General characteristics of sensations physiological basis. Feeling. Classification of sensations. Physiological basis of sensations

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Questions

Lecture 1.6. Feelings and perception

1. The concept of sensations. The physiological basis of sensations.

2. Types and properties of sensations.

3. Characteristics of the main types of sensations.

4. The concept of perception.

5. Properties and types of perception.

6. Development of the sensory-perceptual sphere of the child.

The world of human mental phenomena is diverse (mental processes, mental properties, mental states). Mental processes are divided into cognitive and emotional-volitional. In this lecture, we start talking about cognitive processes, thanks to the functioning of which a person cognizes the reality surrounding him. Learning processes include: sensation, perception, representation, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech.

Human knowledge of the world begins with the accumulation of information with the help of the senses. To describe sensory cognition in psychology, the concepts of "sensation" and "perception" are used. Do a little experiment: ask a friend to close his eyes and touch his palm with an unfamiliar object, and then ask what he can say about the object. If the subject does not know what it is, then he will answer: “Something hard, smooth, cold” or “Soft, warm, rough.” These words express the feelings that a person experiences. Sensations arise as images reflecting individual properties of objects.

Feeling- a cognitive process in which, as a result of the direct impact of stimuli on the sensory organs, individual properties of objects of the objective world are reflected.

Sensations are considered the simplest and primary form of orientation of the organism in the surrounding world. The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system.. Lowly organized animals reflect only individual that are of direct importance for their life properties of objects and phenomena. The same for a newborn. In the first weeks of life, he reacts only to certain properties of objects. These facts indicate that sensation is the initial form of development of cognitive activity.

Unlike animals, a person's feelings are influenced by socio-historical development. People's feelings are mediated by their practical activities, consciousness, individual features. In sensation, it is conditionally possible to distinguish objective And subjective side. objective side connected with the characteristics of the influences of the external world, with the peculiarities of the properties of reflected objects and phenomena. The subjective side of sensations is determined by the individual characteristics of the sense organs, which are determined by both genetic and life-acquired factors. It has been proven that the nature of sensations can change under the influence of ongoing activities, diseases, special exercises and etc.

Sensation is not a simple reflection of the influences of the external world by the sense organs. An important part of the sensations is the body's response to the impact. This reaction is mediated and active. Feeling is mediated by the consciousness of a person, his life experience, formed skills, etc. Feeling is interconnected with many mental phenomena. For example, the information accumulated with the help of the senses is a necessary condition for the development thinking. There is also a direct interdependence of many sensations with emotions a person (spring birdsong, sea surf, music often cause positive emotions in a person). Feelings are always emotionally colored. The fact of various psychophysiological effects of color on a person has been experimentally proven: green calms, red excites. Of two boxes of the same weight, painted in white and black, the first seems lighter, the second - heavier. Special sensations coming from the internal organs determine the well-being of a person, his emotional tone. It is no coincidence that in the language the words “sensitivity” (meaning the characteristic of the cognitive function of sensations) and “feeling” (experience) have the same roots.

Conscious sensations are inherent only in living organisms that have a brain and a cerebral cortex. In case of violations in the brain or temporary shutdown of the cerebral cortex in a natural way or with the help of biochemical preparations, a person loses the state of consciousness and with it the ability to have sensations, that is, to feel, to perceive the world consciously. This happens during sleep, during anesthesia, in painful states of consciousness.

Organic sensations are correlated with the objects of the external world, give rise to desires, serve as a source of volitional impulse. Movements and actions aimed at achieving the goal are regulated by the sensations that are necessary to build the action. Thus, sensations provide the vital activity of a person.

Feelings are not the only form of reflection of the world. More high forms sensory reflection ( perception, performance) cannot be reduced to a sum or combination of sensations. Each of the forms of reflection has a qualitative originality, but without sensations as the original form of reflection, the existence of cognitive activity is impossible.

Without sensations, mental activity of a person is impossible. At present, in connection with the task of space exploration and the bottom of the World Ocean, many experiments are being carried out to reveal the effect of sensory isolation (complete or partial absence of stimuli) on the human psyche and body. Experiments have shown that in less than a day, with complete sensory isolation, disturbances of consciousness are observed: hallucinations appear, obsessions arise. Thus, the constant "transformation of the energy of an external stimulus into a fact of consciousness", carried out in sensations, is a necessary condition for the normal functioning of the psyche.

Physiological basis sensations. Sensation can arise only when an object acts on the sense organ. A sense organ is an anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in internal organs and designed to receive the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment.

The physiological foundations of sensation are deeply and systematically studied within the framework of the reflex concept of I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov. It is shown that its essence sensation is a holistic reflex, uniting the peripheral and central parts of the nervous system. I. P. Pavlov introduced the concept "analyzer" and showed that the activity of analyzers reveals physiological mechanism the occurrence of sensations. Analyzer- a nervous formation that carries out the perception, analysis and synthesis of external and internal stimuli acting on the body.

The analyzer consists of 3 blocks:

1). Receptor- the peripheral part of the analyzer, which performs the function of receiving information from stimuli acting on the body. The receptor is designed to perceive a certain stimulus from the external or internal environment and to convert its energy from a physical or chemical form into a form of nervous excitation (impulse).

2). Afferent(conductive) and efferent(exit) paths. Afferent pathways are parts of the nervous system through which the resulting excitation enters the central nervous system. Efferent pathways are sections along which the response impulse (based on information processed in the central nervous system) is transmitted to receptors, determining their motor activity (reaction to a stimulus).

3). Cortical projection zones(central section of the analyzer) - areas of the cerebral cortex in which the processing of nerve impulses received from receptors takes place. Each analyzer in the cerebral cortex has its own "representation" (projection), where the analysis and synthesis of information of a certain sensitivity (sensory modality) takes place.

Thus, sensation is inherently mental process arising from the processing of information received by the brain.

Depending on the type of sensitivity, there are visual, auditory, olfactory, taste, cutaneous, motor and others analyzers. Each analyzer from the whole variety of influences allocates incentives of only a certain type. For example, the auditory analyzer highlights the waves formed as a result of vibrations of air particles. The taste analyzer generates an impulse as a result of " chemical analysis"molecules dissolved in saliva, and olfactory - in the air. The visual analyzer perceives electromagnetic oscillations, the characteristic of which generates one or another visual image.

The transformation of the energy of an external influence into a nerve impulse, its transmission to the brain, the formation of a sensation and a response - all this is unfolded in time. The period of time from the application of irritation to the occurrence of a response is called latent(hidden) period. It is not the same for different sensations. So, the latent period of tactile sensations is 130 milliseconds, pain - 370.

The physiological basis of sensations is the activity of complex complexes of anatomical structures, called by I. P. Pavlov analyzers. Analyzer- anatomical and physiological apparatus for receiving influences from external and internal environments and processing them into sensations. Each analyzer consists of three parts:

1) peripheral department, called a receptor (the receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, a specialized nerve ending, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);

2) conducting nerve pathways(afferent department - transmits excitation to the central department; efferent department - a response is transmitted through it from the center to the periphery);

3) analyzer core- the cortical sections of the analyzer (they are also called the central sections of the analyzers), in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections takes place. ... certain areas of the cortex correspond to certain receptors.

Thus, the organ of sensation is the central section of the analyzer.

III. Conditions for the sensation

Existence is necessary for sensation to arise. 5 Conditions for Feelings: 1) receptors; 2) the core of the analyzer (in the cerebral cortex); 3) conductive paths (with directions of impulse flows); 4) source of irritation; 5) environment or energy (from source to subject).

IV. Classification of sensations (types of sensations)

1. Interoceptive sensations that signal the state of the internal processes of the body arise due to receptors located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, heart and circulatory system and other internal organs.

2. Proprioceptive Feel. Peripheral receptors for proprioceptive sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and are called Pacchini corpuscles. Peripheral balance receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.

3. E xteroceptive sensations are conditionally divided into two subgroups: contact And distant Feel.

1) Contact Feel caused by the direct impact of the object on the senses. Taste and touch are examples of contact sensation.

2) distant sensations reflect the qualities of objects that are at some distance from the senses. These senses include hearing and sight. It should be noted that the sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations.

Feeling the vibration is the sensitivity to vibrations caused by a moving body. According to most researchers, the vibrational sense is an intermediate, transitional form between tactile and auditory sensitivity.

V. Basic properties of sensations

1 TO quality - a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type of sensation.

2. Intensity- a quantitative characteristic and depends on the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions. For example, with a runny nose, the intensity of perceived odors can be distorted.

3. P duration- the temporal characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. It is also determined by the functional state of the sense organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity.

4. P spatial localization of the stimulus- the analysis carried out by the receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, i.e. we can say where the light comes from, heat comes from, or which part of the body is affected by the stimulus;

5. Aabsolute and relative thresholds of sensations - quantitative parameters of the main characteristics of sensations, in other words, degree sensitivity. The human senses are amazingly delicate devices. For example, the human eye is a very sensitive instrument. He can distinguish about half a million shades and colors.

The physiological basis of sensations is the work of analyzers. The physiological apparatus by which sensation arises is the analyzer. The analyzer (sense organ) is an anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in internal organs; it receives irritation from the external and internal environment. Each such device connects the brain with the outside world and provides a variety of information. In order for a person to have normal sensations, a healthy state of all three sections of the analyzer is necessary: ​​a conductive receptor; neural pathway; cortical part.

1. 3. 2. 4. 1. Neuroconductive pathways 2. Cerebral cortex 3. Analyzer sections in c.g.m. 4. Taste buds

Exteroreceptive Interoreceptive Proprioceptive 1. Visual 2. Olfactory 3. Taste 4. Auditory 5. Temperature 6. Tactile 1. Feeling pain 2. Feeling balance 3. Feeling acceleration

The process of irritation consists in the appearance of an action potential in the nerve tissues and its penetration to the sensitive nerve fiber. Stimuli cause excitation in the nervous tissue. A specialized part of the analyzer, through which a certain type of energy is transformed into a process of nervous excitation, is called a receptor.

Physical process stimulus Sense organ physiological process excitation pathways Psychological process Center in the cerebral cortex

The quality of sensation is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by this sensation, which distinguishes it from other sensations. One can also say this: the quality of sensation is a property that cannot be measured with the help of numbers, compared with some kind of numerical scale. For a visual sensation, the quality can be the color of the perceived object. For taste or smell, the chemical characteristic of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty, floral smell, almond smell, hydrogen sulfide smell, etc.

It is important to understand that the intensity of sensation depends on two factors, which can be designated as objective and subjective: - the strength of the acting stimulus (its physical characteristics), - functional state the receptor on which the stimulus acts. The more significant the physical parameters of the stimulus, the more intense the sensation. For example, the higher the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder the sound appears to us. And the higher the sensitivity of the receptor, the more intense the sensation.

A person exists in space, and the stimuli that act on the sense organs are also located at certain points in space. Therefore, it is important not only to perceive the sensation, but also to spatially localize it. The analysis carried out by the receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, that is, we can tell where the light comes from, it's warm or which part of the body is affected by the stimulus.

The duration of the sensation - it indicates the time of existence of the sensation that has arisen. The duration of sensation is also influenced by objective and subjective factors. The main factor, of course, is objective - the longer the action of the stimulus, the longer the sensation. However, the duration of sensation is also affected by the functional state of the sense organ, and some of its inertness. After the beginning of the impact of the stimulus on the sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. The latent period of different types of sensations is not the same. For tactile sensations - 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, for taste - only 50 ms. The sensation does not arise simultaneously with the beginning of the action of the stimulus and does not disappear simultaneously with the termination of its action.

General laws of sensations: absolute threshold The absolute threshold of sensation (lower threshold of sensations) is those minimum physical characteristics of the stimulus, starting from which a sensation arises. Stimuli, the strength of which lies below the absolute threshold of sensation, do not give sensations. By the way, this does not mean at all that they do not have any effect on the body.

General patterns of sensations: The upper threshold of sensations is a high stimulus, at which it ceases to be perceived adequately. Another name for the upper absolute threshold is the pain threshold, because when we overcome it, we experience pain: pain in the eyes when the light is too bright, pain in the ears when the sound is too loud, etc.

General laws of sensations: relative threshold Relative threshold (distinction threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations.

Adaptation, or adaptation, is a change in sensitivity under the influence of a constantly acting stimulus, which manifests itself in a decrease or increase in thresholds. Strong stimulus - weak sensitivity Weak stimulus - high sensitivity ADAPTATION RULE: When moving from strong to weak stimuli, sensitivity increases, from weak to strong decreases (stimulus and sensitivity are in inverse proportion)

The interaction of sensations is a change in the sensitivity of one analyzer system under the influence of the activity of another system. The general pattern of the interaction of sensations is as follows: weak stimuli of one analyzer system increase the sensitivity of another system, strong ones reduce it. For example, weak taste sensations (sour) increase visual sensitivity. Weak sound stimuli increase the color sensitivity of the visual analyzer. At the same time, there is a sharp deterioration in the various sensitivity of the eye due to the strong noise of an aircraft engine. All our analyzer systems are capable of influencing each other to a greater or lesser extent.

An increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers, as well as systematic exercises, is called sensitization. The possibilities for training the sense organs and their improvement are very great.

The phenomenon of sensitization of the sense organs is observed in people who have been engaged in certain types of activities for a long time. professional activity. High level perfection is achieved by olfactory and gustatory sensations in tasters of tea, cheese, wine. Tasters can accurately indicate not only what grape variety the wine is made from, but also the place where the grapes are grown. Painting presents special requirements to the perception of shape, proportions and color relationships in the depiction of objects. Experiments show that the artist's eye is extremely sensitive to the assessment of proportions. Our sensations develop under the influence of the conditions of life and the requirements of practical activity.

- compensatory sensitization due to the need to compensate for sensory defects (blindness, deafness); Loss of sight or hearing is compensated by the development of other types of sensitivity. There are cases when people who have lost their sight have developed skin sensitivity, they have well-developed tactile sensations, vibration sensitivity. A person suffering from deafness, holding his hand on the interlocutor's throat, can understand who is talking about what, and also, taking a newspaper in his hands, knows whether he has read it or not. ANDREA BACELLI RAY CHARLES DIANA GURTSKAYA

Desensitization - a decrease in the sensitivity of analyzers in the process of interaction of sensations. The interaction of sensations in some cases leads to sensitization, to an increase in sensitivity, and in other cases to its decrease, i.e., to desensitization. Strong excitation of some analyzers always lowers the sensitivity of other analyzers. So, elevated level noise in "loud shops" lowers visual sensitivity.

The contrast of sensations is a change in the intensity and quality of sensations under the influence of a preliminary or accompanying stimulus. In the case of the simultaneous action of two stimuli, a simultaneous contrast occurs. Such a contrast can be traced in visual sensations. The same figure appears lighter on a black background, darker on a white one. A green object on a red background seems more saturated. The phenomenon of consistent contrast is also well known. After a cold, a weak warm stimulus seems hot. The sensation of sour increases the sensitivity to sweet. If you fix a bright spot with your eye for 20-40 seconds, and then close your eyes or look at a low-light surface, then within a few seconds you can feel a fairly clear dark spot. This will be a consistent visual image.

Synesthesia (joint sensation) - the ability of a stimulus addressed to a particular sense organ to simultaneously cause a sensation in another sense organ (the sight of a yellow lemon causes a sour sensation) Engineer K. L. Leontiev, using the phenomenon of synesthesia, developed an apparatus that transforms sound signals into color ones. Based on this invention, colored music was created.

The complete deprivation of a person of sensory impressions, carried out for experimental purposes (for example, by immersion in water in special equipment). In response to the insufficiency of sensations, the processes of imagination are activated, which in a certain way affect figurative memory. Bright eidetic representations arise, projected outward, which are evaluated as protective (compensatory) reactions. As the time spent in S.'s conditions increases, at the stage of unstable mental activity, people develop emotional lability with a shift towards low mood (lethargy, depression, apathy), which a short time replaced by euphoria, irritability. There are memory impairments that are directly dependent on the cyclical nature of emotional states. The rhythm of sleep and wakefulness is disturbed, hypnotic states develop with the appearance of hypnotic representations, which, unlike the sleepy states that occur under normal conditions, drag on for a relatively long time, are projected outward and are accompanied by the illusion of involuntariness. The more severe the conditions of S. d., the faster the processes of thinking are disrupted, which manifests itself in the inability to concentrate on anything, consistently think over problems, appear