lens and are focused on the retina in the form of an image. The retina is connected via the optic nerve to the cerebral hemispheres. The retina has a complex structure. One of the layers included in its composition is the layer of rods and cones, which are the final formations of the optic nerve. Rods and cones perform different functions. Rods are the organ of vision in the dark, and since under such conditions a person does not feel spectral colors, they are called non-color vision organ. Cones are the organ of "daytime" vision, they are characterized by less sensitivity to light. Since during the day?
The visual sensations include the sensation of light and color
Auditory sensations, reflecting a wide variety of properties of sounding objects and phenomena, help a person to navigate in environment and regulate your actions. They are caused by sounds we, acting on the auditory analyzer at a distance through air vibrations and sound waves. Therefore, auditory sensations are classified as distant sensations.
The sensory endings of the auditory nerve are located in the inner ear. The outer ear (pinna) collects sound vibrations and transmits them to the inner ear on the cochlea. The excitation of the nerve endings in the curls occurs according to the principle of resonance, the endings of the auditory nerve, different in length and thickness, begin to move along a certain number of oscillations per second.
Auditory sensations include the sense of language, music, and noise. With the help of auditory sensations, the following qualities of sound are distinguished: strength (loud - quiet), height (high - low), timbre (the peculiarity of a voice or a musical instrument), duration (sounding time), as well as a dark rhythmic pattern of sounds, are consistently perceived.
Auditory sensations are great importance and in the perception of oral speech. Phonemic hearing, or sensitivity to the sounds of speech, is formed in the process of mastering the language and using it. Its development affects without zpomilkovist writing especially in elementary grades.
Vibration sensitivity is closely related to auditory sensitivity. It is believed that in the human body there are no special receptors designed to sense vibration, and all organs and tissues of the human body are capable of reflecting vibrations.
Olfactory sensations do not have the same significance in human life as visual and auditory ones, since they are not associated with orientation in the environment, their role is that they signal to a person about the freshness of food, the purity of the air, etc. In those cases, when their development is stimulated by conditions professional activity, they reach considerable perfection (perfumers, firefighters, etc.).
Irritants that cause olfactory sensations are microscopic particles of odorous substances that enter the nasal cavity with air, dissolve in the nasal fluid and affect the receptor. Olfactory sensations are very often combined with other senses - taste, tactile, temperature, etc. and become complex. The connection of the olfactory sensation with others can be conditioned reflex in nature (the sight of a rose can enhance our sense of its smell).
Taste sensations are closely related to olfactory ones, they are united by a common role in nutrition processes. The organ of taste is the tongue. Taste sensations include the sensation of sour, sweet, bitter and salty. Other tastes of ki are the result of mixing basic flavors. Taste sensations increase a person's appetite, and also perform a protective function, signaling poor-quality food. The dynamics of taste sensations is closely related to the body's need for food. In a state of hunger, sensitivity increases, when saturated, it decreases.
Skin sensation includes tactile, temperature and pain sensations
Tactile sensations arise due to the impact of mechanical stimuli on the surface of the skin. The condition for their occurrence is contact with an irritant that causes deformation of the skin, tactile sensitivity is unevenly distributed throughout the body. The largest accumulation of tactile receptors on the palms, fingertips and lips.
Tactile sensations are sensations of touch and pressure. They signal the presence of a particular stimulus that collides with the surface of the body. Tactile sensations reflect important properties subject matter of the objective world: equality, roughness, hardness, softness, dryness, thinness of moisture.
Temperature sensations are divided into sensations of cold and heat. They signal changes in the temperature environment, the danger of cooling the body or overheating, and help regulate the exchange between the body and the environment. In addition, temperature sensations give a person information about the thermal properties of objects and phenomena in the environment.
The nature of temperature sensations depends on the nature of the acting stimulus. If the temperature of the object is lower than body temperature, then there is a feeling of cold, if it is higher - a feeling of warmth. Temperature sensations are local in nature, since we attribute them to a specific area of the skin, which is affected by irritants.
Pain sensations arise when exposed to various kinds of stimuli (mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, etc.), which cause damage or destruction of body tissues. They play an important role as components of protective reflexes, signal the harm of the stimulus to the body and the need to break contact with it, and have a pronounced negative emotional coloring. Pain sensations carry certain information about the stimulus, they reflect its intensity, quality (stabbing, cutting, burning pain), location. The spatial localization of pain is not always accurate, which is explained by the irradiation of excitation processes.
Static sensations reflect the position of the body in space, its balance. Static sensation receptors are located in the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear. This type of sensation is of great importance for the vitality of the organism, since it ensures the balance of the organism. The regulation of the balance of the body has a reflex character. The normal operation of a static analyzer is necessary to display space with the help of other types of sensations, in particular visual and rukovogovogo.
kinesthetic sensations (from the Greek "kinesis" - movement and "aistesis" - sensation) is the sensation of the movements and position of parts of one's own body. Kinesthetic sensation receptors are found in muscles and tendons. Irritation in these receptors occurs during contraction and stretching of muscles and ligaments, friction of the joints. The result of these sensations is knowledge about the strength, speed, trajectory of movement of parts of the body of parts of the body.
In combination with other senses, kinesthetic sensations become definite and differentiated; in combination with visual sensations, they become important in a person's cognition of the spatial property of things. The combination of kinesthetic sensation with tactile acts in the form of groping.
In the course of training, it is necessary to pay attention to the development of kinesthetic sensations, which are aimed at the lessons of labor, drawing, physical education, as well as dancing, rhythmic gymnastics and other sports. At the same time, it is important to take into account the peculiarities of the development of this type of sensations in certain age periods.
Organic sensations are sensations associated with the activity of internal organs. These sensations, merging, form an organic feeling (well-being) of a person. This is the so-called senesthesia ( general feeling), which reflects the general state of the body based on signals from various organs of the body. An example is the feeling of general malaise that occurs in the patient. Organic sensations include feelings of hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, changes in the activity of the heart, stomach, and pain sensations.
Organic sensations are caused by impulses from internal states, as well as by a change in the chemical formula of the blood. They are characterized by lack of clarity, fuzziness and uncertainty of localization. feature th organic sensations is their emotional coloring (positive or negative).
The concept of sensation
Sensation is one of the simplest cognitive mental processes. The human body receives a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment in the form of sensations with the help of the senses. Sensation is the very first connection of a person with the surrounding reality. The process of sensation arises as a result of the impact on the sense organs of various material factors, which are called stimuli, and the process of this impact itself is irritation.
Feelings arise on the basis of irritability. Sensation is a product of development in the phylogenesis of irritability. Irritability- the common property of all living bodies to come into a state of activity under the influence of external influences (pre-psychic level), i.e. directly affecting the life of the organism. At an early stage in the development of living things, the simplest organisms (for example, a ciliate shoe) do not need to distinguish between specific objects for their life activity - irritability is sufficient. At a more complex stage, when a living thing needs to determine any objects that it needs for life, and, consequently, the properties of this object as necessary for life, at this stage, irritability is transformed into sensitivity. Sensitivity- the ability to respond to neutral, indirect influences that do not affect the life of the organism (an example with a frog that reacts to a rustle). The totality of feelings creates elementary mental processes, processes of mental reflection.
Irritation causes excitation, which passes through the centripetal, or afferent, nerves to the cerebral cortex, where sensations arise. Thus, sensation is a sensory reflection of objective reality.
Feeling- the simplest mental process of reflecting a separate quality (property) of an object with the direct impact of stimuli on the perceiving part of the analyzer.
At this level, there is still no synthesis of sensations into a better reflection. This is the level of the most elementary reflection. Each stimulus has its own characteristics, depending on which it can be perceived by certain sense organs. Thanks to sensations, a person distinguishes objects and phenomena by color, smell, taste, smoothness, temperature, size, volume and other features. Sensations arise from direct contact with an object. So, for example, we learn about the taste of an apple when we try it. Or, for example, we can hear the sound of a mosquito flying or feel its bite. In this example, sound and bite are sensory stimuli. At the same time, attention should be paid to the fact that the process of sensation reflects in the mind only a sound or only a bite, in no way connecting these sensations with each other, and, consequently, with a mosquito. This is the process of reflecting the individual properties of the object.
Nevertheless, sensations are the main source of information for a person. On the basis of this information, the entire human psyche is built - consciousness, thinking, activity. At this level, there is a direct interaction of the subject with the material world. Those., Feelings underlie all human cognitive activity.
The physiological basis of sensations
The physiological basis of sensations is the activity of complex complexes of anatomical structures, called by I. P. Pavlov analyzers. Analyzer- anatomical and physiological apparatus for receiving influences from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations. Each analyzer consists of three parts:
1) peripheral department, called a receptor (the receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, a specialized nerve ending, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
2) conducting nerve pathways(afferent department - transmits excitation to the central department; efferent department - a response is transmitted through it from the center to the periphery);
3) analyzer core- the cortical sections of the analyzer (they are also called the central sections of the analyzers), in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections takes place. The cortical part of each analyzer includes an area that is a projection of the periphery (i.e., a projection of the sense organ) in the cerebral cortex, since certain areas of the cortex correspond to certain receptors.
State budget educational institution
Higher professional education
"Yaroslavl State Medical Academy"
Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation
Department of Pedagogy and Psychology with EITI course
COGNITIVE MENTAL PROCESSES
(FEELING, PERCEPTION, ATTENTION, MEMORY, THINKING, IMAGINATION)
Textbook for 1st year students of medical, pediatric, dental, pharmaceutical faculties
Yaroslavl
UDC 15
Vasilyeva L.N., Senior Lecturer of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology with the EITI Course of the Yaroslavl State Medical Academy, Candidate psychological sciences, Misiyuk Yu.V., Senior Lecturer of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology with the EITI course of the Yaroslavl State Medical Academy, Odintsova O.Yu., Lecturer of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology with the EITI course of the Yaroslavl State Medical Academy.
Reviewer:
Baraboshin Alexander Timofeevich, head of the course of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology with the EITI course of the Yaroslavl State Medical Academy, associate professor, candidate of medical sciences.
Cognitive mental processes (sensation, perception, attention, memory, imagination). Yaroslavl, Yaroslavl State Medical Academy, 2013, 60 p.
Mental processes: sensation, perception, attention, memory, imagination in real life are inseparable and inextricably linked and affect the successful operation. It is cognitive mental processes that provide a person with knowledge about the world around him and about himself. The textbook reveals the concept, properties, types and main characteristics of cognitive mental processes, their development in ontogenesis.
Addressed to first-year students of medical, pediatric, dental, pharmaceutical faculties.
Approved for publication by the Central Coordinating Methodological Council (Minutes No. 7 dated 06/18/2013).
© Vasilyeva L.N., Misiyuk Yu.V., Odintsova O.Yu.
© Yaroslavl State Medical Academy, 2013.
| INTRODUCTION | 4 s. |
| § 1. FEELINGS | 7 s. |
| 1.1. Physiological basis of sensations | 8 s. |
| 1.2. Classification of sensations | 8 s. |
| 1.3. Properties of sensations | 9 p. |
| 1.4. sensation phenomena | 11 p. |
| 1.5. Development of sensations in ontogeny | 14 p. |
| § 2. PERCEPTION | 15 s. |
| 2.1. Physiological basis of perception | 16 p. |
| 2.2. Classification of perception | 16 p. |
| 2.3. Perceptual Properties | 20 s. |
| 2.4. Phenomena of perception | 22 p. |
| 2.5. Development of perception in ontogeny | 22 p. |
| § 3. WARNING | 23 p. |
| 3.1. Physiological basis of attention | 24 p. |
| 3.2. Classification of types of attention | 25 s. |
| 3.3. Attention Properties | 25 s. |
| 3.4. Distracted attention | 27 p. |
| 3.5. Development of attention in ontogeny | 27 p. |
| § 4. MEMORY | 29 p. |
| 4.1. Classification of types of memory | 30 s. |
| 4.2. Main characteristics of memory | 32 p. |
| 4.3. Factors affecting memory | 33 p. |
| 4.4. Basic laws of memory | 34 p. |
| 4.5. Development of memory in ontogeny | 35 s. |
| § 5. THINKING | 36 p. |
| 5.1 Operations and forms of thinking | 37 p. |
| 5.2. Types of thinking | 39 p. |
| 5.3. Individual features of thinking | 40 s. |
| 5.4. Diagnostic thinking of a doctor | 42 p. |
| 5.5. Speech and language | 43 p. |
| 5.6. Modern ideas about the structure of intelligence | 45 s. |
| § 6. IMAGINATION | 47 p. |
| 6.1. Physiological basis of imagination | 47 p. |
| 6.2. Types of imagination | 48 p. |
| 6.3. Imagination functions | 50 s. |
| 6.4. Imagination and creativity | 51 p. |
| 6.5. Individual features of the imagination | 53 p. |
| TEST CONTROL OF KNOWLEDGE | 55 p. |
| BIBLIOGRAPHY | 60 s. |
INTRODUCTION
The unprecedented growth of science and technology, the complication of professional activity have increased the dependence of the success of a specialist in work on the professionalization of his cognitive processes: thinking, speech, imagination, attention, memory, thinking. The reason for the incorrect actions of a specialist doctor can be inaccurate perception, inattention, inertia of his thinking, etc. The professional preparedness of a specialist is formed along with the improvement of the sensitivity of his senses, attention, ideas, memory, imagination and other mental processes. For example, the more accurately a specialist distinguishes between close influences, determines barely noticeable changes in perceived phenomena, remembers and reproduces the necessary data, the better he performs his duties. And vice versa, insufficiently sharp vision, inertia of attention (inability to switch and distribute it), too strong a tendency to automaticity of actions, weakness of memory can lead to errors, inaccurate task performance.
The orientation of the development of sensations, perceptions and attention of students must meet the requirements that the future profession imposes on them. Sensations, perceptions and attention develop in active and personally meaningful activities. The future doctor needs evenly developed basic properties of attention. He will not be able to correctly diagnose, treat, not being attentive to the objective and subjective indicators of the disease, to the condition and personality of the patient. The formation of attention and its properties in students involves the impact on the orientation of their personality, will, attitude to work. To do this, it is necessary to explain to them their upcoming professional duties, to exercise in solving problems that require correct perception and quick comprehension of situations of future work (highlighting the main and secondary in these situations). Attention and attentiveness are formed in students in the process of active learning, thanks to the maintenance of discipline and organization in all classes.
There is not a single profession in which a specialist could do without imagination. It is especially important in the medical profession. One of the main functions of the imagination is the penetration into the inner world of another person, which forms the basis of such a professionally important quality of a doctor as empathy (empathy). Imagination is not an innate and permanent quality of a person, like other mental processes and properties, it develops and improves.
The medical profession places high demands on the thinking of a specialist. It must be purposeful, flexible, deep, mobile, fast and accurate. For the formation of professional clinical thinking among students, it is necessary, first of all, to equip them with a system of concepts and knowledge necessary to fulfill the tasks of future work. But this weaponry should be special: mere memorization of concepts and knowledge is not enough, since thinking involves a purposeful correlation of already existing knowledge and perceived in this moment information.
The formation of thinking includes the ability to compare, analyze, carry out operations of synthesis, abstraction, concretization, classification, systematization, broadly mobilize knowledge, avoid a template, creatively take into account specific data. To form thinking means on the basis of certain knowledge, scientific facts with the help of a certain form of their assimilation and application, which ensures the vigorous activity of students, to improve operations, processes, types and forms of thinking, as well as the qualities of the mind in accordance with the tasks and conditions of professional medical activity.
The development of independent thinking is one of the most important tasks high school. When solving it, it is necessary to take into account the various manifestations of a person’s independent thinking, in particular, not only the ability to solve some new problems, but also the ability to see these problems on their own. The inability to see problems is the result of formalism in the assimilation of educational information, which consists in the fact that the student only remembers the specific content of the problem of various sciences, but does not see what they consist of. If the problem discovered by the student himself is solved, then this is associated with a high level of mental activity, the acquisition of knowledge goes in a creative way and ensures their higher quality.
Professional Development speech helps the student to acquire knowledge, improve their thinking, memory and other qualities. Specialist without enough high level professional speech will not be able to successfully fulfill their duties. It is very important that students expand their general and professional vocabulary, develop the skills and abilities of fluent and correct use of a professional language, learn to express their thoughts concisely, clearly and logically in class, and develop speed reading skills.
A person's choice of one of many decisions and actions at each moment of time is determined by his needs and picture of the world, i.e. his knowledge and ideas about the world in general and about a particular situation in particular. All knowledge about the structure of things that is clearly observed and hidden from direct view, the patterns of relations between them, about people and their qualities, about oneself, and, finally, knowledge about the general structure of the world are the result of the integration of knowledge obtained through cognitive processes. different levels difficulties.
Each of these processes has its own characteristics and structure and makes its own special contribution to the formation of an internally connected, dynamic, but at the same time integral image of the world. Flowing simultaneously, mental processes interact with each other so smoothly and imperceptibly for us that at any given moment of time we perceive and understand the world not as a heap of colors, shades, shapes, sounds, smells that need to be understood, but precisely as a world, located outside of us, filled with light, sounds, smells, objects, inhabited by people. Thanks to these processes, the world appears to us not frozen, but in a temporal perspective, as something that develops and exists not only in the present, but also has a past and a future. The mental processes by which ideas about the world around, as well as about the organism itself and its internal environment are formed, are called cognitive mental processes.
The images of the surrounding world are the most complex mental formations, various mental processes take part in their formation, the significance of which in the structure of a holistic picture can be revealed by artificial (experimental or logical) division of this image into its component parts, as well as violations of the course of these processes. The division of a single mental process into separate cognitive processes (sensation, perception, attention, memory, imagination) accepted in psychology is thus conditional. At the same time, this division is based on the objective specific features of each of these processes, which distinguish them from each other in terms of the contribution they make to the construction of a holistic image.
Let us consider in more detail those basic cognitive mental processes that are involved in the construction of images of the surrounding world.
FEEL
The simplest cognitive process is sensation, which is a kind of primary source of a complete image of the world. In the course of practical activity, a person equally relies both on the data of sensory experience and on thinking; they are closely intertwined. The primacy of sensations does not mean that the whole image is a simple sum of them. Feelings provide only the source material on the basis of which a holistic image is built. At the same time, sensation as a reflection in the human mind of individual aspects and properties of an object, perception as a holistic image of an object created on the basis of a complex of sensations, and representation as a sensually visual image of an object are traditionally referred to as forms of sensory cognition.
Feeling –it's mental cognitive process sensory reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality with their direct impact on the senses. The need to constantly receive sensations is well manifested in the case when the sense organs are completely deprived of external influence. As experiments have shown, if a person is placed in an environment isolated from any sensations, the psyche ceases to function normally. Similar results were observed in the 1950s. John Lille, neuroscientist who developed the pressure chamber . She looked like a dark soundproof tank, isolated from sounds, light and smells. The tank was filled with a high-density solution, the temperature of which corresponded to the temperature of the human body. The person placed in the tank was as if in weightlessness. However, the subject pretty soon asked to finish the experiment due to the occurrence of hallucinations, thinking disorders, distorted perception of time, space, his body, etc. Specific problems of a psychological nature arise with sensory deprivation, that is, with the restriction of the influx of external influences, which is well known in the development of people who are blind or deaf, as well as those who have poor vision and hearing. Numerous observations have shown that impaired information flow in early childhood, associated with deafness and blindness, causes severe delays in mental development. If children born blind-deaf or deprived of hearing and sight in early age, do not teach special techniques that compensate for these defects due to touch, their mental development will become impossible, and they will not develop independently. Thus, sensations are necessary for normal human life. They are the main source of knowledge about the outside world. To this, perhaps, we can only add that sensations also reflect the state of the human body with the help of receptors located in his body.
Physiological basis of sensations
The phenomena of the external world and the state of the body that affect our senses (for example, sound waves, photons of light, temperature, etc.) are called irritants. The process by which stimuli affect the sense organs is called irritation. Irritation, in turn, causes in the nervous tissue excitation. Sensation occurs as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex character. Sensations are provided by the activity of special nervous apparatuses called analyzers. Each analyzer consists of three parts:
1) Peripheral department, called a receptor (the receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
2)Afferent or sensitive nerves (centripetal) that conduct impulses in nerve centers;
3) Central Division Analyzer- these are the sections of the analyzer in which the processing of nerve impulses occurs.
For a sensation to arise, the work of the entire analyzer as a whole is necessary.
Physiological studies show that sensation is not a passive process. As a result of sensations, motor reactions arise, sometimes in the form of a vegetative reaction (vasoconstriction, galvanic skin reflex), sometimes in the form of muscle reactions (eye rotation, neck muscle tension, hand motor reactions, etc.). Motor reactions are provided by efferent neurons that carry a nerve impulse to the executive organs.
Human sensations are a product of historical development, qualitatively different from the sensations of animals. In animals, the development of sensations is entirely limited by their biological, instinctive needs. A person is able to feel a much larger number of properties of the objects around him. This is due to the fact that a person in the process of historical development has formed an incomparably wider range of needs.
Classification of sensations
There are various approaches to the classification of sensations:
1. According to the main modalities, they distinguish:
- smell;
- taste;
- touch
- vision;
- hearing.
2. Systematic classification of Ch. Sherrington divides sensations into 3 types:
- interoceptive These are sensations that signal the state of the internal processes of the body. They arise due to receptors located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, the heart and the circulatory system, and other internal organs. This is the most ancient and elementary group of sensations. They are little conscious and have the most diffuse form, most often close to emotional states.
- proprioceptive- these are sensations that transmit signals about the position of the body in space and form the basis of human movements. They play a decisive role in their regulation. This is a sense of balance (static) and a motor (kinesthetic) sensation. Receptors for proprioceptive sensitivity are found in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and are called Paccini bodies. Excitation occurs in these receptors when the muscles are stretched and the position of the joints changes. Proprioceptive sensations also include a specific type of sensitivity called a sense of balance, or a static sensation. Balance receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.
- exteroceptive are sensations that provide signals from the outside world. Exteroceptive sensations are the main group of sensations that connect a person with the external environment. Exteroceptive sensations are usually divided into two subgroups:
a) contact sensations caused by exposure directly applied to the surface of the corresponding receptor. Taste and touch are examples of contact sensation.
b) distant sensations caused by stimuli acting on the sense organs at a distance. These senses include smell, hearing and sight.
3. Genetic classification of H. Head allows you to distinguish between two types of sensitivity:
- protopathic sensitivity - more primitive, less differentiated and localized, which includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.);
- epicritical sensitivity - finely differentiated, rational, younger genetically. This type of sensitivity includes the main types of human sensations.
Properties of sensations
The main properties of sensations include: quality, intensity, duration, spatial localization, absolute and relative thresholds.
1. Quality - this is the main feature of this sensation, which distinguishes it from other types of sensations (a visual sensation is qualitatively different from an auditory one, etc.).
2. Intensity - this is a quantitative characteristic that depends on the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions.
3. Duration(or duration) Feel - it is a temporal characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. It is determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, the time and intensity of the stimulus. When a stimulus is exposed to a sensory organ, sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time - the so-called latent (hidden) period Feel. The latent period of various types of sensations is not the same: for example, for tactile sensations it is 130 ms, for pain - 370, and for taste - only 50 ms. Similarly, the sensation does not disappear at the same time as the stimulus ceases. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect. For example, a visual sensation is stored as a sequential image. So, for example, if in complete darkness we light a bright lamp for a while, and then turn it off, then after that we “see” the bright light of the lamp against a dark background for some time. The aftereffect also explains why we do not notice the breaks between successive frames of an animated film: they are filled with traces of the frames that acted before - successive images from them.
4. Spatial localization stimulus allows you to localize it in space. Contact sensations are related to the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus.
So far, we have been talking about the qualitative difference between the types of sensations. However, no less important is the quantitative analysis of the intensity of sensations. Not every irritation causes a sensation. For a sensation to arise, the stimulus must reach a certain magnitude. The minimum value of the stimulus at which a sensation first occurs is called absolute lower threshold of sensation (or the threshold for the appearance of a sensation). Stimuli that do not reach it lie below the threshold of sensation. So, for example, we do not feel individual dust particles and small particles descending on our skin. Light stimuli below a certain brightness limit do not cause visual sensations in us. The value of the lower absolute threshold characterizes absolute sensitivity sense organs. The weaker the stimuli that cause sensations (i.e., the lower the absolute threshold value), the higher the absolute sensitivity of the sense organs.
Different analyzers have different sensitivities. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for some odorous substances does not exceed 8 molecules. It takes at least 25,000 times more molecules to produce a taste sensation than it does to produce an olfactory sensation. A person has a very high sensitivity of visual and auditory analyzers.
The absolute sensitivity of the analyzer is limited not only by the lower, but also by the upper threshold of sensation. Upper absolute threshold Feel called the maximum strength of the stimulus, at which there is still an adequate sensation to the acting stimulus. A further increase in the strength of stimuli acting on our receptors causes a painful sensation (for example, with super-loud sound, blinding brightness of light, etc.).
The value of the absolute thresholds, both lower and upper, varies depending on various conditions: the age of the person, the functional state of the receptor, the strength and duration of the stimulation, etc.
From absolute sensitivity it is necessary to distinguish relative, or difference, sensitivity, i.e. . sensitivity to a change in stimulus, discovered by the German scientist M. Weber. Difference sensitivity is a relative value, not an absolute one. This means that the greater the value of the initial stimulus, the greater must be the addition to it in order for a change in sensation to occur. For example, we notice changes in the illumination of a room depending on the initial level of illumination. If the initial illumination is 100 lux (lux), then the increase in illumination, which we first notice, should be at least 1 lux. The same applies to auditory, motor, and other sensations. The minimum difference between two stimuli, causing barely h noticeable difference in sensations is called threshold of discrimination , or difference threshold. The discrimination threshold is characterized by a relative value that is constant for a given analyzer. For the visual analyzer, this ratio is approximately 1/100 of the intensity of the initial stimulus, for the auditory - 1/10, for the tactile - 1/30.
sensation phenomena
1. Sensory adaptation. Both the absolute and relative sensitivity of our sense organs can vary within very large limits. For example, in the dark, our vision becomes sharper, and in strong light, its sensitivity decreases. This can be observed when a person moves from a dark room into a brightly lit one. In this case, the human eye begins to experience pain, it takes some time for the analyzer to adapt to bright lighting. In the opposite case, when a person has moved from a brightly lit room to a dark room, he also sees nothing at first (temporarily "goes blind"), and it takes 20-30 minutes for him to become sufficiently well oriented in the dark. Studies have shown that the sensitivity of the eye during the transition from bright light to darkness is aggravated by 200,000 times. The described changes in sensitivity are called adaptation sense organs to the environment. Adaptation is a change in the absolute and relative sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of external influences. The phenomena of adaptation are characteristic both for the auditory sphere and for smell, touch, and taste. The change in sensitivity, which occurs according to the type of adaptation, does not occur immediately, it has its own temporal characteristics. These time characteristics are different for different sense organs. So, in order for vision in a dark room to acquire the necessary sensitivity, about 30 minutes should pass. The adaptation of the auditory organs is much faster. Human hearing adapts to the surrounding background after 15 seconds. There is also a rapid change in sensitivity to touch (weak contact with the skin of our clothes ceases to be perceived after a few seconds). The phenomena of thermal adaptation (getting used to temperature changes) are well known. However, these phenomena are clearly expressed only in the middle range, and getting used to intense cold or intense heat, as well as to pain stimuli, almost does not take place. The phenomena of adaptation to smells are also known. Thus, there are three types of the phenomenon of adaptation:
1. Adaptation as the complete disappearance of sensation during prolonged action of the stimulus;
2. Adaptation as a dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. (These two types of adaptation refer to negative adaptation, since it reduces the sensitivity of the analyzers.)
3. Adaptation is also called an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. This type of adaptation is defined as positive adaptation. For example, in the visual analyzer, the dark adaptation of the eye, when its sensitivity increases under the influence of darkness, is a positive adaptation. A similar form of auditory adaptation is silence adaptation.
Physiological mechanism The phenomenon of adaptation consists in changes in the functioning of receptors. So, for example, it is known that under the influence of light visual purple, which is in the rods of the retina, decomposes. In the dark, on the contrary, visual purple is restored, which leads to an increase in sensitivity. The phenomenon of adaptation is also explained by the processes taking place in the central sections of the analyzers. With prolonged stimulation, the cerebral cortex responds with internal protective inhibition, which reduces sensitivity.
2. Interaction and mutual influence of sensations Each other . A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called the interaction of sensations. All our analyzer systems are able to influence each other. At the same time, the interaction of sensations, like adaptation, manifests itself in two opposite processes - an increase and a decrease in sensitivity. The general pattern is that weak stimuli increase, and strong ones decrease the sensitivity of the analyzers during their interaction. An increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of the analyzers is called sensitization. A.R. Luria identified two options for increasing sensitivity (sensitization):
Based on sustainable changes occurring in the body;
Based on temporary physiological and psychological changes in the state of the body (for example, under the influence of psychoactive substances, mental disorders, etc.).
Sensitization of the sense organs is easy to notice in the following cases: when compensating for sensory defects (blindness, deafness) and the specific requirements of certain professions. Thus, the loss of sight or hearing is compensated to a certain extent by the development of other types of sensitivity. Blindness causes an increase in tactile sensitivity, and people can read books with a special Broglie alphabet using their fingers. There are cases when people with limited vision were engaged in sculpture, which indicates a highly developed sense of touch. Deafness causes the development of vibrational sensations. Some deaf people develop vibrational sensitivity so strongly that they can even hear music - for this they put their hand on the instrument. Deaf-blind, holding a hand at the throat speaking interlocutor can thus recognize him by his voice and understand what he is talking about.
The phenomena of sensitization of the sense organs are also observed in persons of certain professions. Dyers can distinguish up to 50-60 shades of black. The ability of musicians to capture differences in tones that are not perceived by the average listener, or the sensitivity of the taste analyzer in tasters, is known.
The interaction of sensations is also manifested in a phenomenon called synesthesia- the appearance under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of a sensation characteristic of other analyzers. In psychology, the facts of “colored hearing” are well known, which occurs in many people, and especially in many musicians (for example, in Scriabin). So, for example, it is widely known that we regard high sounds as “light” and low sounds as “dark”. It is characteristic that the phenomenon of synesthesia is not distributed equally among all people.
All these facts show that the sharpness of absolute and difference sensitivity can change significantly and that a person's participation in various forms of conscious activity can change the sharpness of this sensitivity.
sensations
(receptor)
Here there is a transformation of a certain type of energy into a nervous process.
Through afferent, or centripetal, pathways, excitation is transmitted to the central section of the analyzer
Analyzer- anatomical and physiological apparatus, specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations
The physiological basis of sensations is laid down in the work of special nervous structures, called analyzers by I. Pavlov. Analyzers are channels through which a person receives all the information about the world (both about the external environment and about his own, internal state).
Together, the analyzers form the human sensory system.
The beginning of sensation is given by the physical process of irritation, which occurs when the signals of the external or internal environment act on the human senses: vision, smell, etc. Sensations are provided by the work of the brain. The brain is connected with the sense organs that react to "their" stimuli. In order for the brain to perceive these stimuli, they must be given to it in a certain form, namely in the form of electrical signals. Stimulus Energy different nature(light, smell, etc.) must be converted into electrical energy. The task of translating signals of various modalities into an electrical form is solved by receptors.
A receptor is a specific neuron that receives physical signals from the external environment and signals from the internal state of a person. The work of the receptor is specialized. Each receptor works with “its own” signals: the visual receptor reacts to light stimuli, the auditory receptor to sound stimuli, and so on. But this is not a simple response. The brain requires information not only about the presence of a stimulus, but also about its characteristics (for example, on scales intense - weak, large - small, sweet - bitter, etc.). Therefore, the receptor must be able to encode these characteristics in order to transmit information about them to the brain. Such coding is implemented through the transformation of physical stimuli into electrical signals with parameters corresponding to the characteristics of the stimulus. So, for example: sensations of a pleasant voice timbre correspond to electrical signals of a sinusoidal shape; sensations of touching the hand - a successive series of rectangular electrical impulses (in this case, a light touch corresponds to a small number of impulses in a series, a strong pressure - a large number).
Encoded electrical signals of a certain form with the appropriate parameters along the nerve pathways (afferent nerves) enter the receptive zones of the cerebral cortex. Each receptor of one or another modality has its own receptive zone. Movement of signals is provided physiological process excitation - the property of nerve cells (neurons) to respond to irritation. When excited, the cell moves from a state of physiological rest to activity. If the amplitude of excitation reaches a threshold value, then it spreads to neighboring parts of the nervous system. In the cerebral cortex, an electrical signal causes the simplest emotional experiences of sensations. The results of experiences in the form of a spreading excitation through the efferent nerves come to the periphery of the body (to the muscles, glands).
1.6.2 Analyzers
Functional diagram of the analyzer
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The analyzer is not a passive element. His work can be rebuilt under the changing influence of stimuli. In other words, the nature of the analyzer is reflexive, i.e. reflects real changes in the environment. Naturally, the nature of sensations is also reflexive. Sensations are always associated with motor components. This occurs either in the form of a vegetative reaction (narrowing of the pupils, blood vessels, etc.), or in the form of a muscular reaction (twitching of the hand, turning of the eyes, tension of the muscles of the lips, etc.).
Indeed, sensation is not limited to a simple reflection of reality in the human brain. An obligatory element of sensation (without which, in fact, it is impossible) is the body's response. This reaction may take the form of a movement or an internal process, such as a healing one. It has long been known, for example, that the singing of birds, the sound of the surf balance the nervous system; sounds of music such as "hard rock" and "rock music" often cause aggressive nervous system excitement in fans, as well as acute stomach cramps.
The body reacts to the sensations of smells. The Japanese firm "Shieydo" successfully uses "smell therapy" to increase the stress resistance of its employees. The synthesis of aromas is used in production and at home. The result - errors in the work decreased by more than 50%.
The body reacts no less sharply to a prolonged or complete absence of stimuli (sensory hunger or sensory deprivation). Sensory hunger (sensory deprivation) is a phenomenon associated with a sharp decrease in the “range” of sensations (or a complete loss) experienced by a person in situations of physical and psychological isolation.
The results of sensory hunger can be devastating to the human psyche. Having lost his hearing, Ludwig van Beethoven experienced a life drama: he shunned people, suffered deeply from loneliness: “It is not given to me to find inspiration in the company of people, in subtle conversation, in mutual frankness. Alone, completely alone! .. I must live like an outcast.
So that the operator of tracking aerial targets on the radar screen in the mode of a long and continuous review of "empty" space does not dull his vigilance, does not decrease his efficiency, a false target mark from a special imitator is "thrown" on the screen from time to time.
