The executive power of the people is exercised by the president (presidente) of the government (Gobierno), who is elected for a term of 4 years and heads the Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros). Legislative power is exercised by the Cortes (Cortes), consisting of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) and the Senate (Senado).

The national flag of Spain is formed by three horizontal stripes: red, yellow and one more red, and the yellow stripe is equal in width to two red ones.

Spain became an independent state in the city after the expulsion of the Moors and the unification of the country. National holiday - October 12 - Day of the Spanish Nation (the date of the discovery of America by H. Columbus in the city).

The administrative division of Spain includes 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities - Ceuta and Melilla in North Africa, divided into 50 provinces. Geographically, Spain is divided into autonomous communities (Comunidades Autonomas): Andalusia (with Ceuta and Melilla in Africa), Aragon, Asturias (Principality of Asturias), Baleares (Balearic Islands), Canarias (Canary Islands), Cantabria, Castile Leon, Castile La Mancha, Catalunya (Catalonia), Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra, Basque Country (Euskadi) (Pais vasco), La Rioja, Community of Valencia.

There is also a separation national territory to historical regions, of which there are 15 and which practically coincide with the newly formed autonomies.

Political parties

The most influential political parties: Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), People's Party (PP), Spanish Communist Party (RSE), Democratic and Socialist Center, People's Alliance (AP).

The Basque Nationalist Party was founded in 1894-1895. brothers Sabino and Luis Arana and is one of the oldest political parties in the country.

ETA (“Euskadi ta Askatasuna” (Bask.) - “Basque Country and Freedom”) was formed in the city. It conducts an armed struggle for the independence of the Basque Country (Euskadi).

Population

As of January 1, the population of Spain was 43.97 million people, including 3.69 million (8.4%) - foreigners.

Such data was published by the Spanish media with reference to the State Institute of Statistics. According to the media, if earlier Spain was one of the countries in Europe where few foreigners lived, now it is second only to Germany and Austria in this indicator, where the percentage of foreigners is 9% and 8.7%, respectively. Spain has already outstripped France (8%) and all other European countries.

The number of foreigners living in Spain has increased especially in recent years, due to a sharp influx of immigrants into the country. So, in Spain in 1996 there were only 542.3 thousand people, which is seven times less than at present.

Foreigners in Spain are dominated (in descending order) by Moroccans, Ecuadorians, Romanians and Colombians.

The population of Spain for quite a long time was about 40 million people, which was due, in particular, to the lowest birth rate in Europe. According to experts, the growth of the country's population is caused, first of all, by the influx of immigrants - they come to Spain in search of work, since the country has a labor shortage.

According to experts, the influx of immigrants allows Spain to maintain the growing pace of economic growth and the system of social guarantees.

In Spain, where an increase in the proportion of foreign population has been noted since the year, the number of immigrants from third countries increased from 1.1 million to 3.7 million people (8.4% of the total population) between the year and January 1 of the year.

The most numerous foreign residents of Spain are Moroccans, Ecuadorians, Romanians and Colombians.

Calling the inhabitants of Spain Spaniards, they mean the whole people, the entire population of this country. However, in Spain there are historical regions inhabited by other ethnic groups. Spain has a population of 43.97 million; about 3/4 are Spaniards, other ethnic groups are Catalans (about 6 million people), Galicians (about 3 million people) and Basques (about 800 thousand people).

About 200,000 Moroccans live in Spain. In terms of total population, Spain ranks fifth among European countries. Urban population- 76.7% (1996). The average population density is about 78 people per sq. km. km.

Language

The official language of the Spanish State is Spanish (Castilian, Castellano). Spanish, formed on the basis of the Castilian dialect, is the official language of the country. But there are also other official languages ​​spoken in national autonomies. In the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as in the Balearic Islands, Catalan and its dialects are spoken, in Galicia - in the Galician language, in the Basque Country and Navarre - in the Basque language. Spanish, Catalan and Galician belong to the Romance group (which also includes Italian, French, Portuguese, Romanian). The Basque language is unlike any other in the world, which gives rise to various versions of the origin of this people (in particular, the version that the Basques are from the Caucasus and relatives of the Georgians is widespread).

Religion

The country's constitution guarantees freedom of religion. Spain is a Catholic country. The vast majority of the country's population consider themselves to be believing Catholics. Roman Catholicism is professed by 98%, other confessions - Protestantism, Judaism, Islam.

• Madrid. The Cathedral is Equal to the Apostle. Mary Magdalene
• Palma de Mallorca. Christmas arrival. Puerta Pintada No 9 (Calle San Miguel esquina Olmos) 07001 Palma de Mallorca. Archimandrite Macarius (Rosello). Reverend. Tel.: +34 6 78 45 38 23; Hegumen Seraphim (Pavlov)
• Barcelona. Parish in honor of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin. Archpriest Vladimir Abrosimov Tel.: +34 93 422 39 65; +34 6 87 210 629
• Tenerife. Parish in honor of the Presentation of the Lord on the island of Tenerife
• Altea. Parish in the name of the Archangel Michael 163rd km of the road N-332 - Altea (Alicante). Nurtured by Archpriest Nikolai Soldatenkov. Contact: Deacon Vladimir Zhukov. Phone: +34 6 46 342 852 Website: http://arkhangelmikhail-spain.com/
• Alicante. Parish of Simeon the New Theologian and St. Innocent of Moscow (Ss Simeon y Inocencio). C/ Tucumán, 7. (Antiguo Colegio Salesiano) 54 03001- Alicante. Liturgy Schedule: Every Sunday at 10:30. Priest Hosios Ferrer. Tel.: +34 966 350 752; +34 649 630 999. Blog: http://iglesiaortodoxaenalicante.blogspot.com/ Parish Bulletin: http://boletinsansanserafindesarov1.blogspot.com/
• Malaga(Benalmadena). The coming of the ascension of the Lord. The priest Andrey Kordochkin provides care. Responsible layperson: Boris Baklanov. Urb. Cascada de Camojan residencial, Las Merinas, casa Marvik, 29600, MALAGA
• Oviedo. Community. Nurtured by Priest Andrei Kordochkin
• Las Palmas- Gran Canaria. Community of the Canary Islands. In the temple of Ermita Espiritu Santo, in the city center on the street of the same name, near the cathedral, Las Palmas - GRAND CANARIA Tel.: +34 665 564 565. http://ortodoxcanarias.livejournal.com/

Geographical position

Spain - a state in the extreme southwest of Europe, occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic and Pitius Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

Schematically, it has a shape resembling a stretched skin of a bull. Spain is a bridge between two continents, Europe and Africa, and a barrier separating two seas: the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Spain borders in the west with Portugal (the length of the border is 1214 km), in the north with France (623 km) and Andorra (65 km), in the south with Gibraltar (1.2 km). Spain is washed in the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea, in the west by the Atlantic Ocean, in the north by the Bay of Biscay (Cantabrian Sea). A distance of only 14 km, the width of the Strait of Gibraltar, separates Spain from Africa.

Spain owns the Balearic and Canary Islands, as well as 5 sovereign zones in North Africa on the coast of Morocco, on the territory of the former Spanish Morocco with the cities of Ceuta and Melilla. Spain has a long-standing territorial dispute with Britain over Gibraltar.

The total length of the border is 1903.2 km, the length of the coastline is 4964 km. The total area of ​​Spain is 504,782 sq. km (land area - 499,400 km²). It is the fourth largest European state after Russia, Ukraine and France.

The name Spain (Hispania), which the Romans gave the country, comes from Hispalis (Seville). Another theory is that the name Spain is of Celtic origin and means "entrance" or "key".

History of Spain

ancient spain

In antiquity, Spain was inhabited by Iberians, in the 5th–3rd centuries. BC. the Celts settled here. The Celts invading from the north mixed with the Iberians, forming the Celtiberian population.

5000 BC The beginning of agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula.

2500 BC The inhabitants of the settlement of Los Millares process metal; they believe in afterlife. This Neolithic settlement may have housed 2,000 people.

1800 - 1100 BC In the southeast of Spain, the developed agricultural culture of El Argar flourishes.

1200 BC The inhabitants of Menorca (talaiot culture) create three types of stone buildings: taula, talaiot and slander.

By the XII century. BC. the Phoenicians landed on these lands, they were replaced by the Greeks, and then the Carthaginians. In the II millennium BC. Phoenicians and Greeks founded their colonies on the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, while the central part of the territory was inhabited by Iberian and Celtic tribes.

Around 1100 BC The Phoenicians found Gadir (now Cadiz).

Treasure bronze age, found in 1963 in Villena, near Alicante, includes 66 objects made of gold and silver - bowls, vessels and jewelry. It dates back to 1000 BC.

775 BC The Phoenicians establish colonies on the coast near Malaga.

700 BC Rise of the semi-legendary kingdom of Tartessos. Phoenician deities were also worshiped in ancient Spain. The fertility goddess Ishtar was especially revered. A bronze image of the goddess of the 8th century was found. BC. from the Phoenician colony.

Around 600 BC The Greeks found colonies on the northeast coast of Spain. The Greek colonists brought with them new technologies such as the potter's wheel. Their wonderful pottery was a role model. A black-figure amphora of the 6th century was found. BC. depicting the labors of Hercules. In the early Iron Age, iron was used only in everyday life, and later weapons made from this metal also appeared. Dagger from Burgos, VI century. BC.

300 BC "Lady from Elche". This stone bust of a woman of the 4th c. BC. - an excellent example of Iberian art. Its mysterious beauty bears traces of Greek influence.

Early Middle Ages

The Reconquista began almost immediately. The first independent kingdom in Spain was the Kingdom of Asturias, and to this day every eldest son of the Spanish king receives the hereditary title of Prince of Asturias.

Middle Ages

Christian Spain is united under the rule of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile (Isabel I).

Castile and Aragon united into one kingdom and completed the liberation of the country from the Moors. Since the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon, Spain has been a single state. The struggle for freedom ended only in the year when the Catholic Kings Ferdinand and Isabella received the keys to Granada from the hands of the last Arab emir in Spain.

Since then, Spain has become a single state. She also began to build her empire around the discoveries of Christopher Columbus.

Golden age

In the XVI century. absolutism took hold. At the beginning of the XVI century. the Spanish colonial empire was formed (based on the colonial conquests in America). The Spanish Empire reached its peak in the 16th century. with the expansion of the colonies in South and Central America and the capture of Portugal in the city of Habsburg, who inherited the Spanish throne, Charles becomes Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire under the name of Charles V, over which "the sun never sets."

From the middle of the XVI century. Spain's economic decline began. Charles V's son Philip II moves the capital from Toledo to Madrid. Doom

In Spanish historiography, a peculiar idea of ​​the Spanish Middle Ages has developed. Since the time of the Italian humanists of the Renaissance, a tradition has been established to consider the invasions of the barbarians and the fall of Rome in 410 AD. starting point from ancient era to the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages itself was seen as a gradual approach to the Renaissance (15-16 centuries), when interest in the culture of the ancient world was awakened again. When studying the history of Spain, special importance was attached not only to the crusades against Muslims (Reconquista), which lasted several centuries, but also to the very fact of the long coexistence of Christianity, Islam and Judaism in the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the Middle Ages in this region begin with the Muslim invasion in 711 and end with the capture by Christians of the last stronghold of Islam, the Emirate of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 (when all these events took place).

Visigothic period.

After the Visigoth invasion of Italy in 410, the Romans used them to restore order in Spain. In 468 their king Eirich settled his adherents in northern Spain. In 475, he even promulgated the earliest written code of laws (Eirich's code) in the states formed by the Germanic tribes. In 477, the Roman emperor Zeno officially recognized the transfer of all of Spain under the rule of Eirich. The Visigoths adopted Arianism, which was condemned as heresy at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and created a caste of aristocrats. Their brutal treatment of the local population, mainly Catholics in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, caused the intervention of the Byzantine troops of the Eastern Roman Empire, which remained in the southeastern regions of Spain until the 7th century.

King Atanagild (r. 554–567) made Toledo the capital and conquered Seville from the Byzantines. His successor, Leovigild (568–586), occupied Cordoba in 572, reformed the laws in favor of the Catholics of the south, and tried to replace the Visigoths' elective monarchy with a hereditary one. King Recared (586–601) announced his renunciation of Arianism and conversion to Catholicism and convened a council at which he persuaded the Arian bishops to follow his example and recognize Catholicism as the state religion. After his death, an Arian reaction set in, but with the accession to the throne of Sisebut (612-621), Catholicism regained its status state religion.

Svintila (621–631), the first Visigothic king to rule all of Spain, was enthroned by Bishop Isidore of Seville. Under him, the city of Toledo became the seat of the Catholic Church. Rekkesvint (653-672) promulgated the famous code of laws "Liber Judiciorum" around 654. This outstanding document of the Visigothic period abolished the existing legal differences between the Visigoths and the local peoples. After the death of Rekkesvint, the struggle between the contenders for the throne intensified under the conditions of an elective monarchy. At the same time, the power of the king noticeably weakened, and continuous palace conspiracies and rebellions did not stop until the collapse of the Visigothic state in 711.

Arab domination and the beginning of the Reconquista.

The victory of the Arabs in the battle on the Guadalete River in southern Spain on July 19, 711 and the death of the last Visigoth king Roderic two years later in the battle of Segoyuela sealed the fate of the Visigothic kingdom. The Arabs began to call the lands they captured Al-Andalus. Until 756 they were ruled by a governor who formally submitted to the Caliph of Damascus. In the same year, Abdarrahman I founded an independent emirate, and in 929 Abdarrahman III assumed the title of Caliph. This caliphate with its center in Cordoba existed until the beginning of the 11th century. After 1031, the Caliphate of Cordoba disintegrated into many small states (emirates).

To a certain extent, the unity of the caliphate has always been illusory. The vast distances and difficulties of communication were exacerbated by racial and tribal conflicts. Extremely hostile relations developed between the politically dominant Arab minority and the Berbers, who constituted the majority of the Muslim population. This antagonism was further aggravated by the fact that the best lands went to the Arabs. The situation was aggravated by the presence of layers of Muladi and Mozarabs - the local population, to one degree or another experienced Muslim influence.

The Muslims were actually unable to establish dominance in the far north of the Iberian Peninsula. In 718, a detachment of Christian warriors under the command of the legendary Visigoth leader Pelayo defeated the Muslim army in the mountain valley of Covadonga. Gradually moving towards the Duero River, the Christians occupied free lands that were not claimed by the Muslims. At that time, the border region of Castile was formed (territorium castelle - translated as “land of castles”); It is appropriate to note that as early as the end of the 8th c. Muslim chroniclers called it Al-Qila (castles). In the early stages of the Reconquista, two types of Christian political formations arose, differing in geographical location. The core of the Western type was the kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the court to Leon in the 10th century. became known as the Kingdom of León. The county of Castile became an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castile united with the kingdom of León and thereby acquired a leading political role, and with it priority rights to the lands conquered from the Muslims.

In the more eastern regions there were Christian states - the kingdom of Navarre, the county of Aragon, which became a kingdom in 1035, and various counties associated with the kingdom of the Franks. Initially, some of these counties were the embodiment of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community, the central place among them was occupied by the County of Barcelona. Then came the county of Catalonia, which had access to the Mediterranean Sea and conducted a brisk maritime trade, in particular slaves. In 1137 Catalonia joined the kingdom of Aragon. This state in the 13th century. significantly expanded its territory to the south (to Murcia), also annexing the Balearic Islands. In 1085 Alphonse VI, king of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo, and the border with the Muslim world moved from the Duero river to the Tajo river. In 1094 the Castilian national hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, known as Cid, entered Valencia. However, these major achievements were not so much the result of the zeal of the crusaders, but rather the result of the weakness and disunity of the rulers of the taifs (emirates on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordoba). During the Reconquista, it happened that Christians united with Muslim rulers or, having received a large bribe (parias) from the latter, were hired to protect them from the crusaders.

In this sense, the fate of Sid is indicative. He was born ca. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079 King Alphonse VI sent him to Seville to collect tribute from the Muslim ruler. However, shortly after, he did not get along with Alphonse and was exiled. In eastern Spain, he embarked on the path of an adventurer, and it was then that he received the name Sid (derived from the Arabic "seid", i.e. "master"). Sid served such Muslim rulers as the emir of Zaragoza al-Moktadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 Sid began to rule Valencia. He died in 1099. The Castilian epic Song of my Side, written ca. 1140, goes back to earlier oral traditions and reliably conveys many historical events. The Song is not a chronicle of the Crusades. Although Sid fights the Muslims, in this epic they are not depicted as villains at all, but the Christian princes of Carrion, courtiers of Alphonse VI, while Sid's Muslim friend and ally, Abengalvon, surpasses them in nobility.

End of the Reconquista.

Muslim emirs were faced with a choice: either to constantly pay tribute to Christians, or to seek help from fellow believers in North Africa. In the end, the emir of Seville, al-Mutamid, turned for help to the Almoravids, who created a powerful state in North Africa. Alphonse VI managed to keep Toledo, but his army was defeated at Salak (1086); and in 1102, three years after the death of Cid, Valencia also fell.

The Almoravids removed the rulers of the taif from power and at first were able to unite Al-Andalus. But their power weakened in the 1140s, and by the end of the 12th century. they were driven out by the Almohads - the Moors from the Moroccan Atlas. After the Almohads suffered a heavy defeat by the Christians at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), their power was shaken.

By this time, the mentality of the crusaders had formed, as evidenced by life path Alphonse I the Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navarre from 1102 to 1134. During his reign, when memories of the first crusade were still fresh, most of the Ebro valley was conquered from the Moors, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important cities like Zaragoza (1118), Tarasona (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alphonse was never able to fulfill his dream of marching to Jerusalem, he lived to see the moment when the spiritual and knightly order of the Templars was established in Aragon, and soon the orders of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities in other parts of Spain. These powerful orders were of great help in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points and establishing an economy in a number of border regions. During the 13th century. Christians achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims in almost the entire Iberian Peninsula. King Jaime I of Aragon (r. 1213-1276) conquered the Balearic Islands, and in 1238 Valencia. In 1236, King Ferdinand III of Castile and León took Cordoba, Murcia surrendered to the Castilians in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. Only the Muslim Emirate of Granada, which existed until 1492, retained its independence. The reconquista owed its success not only to the military actions of the Christians. The willingness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims and grant them the right to reside in Christian states, while preserving their faith, language and customs, also played a big role. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely cleared of Muslims, the central and southern regions, except for the city of Valencia itself, were inhabited mainly by Mudéjars (Muslims who were allowed to stay). But in Andalusia, after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of the Castilians completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.

Late Middle Ages

In the 14th-15th centuries. Spain was torn apart by internal conflicts and civil wars. From 1350 to 1389 there was a long struggle for power in the kingdom of Castile. It began with the opposition of Pedro the Cruel (ruled from 1350 to 1369) and the union of nobles, led by his illegitimate half-brother Enrique of Trastamar. Both sides sought to find foreign support, in particular from France and England, who were embroiled in the Hundred Years' War.

In 1365, Enrique of Trastamarsky, expelled from the country, with the support of French and English mercenaries, captured Castile and the following year proclaimed himself King Enrique II. Pedro fled to Bayonne (France) and, having received help from the British, regained his country by defeating Enrique's troops at the battle of Najere (1367). After that, the French king Charles V helped Enrique regain the throne. Pedro's troops were defeated on the plains of Montel in 1369, and he himself died in single combat with his half-brother.

But the threat to the existence of the Trastamar dynasty did not disappear. In 1371, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, married Pedro's eldest daughter and claimed the Castilian throne. Portugal was involved in the dispute. The heiress to the throne married Juan I of Castile (r. 1379–1390). Juan's ensuing invasion of Portugal ended in a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Aljubarrota (1385). The campaign against Castile undertaken by Lancaster in 1386 was not successful. Subsequently, the Castilians paid off his claim to the throne, and both sides agreed to a marriage between Catherine of Lancaster, daughter of Gaunt, and the son of Juan I, the future Castilian king Enrique III (r. 1390-1406).

After the death of Enrique III, the throne was succeeded by the minor son Juan II, however, in 1406–1412, Ferdinand, the younger brother of Enrique III, who was appointed co-regent, actually ruled the state. In addition, Ferdinand managed to defend his rights to the throne in Aragon after the death of the childless Martin I there in 1395; he ruled there from 1412–1416, constantly interfering in the affairs of Castile and pursuing the interests of his family. His son Alphonse V of Aragon (r. 1416-1458), who also inherited the Sicilian throne, was primarily interested in affairs in Italy. The second son, Juan II, was absorbed in affairs in Castile, although in 1425 he became king of Navarre, and after the death of his brother in 1458 he inherited the throne in Sicily and Aragon. The third son, Enrique, became Master of the Order of Santiago.

In Castile, these "princes from Aragon" were opposed by Alvaro de Luna, an influential favorite of Juan II. The Aragonese party was defeated in the decisive Battle of Olmedo in 1445, but Luna himself fell out of favor and was executed in 1453. The reign of the next Castilian king, Enrique IV (1454–1474), led to anarchy. Enrique, who had no children from his first marriage, divorced and entered into a second marriage. For six years, the queen remained barren, for which rumors accused her husband, who received the nickname "Powerless". When the queen had a daughter named Juana, rumors spread among the common people and among the nobility that her father was not Enrique, but his favorite Beltran de la Cueva. Therefore, Juana received the contemptuous nickname "Beltraneja" (a spawn of Beltran). Under pressure from the opposition-minded nobility, the king signed a declaration in which he recognized his brother Alphonse as heir to the throne, but declared this declaration invalid. Then representatives of the nobility gathered in Avila (1465), deposed Enrique and proclaimed Alfonso king. Many cities sided with Enrique, and a civil war began, which continued after the sudden death of Alphonse in 1468. As a condition for ending the rebellion, the nobility put forward a demand for Enrique to appoint her half-sister Isabella as heir to the throne. Enrique agreed to this. In 1469, Isabella married Infante Fernando of Aragon (who will go down in history under the name of the Spanish king Ferdinand). After the death of Enrique IV in 1474, Isabella was declared queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, after the death of his father Juan II in 1479, took the throne of Aragon. This was the unification of the largest kingdoms of Spain. In 1492, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula fell - the Emirate of Granada. In the same year, Columbus, with the support of Isabella, made his first expedition to New World. In 1512, the kingdom of Navarre was included in Castile.

The Mediterranean acquisitions of Aragon had important implications for all of Spain. First, the Balearic Islands, Corsica and Sardinia fell under the control of Aragon, then Sicily. During the reign of Alfonso V (1416-1458), Southern Italy was conquered. To manage the newly acquired lands, the kings appointed governors or procurators (procuradores). Even at the end of the 14th century. such viceroys (or viceroys) appeared in Sardinia, Sicily and Mallorca. A similar management structure was reproduced in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia due to the fact that Alfonso V was away for a long time in Italy.

The power of monarchs and royal officials was limited by the cortes (parliaments). In contrast to Castile, where the Cortes were relatively weak, in Aragon, the consent of the Cortes was necessary to make decisions on all important bills and financial matters. Between sessions of the Cortes, standing committees supervised royal officials. To oversee the activities of the Cortes at the end of the 13th century. city ​​delegations were created. In 1359, a General Deputation was formed in Catalonia, whose main powers were to collect taxes and spend money. Similar institutions were established in Aragon (1412) and Valencia (1419).

The Cortes, being by no means democratic bodies, represented and defended the interests of the wealthy sections of the population in cities and rural areas. If in Castile the Cortes were an obedient tool of the absolute monarchy, especially during the reign of Juan II, then in the kingdom of Aragon and Catalonia, which was part of it, a different concept of power was implemented. It proceeded from the fact that political power is initially established by free people by concluding an agreement between those in power and the people, which stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties. Accordingly, any breach of agreement by royalty considered a manifestation of tyranny.

Such an agreement between the monarchy and the peasantry existed during the uprisings of the so-called. Remens (serfs) in the 15th century. Actions in Catalonia were directed against the tightening of duties and the enslavement of the peasants, and became especially active in the middle of the 15th century. and became the pretext for the civil war of 1462–1472 between the Catalan General Deputation, which supported the landowners, and the monarchy, which stood up for the peasants. In 1455, Alphonse V abolished some feudal duties, but only after another upsurge in the peasant movement, Ferdinand V in 1486 signed the so-called in the monastery of Guadalupe (Extremadura). "Guadalupe maxim" on the abolition of serfdom, including the most severe feudal duties.

The position of the Jews. In the 12th-13th centuries. Christians were tolerant of Jewish and Islamic culture. But by the end of the 13th c. and throughout the 14th century. their peaceful coexistence was broken. The rising tide of anti-Semitism peaked during the massacre of the Jews in 1391.

Although in the 13th century Jews made up less than 2% of the population of Spain, they played an important role in the material and spiritual life of society. Nevertheless, the Jews lived apart from the Christian population, in their own communities with synagogues and kosher shops. Segregation was facilitated by the Christian authorities, who ordered that Jews in the cities be allocated special quarters - alhama. For example, in the city of Jerez de la Frontera, the Jewish quarter was separated by a wall with gates.

Jewish communities were given considerable autonomy in managing their own affairs. Prosperous families gradually emerged among the Jews, as well as among the urban Christians, and gained great influence. Despite political, social and economic restrictions, Jewish scholars have made a great contribution to the development of Spanish society and culture. Thanks to great knowledge foreign languages they carried out diplomatic missions for both Christians and Muslims. Jews played a key role in spreading the achievements of Greek and Arab scientists in Spain and other countries of Western Europe.

Nevertheless, at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. Jews were severely persecuted. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity, becoming conversos. However, conversos often stayed in urban Jewish communities and continued to engage in traditional Jewish activities. The situation was complicated by the fact that many conversos, having become rich, penetrated the environment of the oligarchies of cities such as Burgos, Toledo, Seville and Cordoba, and also occupied important posts in the royal administration.

In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established, headed by Thomas de Torquemada. First of all, she drew attention to the Jews and Muslims who adopted the Christian faith. They were tortured to "confess" to heresy, after which they were usually executed by burning. In 1492, all unbaptized Jews were expelled from Spain: almost 200,000 people emigrated to North Africa, Turkey, and the Balkans. Most of the Muslims converted to Christianity under the threat of exile.

The appearance of the first people on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula is usually attributed to the Lower Paleolithic. For example, in the province of Soria (in Tolrab), axes of the Early Acheulean type, bones of heat-loving animals, were found. It was here that the Middle and Late Paleo Mousterian and Solutre cultures began to develop. In the northern part modern Spain approximately in the middle of the last glaciation, the Madeleine culture was formed, which included rock art, represented by images of bison, mammoths, horses, bears on the walls of caves. The most famous drawings, which date back to the end of the Paleolithic era (about 2.5 million years ago - the Old Stone Age), were found in the cave of Altamira and in Puente Viesgo. Actually, they testify that Spain at that time was already inhabited. Studies conducted by archaeologists confirm that the appearance of people on the Iberian Peninsula occurred about 1 million years ago.

Before our era, the Moors and Visigoths, Romans and Phoenicians, Carthaginians and other tribes lived on the territory of Spain, some of them are the founders of the most ancient cities in the country.

The origin of Barcelona is associated with Carthage, despite the fact that there is a legend according to which the famous Greek hero Hercules is the founder of the city. And the appearance of the word "Madrid" is associated with the Arabs, since in Arabic it means "source of full waters", which is associated with the geographical position of the city.

Approximately in the III millennium BC. e. presumably, the Iberians (the ancient name of the peninsula is Iberian) came from North Africa to the territory of the future Spain, who were engaged in cattle breeding, farming and hunting, their tools were made of bronze and copper; there was writing.

By the middle of the II millennium BC. e. the inhabitants of the peninsula settled on the territory of present-day Castile and created wooden fortifications. After another 5 centuries, Germanic and Celtic tribes joined the Iberians.

Between the Celts and the Iberians there were endless wars, although sometimes they became allies. Ultimately, these two tribes united, laying the foundation for a common culture - the Celtiberian, and became famous as good warriors (for example, they own the invention of a double-edged sword).

Around 1100 BC. e. the southern coast was occupied by colonies belonging to the Phoenicians, such as Malaka, Cordoba, Gadir (Cadiz), etc. Greek colonies were spread on the eastern coast.

Already after 680 BC. e. Carthage becomes the central city of the new civilization of the Phoenicians.

There is a legend about the origin of Carthage, according to which it was laid down by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tyre, forced to flee by her brother (Pygmalion), who killed her husband (Syche) because of wealth. According to legend, Dido was allowed to take for herself such a territory of land that would fit under a bull's skin. In order to occupy a large area, the queen cut the skin into narrow belts. From here the citadel takes its name, which is located exactly in the same place - Birsa ("skin").

Carthage, an ancient city-state located in the Western Mediterranean, was founded by the Phoenicians (more precisely, people from Tyre) around 750 BC. e. (but the date of foundation is considered to be 814 BC) and existed from the 7th to the 2nd centuries. BC e. The name itself is translated from the Phoenician language as "new city". The Roman rulers called him Carchedon.

Carthage had a rather favorable geographical position, which contributed to the development of trade and allowed to control the waters located between Sicily and Africa, which became an obstacle for foreign ships wishing to go further west.

Before the Phoenicians settled on the Mediterranean coast, ships belonging to the Egyptians, Mycenaean Greece and Crete went here. But the military and political actions of these powers ended unsuccessfully, and by about 1200 BC. e. The Mediterranean Sea became free for the Phoenicians, who, thanks to the opportunities that opened up, acquired useful skills in navigation and trade.

1100-800 AD BC e. can be called the years of Phoenician domination of the sea, because only the ships of the Greeks decided to go there, and then rarely. The research carried out by the Phoenicians up to the shores of Europe and Africa was later useful to Carthage.

The territory belonging to Carthage covered the entire Mediterranean coast and most of Andalusia. By the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. the influence of Carthage is greatly increased. At that time, New Carthage (now Cartagena) becomes the largest colony on the peninsula.

Power belonged to the Senate, whose duties included the conduct of finance and foreign policy, as well as the declaration of war or peace. Executive power was held by two elected suffet magistrates (the same as the "shofetim" (i.e., "judge") in the Old Testament), who were elected by the popular assembly.

The state structure of Carthage was oligarchic, that is, about royal power practically nothing is known here. Ancient authors in their works compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome.

Punic Wars

After the end of the First Punic War, Hamilcar and Hannibal subjugated the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula to the Carthaginians (237–219 BC). However, the defeat in 210 BC. e. in the Second Punic War gave rise to the establishment of Roman domination in the peninsula, followed by division into provinces. It was during that period that the name "Spain" was assigned to the territory.

In 206 BC. e. after the numerous victories of Scipio the Elder, the Carthaginians were finally forced to leave Spain. Scipio won a decisive victory over Hannibal only in 202 BC. e. with the help of the Numidian king Masinissa. In 201 BC. e. Peace conditions were accepted by Carthage.

Spain, the island possessions of the Carthaginians in the Mediterranean Sea and almost the entire fleet were transferred to the Romans, Carthage had to pay a huge indemnity within 50 years. In addition, the conduct of wars without the consent of the Roman Senate was strictly prohibited.

The Punic wars are those that took place between Rome and Carthage for dominance in the Western Mediterranean around the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. In total, three Punic wars are known in history - in 264-241. BC e., 218-201. BC e. And 149-146. BC e.

The result of the Second Punic War was the fall of the Carthaginian state and the conquest of the entire Mediterranean by Rome.

Carthage quickly paid the indemnity to the Romans, and the former significance of the transit center was returned, which, of course, did not please the Roman authorities.

The Roman rulers had serious concerns. Senator Cato the Elder was most outraged, each of his speeches ended with the phrase: "Carthage must be destroyed!"

In 149 BC. e. under the pretext of the refusal of the Carthaginians to fulfill the requirements that were presented to them for non-compliance with the terms of peace, the Roman Senate declared war on Carthage. In 201 BC. e. An army was created by Carthage to repel the attack of the Numidians. The Carthaginians agreed to disarm, but the Romans demanded to tear down the city and move deep into the mainland, which was followed by a firm refusal. The decision was made to resist to the end.

The siege of Carthage lasted 3 years. In the spring of 146 BC. e. the city was taken.

The Senate ruled that the city should be burned. The land he occupied was demanded to be cursed.

For 200 years, Rome waged bloody wars to conquer the entire country. The strongest resistance was offered by the Celtiberians and Lusitanians, whose leader was Viriatus. Cantabrov was able to win only by 19 BC. e. Emperor Augustus. He divided the country into three provinces instead of the previous two - into Lusitania, Batica and Tarraconian Spain. Subsequently, the emperor Hadrian separated from the latter Gallaecia with Asturias.

At the end of the Third Punic War, the possessions of Carthage became part of the Roman Empire as a province called "Africa".

Roman period

In the Roman Empire, Spain becomes the second most important center after Italy. The Romans had the greatest influence on Andalusia, Southern Portugal and on the coast of Catalonia near Tarragona. The Romanization of the Basques was never fully completed, unlike other peoples who inhabited Iberia, who by the 1st-2nd centuries. n. e. assimilated enough.

In Spain, many military roads and settlements (colonies) were built. Romanization took place quite quickly, the country turned into one of the centers of Roman culture. In the south of the peninsula, the local language was almost forgotten, Roman culture took root here, in the traditions of which monuments, amphitheatres, hippodromes, arenas were built, bridges and aqueducts were built, and active trade was carried out.

Approximately in the I-II centuries. n. e. Christianity began to spread in Spain. It is known that the first Christians were subjected to bloody persecution. The Spanish Christian community was distinguished by strict organization. It had a clear structure even before the baptism of Constantine the Great took place.

Visigothic period

At the beginning of the 5th century Vandals, Alans, Sueves and other tribes of barbarians appeared on the territory of Spain, who settled in the territory of Lusitania, Andalusia and Galicia. The Romans at that time were still holding out in the eastern part of the peninsula. However, in order to somehow protect themselves from new arrivals, the Romans had to conclude agreements under which such tribes became confederates. The Visigoths appeared on the territory of Spain in 415. Initially, they were allies of the Romans, confederates. Gradually, they create their own state association, and the Romans had no choice but to recognize the Visigothic kingdom.

Since 477, the Visigoths become full rulers of Spain. This transfer of power is sanctioned by the Roman Emperor Zeno.

The Visigoths professed Arianism (the Nicene Council recognized this branch of Christianity as heresy).

With the accession of the Visigoths in Spain, the local population suffered from ill-treatment, which, in turn, caused Byzantine intervention. Southeastern part of Spain until the 7th century. occupied by Byzantine troops.

The Visigothic state adopted many vices from the Romans, for example, a significant social inequality between the owners of huge latifundia and the oppressed and ruined by taxes of local residents; too much power was given to the Catholic clergy, which prevented the establishment of a normal order in the succession to the throne, etc.

During the reign of King Leovigild, reforms are carried out, attempts are made to replace the already established custom of choosing kings in the order of the system of succession to the throne, but he did not succeed.

After the death of Leovigild, the throne was taken by his successor, King Rekared, who converted to Catholic Christianity, making it the state religion.

He then convinced the Arian bishops to follow his example, although when Rekared died, attempts were made to restore Arianism to its former positions, but to no avail. And only during the reign of Sisebud, the Catholic religion was able to finally defeat Arianism and become the state religion.

A legend tells about the origin of Madrid, according to which the founder of the city was the hero of ancient legends - Ocnius, the son of the prophetess Manto and Tiberin (the god of the Tiber River). In addition, there is an assumption that Madrid got its name from Magerite, which means “big bridge” in Celtic. There is another version, according to which the founder of Madrid is the Emir of Cordoba - Mohammed I. The reason for the creation of the city was the need to protect against the Castilians and Leonese.

King Svintil, who was crowned in 621 by the Catholic Bishop Isidore of Seville, became the first monarch of a united Spain.

The main thing in the code of laws "Liber Judiciorum" was the abolition of legal differences between the indigenous inhabitants of the peninsula and the Visigoths.

In 654, the first set of laws, Liber Judithiorum, was issued, which was published by King Rekkesvint.

The last calm period in the history of the Visigothic state is associated with the name of King Rekkesvint. Then followed a fierce struggle for the throne and power, which was facilitated by the elective system of kings. The monarchical power began to lose its positions and rather quickly weaken. The revolts continued until the very fall of the Visigothic kingdom, that is, until 711, when the invasion of the Moors began, as a result of which, in addition to Christian states, Muslim states appeared on the Iberian Peninsula.

Arabic period

From the moment when the Arabs came to the territory of Spain, the end of the rule of the Visigoths was practically a foregone conclusion. The Arabs gave the name "Al-Andalus" to the lands captured in 713. Initially, they were under the rule of the Damascus caliph, but in 756 Abdarrahman I founded the first independent emirate.

After some time, Abdarrahman I called himself caliph and became the full ruler of a considerable state, the center of which was Cordoba. But the existence of the Caliphate of Cordoba did not last long, it collapsed, leaving behind several independent emirates.

The unity of the Caliphate of Cordoba has always been illusory, because the situation within it was not stable. There were many different contradictions between the ruling class (Arabs) and local residents who experienced Muslim influence.

The Arabs were never able to conquer the entire Iberian Peninsula, the far north remained free from their domination. It was there in the 8th century. and a border region appeared - Castile ("land of castles"). The Arabs called this territory Al-Kila. In the XI century. Castile becomes an independent state. In 1035 it turns into one of the centers of the Reconquista.

Reconquista

Reconquista is the reconquest of the lands that were in the territory of Spain from the Arabs. It is traditionally believed that this is a patriotic victory march of the Spanish people, but the real reasons were economic.

The beginning of the Reconquista is attributed to the VIII century, the initiator was Prince Pelayo in 722. The Reconquista went on with varying success, its course was broken by feudal strife, as a result of which Christian rulers fought with each other and with their vassals. There were also obvious failures (for example, the battle of Alarkos).

In 1492 the Reconquista ended. The Iberian peninsula freed itself from the Moors (more precisely, from the Arabs and Berbers, who would later be called Moors). Most of Spain was united under Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.

Another center of the Reconquista, in addition to Castile, is Leon, located in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. In 1035, the two centers of the Reconquista (Leon and Castile) decide to unite. Castile becomes the main center of the Reconquista, and the rights to all the territories conquered from the Arabs belong to it.

In addition to Leon and Castile, on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula there were several more states belonging to Christians, such as Navarre, Aragon and others, as well as counties that were related to the Frankish kingdom.

Catalonia was one of the most developed counties in the Iberian Peninsula. Its inhabitants were actively engaged in trade. In 1137, Catalonia united with Aragon, and by the 13th century. the borders of this state reached Murcia, and the Balearic Islands were annexed.

The first major victories of the Reconquista were noted in 1085, when Toledo was captured. At the end of the XI century. the Almoravides invaded the Iberian Peninsula, and by the middle of the 12th century. - Almohads, which slightly slowed down the development of the Reconquista. However, already in 1212 (July 16), the combined forces of Castile, Aragon and Navarre defeated the Almohad troops. In 1236, Cordoba was taken by the Castilians, and in 1248, Seville. The Balearic Islands were reconquered by Aragon during 1229–1235. In 1238, Valencia was liberated. In the middle of the XIII century. the Portuguese were ousted from the lands of the Algavri (now the southern part of Portugal), only one emirate remained in the power of the Arabs - Granada, which lasted until the very end of the Reconquista - until 1492.

Not all participants in the Reconquista were distinguished by patriotic zeal, there was another motive - money, since many dreamed of getting rich, and it did not matter on whose side, that is, people were equally hired to defend both Arab and Christian states. For example, Sid, aka Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, who began the capture of Valencia, participated in the Reconquista due to economic considerations and served alternately between Muslim and Christian rulers. However, after the victory of 1094, as a result of which Valencia was occupied by him, he rules it until his death.

This historical period is reflected in Spanish literature, for example, there is a heroic epic about Side and other monuments.

Castile played a significant role in the Reconquista, which, of course, affected the formation of the national Spanish language, since it is based on the Castilian dialect that spread in the liberated territories.

During the period of the Reconquista, the attitude of Christians towards Muslims changed significantly, since the latter had well-developed crafts and trade, as a result of which they were the bulwark of the country's economic stability.

Initially, the locals (Spaniards) were happy to negotiate and compromise with the Muslims. For some time, Christians and Muslims lived peacefully, but as a result of a riot in Andalusia and an attempted uprising, the attitude of the Spaniards towards the rebels and Muslims in general changed radically. The uprising was put down with extreme brutality.

In the last years of the Reconquista, another important event in the history of Spain takes place - Christopher Columbus discovers America, which for subsequent generations of Spanish monarchs turns into a source of income.

In 1480, the Inquisition was established, which existed until the 19th century. The rule of the Catholic kings in Spain led to monstrous religious intolerance. Hundreds of thousands of Jews and Moors were expelled, the rest, who converted to Christianity, were constantly subjected to repression.

The myth of the Inquisition. The Spanish Middle Ages are said to be "illuminated by the blazing bonfires of the Inquisition." This period of the existence of Spain has long been synonymous with something very sinister and savage. In fact, the first public auto-da-fé (Seville, February 6, 1481) was not burning, but an ordinary civil execution, which was done so that a heretic would be publicly disgraced. Similar executions happened in England and France, and in Germany, during the “witch hunt”, even entire villages were exterminated.

Medieval Spain

In the XV century. after the end of the Reconquista, the history of Spain begins as a state that exists now. Initially, medieval Spanish culture was a mixture of three cultures - Christian, Muslim and Jewish. In some areas, democracy begins to emerge (for example, the first form of parliamentary government in Europe is associated with the history of Catalonia, where meetings of representatives of the nobility, clergy and civilians appeared in the 13th century). However, in the XV century. this is coming to an end.

Spain becomes a fanatical Catholic country, the Inquisition is finally established as an ecclesiastical court, designed to observe the purity of the Catholic faith (many heretics were tortured and executed through the fire).

The conquest of the territories on which the Spanish colonies were located was carried out in an extremely cruel way. You can read more about this material in the book by Bernal Diaz del Castillo (participant in the events) “The True Story of the Conquest of New Spain”.

16th century the golden age of Spain

The beginning of Spain as a kingdom was laid by the marriage between Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, who were called "Catholic Kings" by Pope Alexander VI. In 1479, Ferdinand II becomes the ruler of the Kingdom of Aragon and joins the Kingdom of Castile, in 1512 Navarre followed this example, thereby completing the political unification of Spain.

In the XVI century. the formation of absolutism takes place, the Spanish Empire is formed. This period of history is called the golden age of Spain.

Already in 1504 Naples was conquered by Spain. In the same year, the daughter of Ferdinand II and Isabella of Castile - John, along with her husband Philip I (son of Emperor Maximilian I) comes to the throne of Castile. From here begins the rule of the Habsburg dynasty.

Habsburg dynasty

In 1506, Philip II dies, then John goes mad. They have a son Charles, but still small for public affairs, so the Castilian estates appoint him a guardian - Ferdinand I. Spain continues to expand its territory (in 1509 Oran was conquered, in 1512 there was a union with Navarre).

Charles V (r. 1516–1556)

In 1516, Ferdinand dies, and Cardinal Jimenez takes his place, who assumes regency duties until the arrival of the young king. From 1517, Charles I begins to rule the state himself under the name of Charles V (Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, over which "the sun never sets"). At the beginning of the reign of Charles V, Aragon, Barcelona, ​​Valencia, Leon and Castile (1516) are united into one state.

But the title "King of Spain" was the first to be taken by the son of Charles V - Philip II, and the crown of Aragon formally existed until the beginning of the 18th century. Only in 1707 did Philip V abolish it.

Charles V announced an absolute amnesty, but he did not forget to take advantage of the fear of the nobility, which this movement instilled, and limited the benefits and liberties that were previously due to this estate.

In 1519, Charles was elected German Emperor, and in 1520 he again left Spain and became Charles V. Such actions caused outrage on the part of the Communeros, which led to a protest against the absolutism of the monarch and his Dutch advisers in the name of the national institutions of Iberia. The uprising takes on a democratic character, but on April 21, 1521, the noble militia is victorious (at Villalar), followed by the execution of Padilla, and the rebellion is suppressed.

After the uprising and the changes that followed it, the Cortes could not find a way to oppose the government. Loyalty for the nobility became the main duty, and ordinary people simply submitted to royal power and its plans of conquest. The Cortes continue to provide their monarch with money, which was intended, firstly, for the war with France, secondly, for enterprises directed against the Moors in Africa, and, thirdly, for the pacification and suppression of the Schmalkaldic League in Germany. The Spanish army fought for the spread of the Catholic (Roman) faith and for the Habsburgs in Peru and Mexico, on the banks of the Elbe and the Po.

The Cortes (royal court) are class-representative assemblies, which later became known as parliament. For the first time this name is found in Castile in 1137. This class was formed from the royal curia, which at first included only representatives of the clergy and nobility. A rather large role was assigned to the Cortes in the 13th-14th centuries, when it was necessary to limit the arbitrariness of the feudal lords and the influence of cities increased. The importance of the Cortes decreased significantly with the establishment of absolutism.

While the army fought, inside the country they oppressed and expelled the hardworking people (Moriscos). The Inquisition sent thousands of ordinary Spaniards to the stake, any claim to freedom was immediately suppressed. The arbitrary system of taxes strangled and destroyed everything: agriculture, trade, industry. The Spaniards (both peasants and nobles) rushed to the military public service, neglecting rural and urban works.

The historian Cies de Leon wrote that the emperor of Spain, Charles V, spent so much money from the day of his coronation until 1553 that even the wealth he obtained, surpassing everything that the kings of Spain had before him, could not save the country. If Charles waged fewer wars and stayed more in Spain, then the country would be oversaturated with treasures.

The church at that time owns a vast territory (to the detriment of the heirs to the throne). But at the same time, the lands passing to it are empty and gradually turn into pastures. As a result, the number of treated areas has been significantly reduced. Trade in general became the business of foreigners who profited not only from Spain itself, but also from its colonies.

In 1556, the reign of Charles V ended, Spain again separated from the Austrian possessions of the Habsburgs. In Europe, Spain had only Naples, the Netherlands, Milan, Franche-Comte, Sicily and Sardinia.

In the XVI century. Spain became the center of Catholic reactionary politics. The heyday of the empire was achieved by expanding the colonies in Central and South America and captured in 1580 by Portugal.

Decline of an empire

Approximately from the middle of the XIV century. Spain began an economic recession, which was the result of endless wars, extremely low (and regressive) taxes and a price revolution.

Philip II (reigned 556-1598)

In 1556, Philip II, the son of Charles V, ascended the throne of Spain. It was he who transferred the capital of Spain from Toledo to Madrid. The new king eliminates the remnants of political freedom, and the whole country, regardless of class, begins to live according to the laws of absolute despotism. Philip's main tool is the Inquisition.

A brilliant victory was won by Don Juan of Austria in 1571 (at Lepanto) over the Turks, but it was never used, and Tunisia was taken from Spain. In the Netherlands, because of the terrorism of the Duke of Alba, an uprising broke out, which turned out to be a waste of a lot of money and a blow to the maritime and colonial dominance of Spain. In 1588, during an attempt to subjugate England to the Catholic Church, the Invincible Armada died, which meant the end of Spanish domination of the sea. France's intervention in religious disputes led to the strengthening of the latter. The capture of Portugal in 1580 brought only great harm.

In 1568, the Moors rebelled, unable to withstand the oppression to which they were subjected. In 1570 the rebellion was suppressed, but it was accompanied by a bloody war. About 400,000 Moriscos were transferred from Granada to other parts of the kingdom, where many soon died.

All the income that the Spanish colonies brought was spent on ongoing wars. In addition, the monarch had to find new sources of income, for example, taxing property and crafts, not counting church ones; sale of ranks and positions, forced loans from subjects (the so-called donatives), etc.

Despite the fact that the Spanish army continued to perform feats outside its own country, politics could not achieve its goals.

Philip III (r. 1598–1621)

In 1598, Philip II dies, the throne is succeeded by Philip III (Fig. 10), a very weak king, instead of whom his favorite Lerma was in charge of the country. For a long time the real state of affairs in Spain was hidden from the people and the new government by the splendor that surrounded the monarchy in Europe.

Rice. 10. King Philip III

During the reign of Philip III, wars began to be waged less vigorously (for example, in 1609 a truce was concluded with the Netherlands). In the same year, by an edict of 22 September, 800,000 Moriscos were expelled from the country, resulting in the desolation of the previously fertile Valencia.

17th century

Lost at the end of the XVI century. naval dominance, Spain continues to lose ground. In the 17th century Spain is going through a crisis, gradually losing the title of a great power (in Europe) and losing its colonies. Spain is defeated in wars with France and England. Some colonies achieve independence. As a result, the once great colonial empire is reduced to a minor country. The only evidence of former power remains the rather widespread use of the Spanish language, in particular in some countries of Latin America.

Spain in the 17th century turns into a state with an impoverished people and becomes almost deserted. Economic decline also entails military (loss of dominance at sea and on land).

Due to the weakening of the country, the already outlined process of forming a single nation is suspended. But there is an increase in the isolation of some regions and provinces. It was in the peripheral part of Spain that the process of formation of such peoples as the Basques, Catalans, Galicians took place.

Philip IV (reigned 1621-1665)

The new monarch, Philip IV, continued the militant and domineering policy of Philip II, proposing, in alliance with Austria, to restore the omnipotence of the papacy and the Habsburg monarchy.

In 1640, an undisguised violation of provincial rights by minister Gaspar Olivares was discovered, which caused outrage in Catalonia. The secession of Portugal and other provincial riots followed. Portugal never submitted, but Catalonia, after a thirteen-year war, still reconciled. Nevertheless, the state was weakened and could no longer compete with France, which had grown stronger by this time.

The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed on November 7, 1659 (by Mazarin and Luis de Garo) on Pheasant Island on the Bidasoa River, where the border between France and Spain passed. The Peace of the Pyrenees put an end to the Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659).

In 1648, after a war that lasted about 80 years, Spain could no longer fail to recognize the independence of the Netherlands, as well as the equality of Protestants in Germany. In 1659, the Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed, according to which Spain was obliged to transfer to France (King Louis XIV) part of the Netherlands, the county of Roussillon, Perpignan and all Catholic villages north of the Pyrenees in exchange for the obligation not to claim the remaining Catalan lands (including the county Barcelona), and England to cede Jamaica and Dunkirchen.

The Iberian Peace Treaty was reinforced by the marriage of the King of France to the Spanish Infanta Maria Theresa. She was supposed to have a good dowry, but it was never paid.

A marriage contract was concluded between Louis XIV and Maria Theresa, according to which the size of Mary's dowry was 500,000 ecu (while Spain had to pay this amount within a year and a half). In return, when she became queen of France, she renounced her rights to the throne of Spain. True, there was a reservation that the refusal would be obligatory in the event of payment of a dowry.

With the conclusion of the Peace of the Pyrenees, the borders of France expanded significantly. Now the danger from Spain was eliminated, which served to raise the foreign political power of France in the second half of the 17th century. And the marriage contract gave Louis XIV a reason to claim the possessions of Spain, since they were the inheritance of his wife.

Charles II (reigned 1665–1700)

In 1665, Charles II ascended the throne. After the death of Philip IV, Louis XIV, King of France, as the husband of his daughter, announced his views on the Netherlands, which belonged to Spain. However, he did not succeed in taking over the entire territory, since the Triple Alliance(England, Sweden and Holland). In 1668, an agreement was concluded (Aachen Peace), according to which the French king received 12 Dutch fortresses.

Almost 10 years after the conclusion of the Treaty of Aachen, France again receives several fortified places and Franche-Comté, which she gets under the Treaty of Nimwegen, and in 1684 she also took possession of Luxembourg.

There were a number of Nimwegen peace treaties in 1678-1679, which were concluded in the Netherlands in the city of Nimwegen and served to end the Dutch War (1672-1678). These were the first treaties drawn up in French. The treaties of Nimwegen marked the zenith of Louis XIV's power. Spain was forced to turn to the heretics for help, as there was absolutely no strength left to control its borders. The death of the fleet led to the fact that there was nothing to protect merchant ships, as a result of which the harbor was empty, the inhabitants of coastal cities began to leave the coast and move inland.

A peace treaty between Spain and France was concluded on May 2, 1668 in the city of Aachen. The initiators of the treaty were Sweden, England and Holland, alarmed by the French conquests, who offered some concessions to the warring countries, threatening war in case of refusal. It was proposed that Spain cede to Louis XIV either Franche-Comté or the part of Flanders already conquered by him. As a result, France kept the parts of Flanders and Hainaut that it had captured (a total of 11 cities in the Spanish Netherlands). However, Franche-Comte returned to Spain.

At the end of the reign of Charles II, many cities were depopulated, entire regions turned into deserts. The revenues of the state had fallen to such an extent that the king could not afford servants because there was not enough money to pay them, and this despite the fact that government financial measures were simply extortionate. As a result of the shortage of funds in the periphery, many returned to barter.

18th century

In November 1700, King Charles II of Spain died, and the era of the Habsburgs ended. From that moment on, the struggle for the Spanish throne began between European dynasties, which went down in history as the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714).

Philip V (r. 1700–1746)

In 1700, the grandson of Louis XIV, the Frenchman Philip V of Bourbon, ascended the throne of Spain (Fig. 11).

Rice. 11. Philip V of Bourbon

The coalition of England, Austria (Holy Roman Emperor), Holland, Portugal, Prussia and a number of small states of Germany and Italy opposed the Franco-Spanish alliance. In 1713 the Peace of Utrecht was signed, and the next year the Peace of Rastatt was signed.

With the signing of these two treaties, the War of Spanish Succession was over. Spain and its colonies were left to Philip V of Bourbon. The Habsburgs from Austria were given Spanish possessions in Italy and the Netherlands. Great Britain got Mahon (on the island of Menorca) and Gibraltar from Spain, some possessions in North America from France, in addition, it received an asiento - the exclusive right to trade in blacks given to an English company. The main result of the war was the strengthening of English naval and colonial power.

The new Spanish King Philip V brought fresh energy into the state's disordered organism. Foreigners - Italians and French - were appointed the head of the country's administration, who applied to Spain (albeit partially) the principles of French public administration: firstly, they eliminated the abuses that interfered with the unity of state power; secondly, art and science, trade and industry were encouraged; thirdly, the privileges of the provinces were abolished. Philip united the territory of Spain and imposed taxes on its population. Philip V wanted to reduce the power of the church, but found strong resistance from the population. Under the influence of his second wife, Elisabeth Farnese, he left the Church alone, so that the Inquisition and the Curia continued to dominate Spain.

The Treaty of Utrecht (April-July 1713) ended the War of the Spanish Succession and consisted of agreements between France and Spain on the one hand and Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, the Holy Roman Empire, Portugal and Savoy on the other. The Treaty of Rastatt (March 7, 1714), essentially part of the Treaty of Utrecht, ended the feud between King Louis XIV and Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI.

Next, Philip tried to resume the policy of conquest, but the results were deplorable. During the Austrian and Polish wars, Parma and Naples were captured, but this only led to significant financial distress and a break in state reforms.

Ferdinand VI (reigned 1746-1759)

During the reign of Ferdinand VI, the wealth of Spain increased significantly. Ferdinand VI was thrifty and peaceful, which helped him raise the country. During his time on the throne, he was able to create a new navy, improve administration, pay off the interest on the public debt, and in doing so, reduce taxes.

A concordat is an agreement between the Pope and any state that regulates the legal status of the Roman Catholic Church in a particular state and its relationship with the Holy See.

In 1753, the power of the clergy was significantly limited by the concordat, despite the fact that there were about 180,000 religious figures, the financial exploitation of the country by the curia ceased.

Charles III (reigned 1759-1788)

In 1759, the half-brother of Ferdinand VI, Charles III, became king of Spain. He decided to continue the work of his predecessor and tried to raise the country to the level of the rest of Europe. Despite the fact that Charles III was characterized by strict religiosity, he did not remain aloof from the enlightened aspirations of the age. However, Carl was helped to carry out reforms by three statesmen - S. Arand, H. Floridablanc and P. Campomanes. At first, the spread of reforms was hindered by Spain's participation in the Franco-English War (1761-1762), which was mandatory under the family agreement. But already in 1767, after the expulsion of the Jesuits, the reforms moved forward, although some of them remained projects, because the state of agriculture, industry and education in Spain was too decadent. Nevertheless, Charles III achieved some results, for example, he allowed free trade with America, huge investments in mining, building factories, building roads, etc.

In 1780, the second war with England began, in which, again, due to the family agreement, participation was mandatory. This time so much money was spent that the government was forced to issue interest-bearing banknotes.

Charles IV (reigned 1788–1808)

In 1788, Charles IV became king of Spain (Fig. 12), a good-natured man and incapable of anything. Marie-Louise of Parma, his wife, had a great influence on him, in addition, she was an intelligent and decisive, albeit immoral woman. She was wasteful and suffered from favoritism, upset the financial and state affairs of the country and actually transferred power to her lover - M. Godoy (Duke of Alcudia and Prince of Peace).

Rice. 12. King Charles IV

In 1793, France invaded Spain, the enemy attacked Navarre, Aragon and the Basque provinces, but already in 1795 the Treaty of Basel was signed, according to which Spain had to cede only San Domingo.

The war began with an attack by the French on the territory of the German states on the Rhine, after which the coalition invaded France. The French troops, repelling the enemy, began military operations against the coalition: first they invaded Spain, then the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Western German states. During the Battle of Toulon (1793), the young and talented commander Napoleon Bonaparte showed himself for the first time. As a result, the French Republic and all its conquests were recognized by European countries, with the exception of England; however, after the French situation worsened again, the war resumed.

The hostilities that took place in 1793-1795 are called the War of the First Coalition. The purpose of these actions was to protect against France. The Basel Peace is two peace treaties which were concluded in 1795 in Basel (April 5 and July 22); the first - with Prussia, the second - with Spain.

In 1796, Spain became dependent on France, which became stronger after the signing of the Treaty of San Ildefonso.

On August 19, 1796, the so-called Treaty of Union, sometimes referred to as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, was signed at San Ildefonso.

As a result, Spain was drawn into the war with England, and the first battle, which took place near Cape St. Vincent (February 14, 1797), revealed the unsuitability of the Spanish fleet.

At the beginning of the XIX century. (1801) the campaign against Portugal undertaken by Godoy turned out to be inglorious. In 1802, the Treaty of Amiens was signed, the terms of which limited England's concessions to the island of Trinidad, but Spanish power over the colonies in America was weakened. There was not enough money to maintain the household and to save from the plague.

The Treaty of Amiens was concluded on March 25, 1802 between England on the one hand and France, Spain and the Batavian Republic on the other. It was supposed to be the end of the Franco-English War of 1800-1802, but turned out to be only a short-term truce. At the time of the conclusion of the contract, the actions of both parties were insincere. In May 1803, the Peace of Amiens was terminated.

19th century

19th century was quite turbulent for Spain and other European countries: the appearance on the world stage of such a person as Napoleon, failed revolutions, the loss of colonies in Latin America and etc.

In 1803, Godoy dragged an exhausted Spain into new war with England, during which the Spanish fleet ceased to exist (1805). Godoy hatched plans to become the ruler of Southern Portugal and regent of Spain. To implement his plan, he enters into an offensive alliance with France against Portugal (October 27, 1807), which caused the discontent of the people, which led to an uprising. In May 1808, he was forced to abdicate in favor of Infante Ferdinand. The reign of Ferdinand VII was short-lived, because after some time Charles IV wrote to Napoleon that his abdication was forced. The French emperor demands both applicants (father and son) to arrive in Bayonne. After hesitating, Ferdinand renounces the crown in favor of his father; Charles, in turn, passes the reins of government into the hands of Napoleon.

Joseph Bonaparte (reigned 1808–1813)

July 6, 1808 Joseph Bonaparte (fig. 13) becomes the king of Spain, on July 7 he enters Madrid. Charles IV settled in Compiègne, Ferdinand VII moved to Valence.

Rice. 13. Joseph Bonaparte

The people of Spain, filled with national pride and religious fanaticism, rebelled against the foreigner, even in spite of their plight.

In Madrid, indignation ripened as early as the beginning of May 1808, when the people learned of Ferdinand's departure for Bayonne. This rebellion was crushed, but the struggle was bloody. Provincial juntas were created, guerrillas (Spanish partisans) settled in the mountains and armed themselves, the French and their friends were declared enemies of the fatherland. The retreat of the French contributed to a rise in enthusiasm among the Spaniards. At this time, the French were forced out of Portugal (Wellington). However, the French army defeated the Spaniards, and already on December 4, the French re-entered Madrid. January 22, 1809 Joseph Bonaparte again took the throne in his capital.

In the meantime, the war, which took on a popular character, was under the leadership of the central junta in Aranjuez (September 1808). Cities turned into fortresses, attacks on small detachments became more frequent, ambushes were set up, people walking separately were destroyed. This guerrilla war, which was declared on December 28, 1808 and was marked by the proclamation of the junta, produced many heroes about whom legends were formed. El Empesinado, Juan Paleara, Morillo, Porlier, Mina, priest Merino and others are known.

The actions of the partisans were not so active, but nevertheless they prevented the French from enjoying the fruits of their victory. However, at the beginning of 1810, luck turned away from Spain, the ruling classes began to go over to the side of Joseph Bonaparte. Despite this, the defenders of national independence continued to harbor hopes of success: a regency was introduced in Cadiz and the Cortes were assembled.

On March 18, 1812, the first Spanish constitution of a completely liberal nature was adopted. Its main meaning was that priority domestic policy will become the interests of the people.

A. Wellington, commander-in-chief of the Spanish troops, on July 22, 1812, defeated the French at Salamanca, and on August 12 entered Madrid. However, he soon had to retreat again, as a result of which Madrid again passed to the French.

Ferdinand VII (reigned 1813–1833)

The defeat of Napoleon's army in Russia changed the situation. Joseph Bonaparte had to leave Madrid forever (May 27, 1813), he was forced to retreat to Vittoria. June 21, 1813 Napoleon was defeated by Wellington. At the end of 1813, Ferdinand VII becomes king of Spain, Bonaparte recognizes him as such under an agreement on December 13, 1813. Ferdinand is allowed to return to the country. The Cortes, in turn, sent an invitation to Ferdinand to come to Spain for the coronation, swearing allegiance to the constitution of 1812.

In the spring of 1814, Ferdinand refuses to recognize the constitution and assumes royal power in Valencia. On May 14, he appears in Madrid, the people greet him with enthusiasm. Ferdinand promises a constitution and an amnesty, but he does not keep his word.

Those who swore allegiance to Bonaparte (officers and their wives with children) are expelled from the country forever. People who were fighters for the freedom and independence of Spain find themselves in disgrace, many are imprisoned.

Two generals (H. Porlier and L. Lacy), who stood for the constitution, were executed. In Spain, the secret police, monasteries and Jesuits were restored.

Between 1814 and 1819 24 ministers were replaced in the government. The current king had a weak, cowardly and capricious character. He was under the rule of those close to him, interfering with the carrying out of useful events. The Spanish Empire continued to lose the remnants of its colonies, completely lost its possessions in South and Central America, Florida had to be sold to the United States of America (for $ 5 million).

The initial delight, experienced by the people at the moment of the return of the king, turned into contempt and enmity. Discontent grew in the army as well.

On January 1, 1812, 4 battalions under the command of Lieutenant Colonel R. Riego proclaimed the constitution of 1812. A provisional government was established in Isla de Leon, which issued an appeal to the people. Many provincial cities joined the rebels, including the population of Madrid.

On March 9, 1820, King Ferdinand VII (Fig. 14) swore allegiance to the constitution of 1812. Then he destroyed the Inquisition and convened the Cortes. The majority of the votes were received by the liberals, one of their leaders even became the head of the cabinet (A. Argelles).

Rice. 14. Ferdinand VII

The main enemy of the new government was the king, who secretly supported the provincial clerical rebels (mostly with the apostolic junta). Ferdinand did everything to upset the undertakings of the liberal ministers, which, naturally, contributed to the irritation of the radicals (exaltados); the extremist party (descamisados) encouraged the reaction by the immoderation of its claims. Spain also suffered financial difficulties, which led to the spread and intensification of anarchy in the country. The government could not decide on the introduction of a direct tax or the sale of state property.

On July 7, 1822, an unsuccessful attempt was made by the king to occupy the capital. Ferdinand decided to secretly turn to the Holy Alliance for help, which was necessary to defeat the revolution. In the autumn of 1822, a congress was held in Verona, at which a decision was made on armed intervention in the affairs of Spain. France was appointed as the executor.

By mid-April, the Cortes, along with the king, fled from Madrid. On May 24, the capital enthusiastically welcomed the Duke of Angouleme. A regency was appointed, headed by the Duke of Infantado. The city of Cadiz, in which the Cortes (with the king) took refuge, was surrounded on all sides. On August 31, Fort Trocadero fell, and at the end of September the city came under fire.

The first envoys from the Holy Alliance demanded a change in the constitution, but were refused (January 9, 1823) and left Spain. Already in April 1823, the French army under the command of the Duke of Angouleme crossed the border of Spain, whose unorganized troops were unable to provide adequate resistance.

On September 28, 1823, the Cortes returned absolute power to the king. The Cortes dispersed, the instigators fled abroad. In November 1823, the last of the cities that joined the liberals surrendered - Barcelona, ​​Cartagena and Alicante, after which the duke returned to France.

Having regained power, Ferdinand VII began by canceling all acts of constitutional government adopted from March 7, 1820 to October 1, 1823). Then he recognized all the decisions of the Madrid regency. Supporters of the liberals were declared enemies of the king and handed over to religious fanatics.

Carlists were also called apostolics. It is a Spanish political party that was active in three civil wars and was active from the 1830s to the 1970s.

The Apostolic Junta sought to restore the Inquisition and became something of a second government. All the ministers who opposed her were destroyed.

The activity carried out by the party was explained simply: the king was middle-aged and childless, and the head of the party was the brother of the monarch, Don Carlos, who had all the rights to the throne. However, in 1827, after an armed uprising in Catalonia, which was raised by followers of Ferdinand VII, the king married Princess Christina of Naples, who gave birth to his daughter in 1830.

On March 29, 1830, a sanction was issued, according to which the law of 1713, introduced by the Bourbons, was canceled and the right of inheritance through the female line was returned. The publication of this permission meant that the Carlist conspiracy was exposed.

In 1832, Christina was proclaimed regent in the event of the king's death. F. Zea-Bermudez convened the Cortes, who swore allegiance to Isabella as heir to the throne (June 20, 1833).

Isabella II (reigned 1833–1868)

Rice. 15. Isabella II

In October 1833, the uprising of the Carlists began, which grew into a general armament, organized by T. Zumalakaregi. This was the first Carlist War (1833-1840).

At the end of the summer of 1840, the Carlist War ended and Spain submitted to Isabella II. On May 8, 1841, a new regent was elected, B. Espartero, who gained great popularity in the Carlist War with his numerous victories. His undertakings were hindered by the frequent demarches of ambitious officers and the intrigues of the regent who preceded him. In the early summer of 1843, a riot broke out in which the Progressives took part. As a result, Espartero fled to England.

On November 8, 1843, Queen Isabella turned 13 years old, the Cortes (conservative majority) declared her an adult. In 1844, M. Narvaez (Espartero's rival) became the head of the country's government. Queen Christina was called to return. In the spring of 1845, significant government reforms were carried out - a high property qualification was introduced for elections to the Cortes, senators were now appointed by the royal person, and this was done for life, the Catholic religion acquired the status of a state religion.

Wars that took place between two branches of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty are called Carlist. There are two of them in total: the first one began on October 4, 1833 immediately after the death of Ferdinand VII. Carlists (nobles), led by the son of Charles IV (Don Carlos the Elder), calling himself Charles V, revolted (in Talavera) against Maria Christina, regent of Isabella II. The second Carlist war began in 1872. The initiators were all the same Carlists who sought to enthrone their representative - Don Carlos the Younger, the grandson of Charles V, who called himself Charles VII. Initially, the Carlists were lucky, but already in 1876 they suffered defeat after defeat. As a result, they had to lay down their arms.

Initially, it was planned to marry Isabella to the Count of Montemolin, son of Don Carlos, so that the dynasty would become legitimate without doubt. However, this project was disrupted by the intrigues of Louis-Philippe, who planned for the role of her husband one of his sons, which he never succeeded in. Nevertheless, he married one son, the Duke of Montpensier, to Isabella's sister, Infante Louise. In addition, Louis-Philippe is trying to get the Spanish queen to marry her cousin, Francis d'Assisi, who was weak in body and soul. Isabella despised her husband and chose her favorites, who, in turn, abused her trust, which reduced the authority of the crown.

From 1833 to 1858 the government was unstable, 47 first ministers, 61 foreign ministers, 78 finance ministers and 96 military were replaced. From 1847 to 1851 the country was ruled by progressives, but then again the head of the ministry was Narvaez, who was a conservative, acted moderately, tried to maintain calm and contributed to the well-being of the people.

In 1861, the Republic of San Domingo entered into an alliance with Spain. At the end of the same year, Spain, in alliance with England and France, took part in an expedition to Mexico, but the commander-in-chief of Spain, Prim, noticed the selfish encroachments of the French and in 1862 returned back.

The clash with Peru and Chile led in January 1866 to the formal declaration of war by Spain with the South American countries - with Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Ecuador. However, all hostilities were limited to shelling first Valparaiso (March 31), then Callao (May 2).

On April 23, 1868, Narvaez suddenly dies, after which a unionist conspiracy is opened, the purpose of which was to enthrone the Duke of Montpensier. The instigators are exiled to the Canary Islands.

Isabella is sent to San Sebastian to Napoleon III to negotiate the occupation of Rome by the Spanish troops. This was the reason for the start of a new uprising, which was provoked by the Liberal Unionists and Progressives. Those sent into exile return to the active army, Prim arrives there, as well as the fleet under the command of Admiral P. Topeta. September 18, 1868 Isabella II is declared deprived of the throne.

Interregnum (1868–1870)

The spread of the riot throughout Spain is happening quite quickly. On September 28, at Alcolea (near Cordoba), General F. Pavia was defeated, in whose submission there were very few troops left. On September 30, the deposed Queen Isabella II of Spain flees the country to France. October 3 M. Serrano enters Madrid. A provisional government was created, which was made up of progressives and unionists, led by Serrano. First of all, the new government abolishes the Jesuit order, limits the number of monasteries, and proclaims absolute freedom of the press and education.

On February 11, 1869, a meeting of the Cortes was held, convened to discuss the constitution. It was attended by Unionists (40 people), Republicans (70 people) and Progressives (they were in the majority). On July 1, 1869, the assembly decided to keep the constitutional monarchy.

The renunciation of the Spanish throne by Ferdinand of Portugal and the Duke of Genoa led to a new regency. On January 18, Serrano becomes regent of the country.

Prim persuades Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern to take the throne of Spain, but France opposes and threatens war, as a result of which the prince rejects this plan and renounces the crown, like his predecessors Ferdinand of Portugal and the Duke of Genoa.

Amadeus I of Savoy (reigned 1870-1873)

The next candidate for the Spanish crown was the second son of the King of Italy - Amadeus (Fig. 16). On November 16, 1870, he was elected king by 191 votes to 98.

Rice. 16. Amadeus I of Savoy

December 30, 1870 Amadeus lands in Cartagena. On the same day, Marshal Prim died, who was wounded on December 27 in Madrid. It was a great loss for the new king. January 2, 1871 Amadeus takes up his duties in governing the country.

Although the elections were fair, not everyone was happy with Amadeus. The grandees showed him contempt, some officers refused to swear allegiance to the new king, some of the Carlists and Republicans constantly allowed themselves to attack the sovereign. Despite the fact that the state won the war with the Carlists, on May 24, 1872, the king was forced to give them an amnesty in order to restore calm in Spain (by the convention in Amorevieta).

On February 10, 1873, Amadeus I decided that he was unable to restore order in the country, and he, having renounced the throne, returned to Italy.

First Republic (1873–1874)

The Cortes, without a moment's delay, declared Spain a republic. Its first president was M. Figveras, who was a Republican-Federalist. He tried to narrow the rights of the Cortes and the main government, sought to give the provinces more autonomy. On May 10, during the next elections, the federalists received the majority of votes, and F. Pi i Margal became the new president. Anarchy reigned in the country. In the northern part of Spain, the Carlists strengthened around the pretender Don Carlos, in the south the party of the irreconcilables (intransihentes) tried to embody the ideals of the federal republic, etc.

On September 9, the former federalist E. Castelar became the head of the board and received emergency powers. On September 21, constitutional guarantees were canceled, and the country was declared under martial law. Seville, Malaga and Cadiz were captured, and on January 12, 1874, Cartagena also surrendered. The Carlists won one victory after another.

On January 2, 1874, another meeting of the Cortes took place, during which it turned out that Castelar's actions did not suit them, and he was forced to resign. On January 3, Serrano became head of the executive branch of the new government. His main goal was to end the Carlist War. In the early spring of 1874, the Carlists were able to force Serrano to withdraw troops from Bilbao, but on June 2-7, their troops suffered a serious defeat. At the beginning of 1875, Serrano decided to strengthen the army and prepared a decisive attack, but did not have time, as he himself was overthrown. The only legitimate contender for the throne of Spain was the eldest son of Queen Isabella II - Alphonse, who belonged to the moderate liberals.

Alphonse XII (reigned 1874–1885)

December 29, 1874 in Segunto Alfonso XII was proclaimed king of Spain. Serrano unconditionally resigned power. On January 14, 1875, the new king arrived in Madrid. On February 19, 1876, the Second Carlist War finally ended. On February 28, Don Carlos departed for France. At the same time, the Basque fueros were also destroyed.

Alphonse XII put the financial affairs of Spain in order, stopping payments until January 1, 1877. Then the public debt was paid in installments. The rebellion that arose in Cuba in 1878 was immediately liquidated.

The country was in a fever, in many places a republic was proclaimed, but the uprisings were quickly suppressed.

Alphonse XII intended to get closer to Germany, for which he in 1883 undertook a trip there and to Austria. The presence of the Spanish king in Hamburg at the maneuvers displeased the French.

In 1885, Spain suffered greatly from the constant earthquakes in Andalusia, cholera and popular unrest. The news of the occupation of the Caroline Islands by the Germans almost caused a war, but Alphonse managed to avert it.

November 25, 1885 Alphonse XII died. He left two daughters from his marriage with Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, and on May 17, 1886, after his death, she gives birth to a son, who is called Alphonse XIII.

Board of Regents (1885–1886)

In 1886, the Republicans revolted, but the people were on the side of the king's widow, and the uprising quickly died out.

Almost the entire regency of the widow, the policy of the country was in the hands of P. Sagasta. He was able to unite the cause of the liberals with the fate of the dynasty.

20th century

In the XX century. Spain became famous for its dictators - Primo de Rivera and Francisco Franco. In the 1930s a bloody civil war broke out in the country, after which Franco's fascist dictatorship was established in Spain (which lasted until 1975).

In 1975, Franco died, after which the constitutional monarchy was restored in Spain. The people proclaim Prince Juan Carlos King of Spain.

In 1976, a parliamentary system was introduced in the country. In April 1977, the right-wing National Movement party was disbanded.

In December 1978, a democratic constitution was adopted in a referendum, which sealed the final break with Francoism. Peripheral regions (Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia) receive autonomous status.

In 1986, Spain became a member of the European Union and continues to be a member of NATO.

In 1996, Spain is under the rule of the Spanish People's Party.

XX-XXI centuries brought liberal reforms and democratization to Spain. On April 28, 2005, the Spanish Parliament ratified the EU constitution.

Frankish state

The name of the French state (however, like the word "France" itself) is derived from the name of the tribe of the Franks, a small Germanic people who lived in the 5th century. in Flanders. This area was located in the northeastern region of Gaul, and it was there, according to most modern scholars, that the beginnings of the state began to take shape.

In the middle of the 5th century Gaul was part of the Holy Roman Empire and, from an economic and political point of view, was a very developed state, on the territory of which many tribes lived. At the head of each association were independently elected leaders or tribal commanders. However, there was no unity among the population of Gaul, and the state was constantly shaken by internal wars and bloody religious conflicts.

At the beginning of the VI century. The Frankish kingdom was perhaps the most formidable and warlike union of tribes that formed on the territories of the once powerful Roman Empire.

The first mention of the Frankish peoples can be found in the records of Roman historians dated 242. Presumably in that year, small detachments of Germans attacked the northeastern borders of the Holy Roman Empire for the first time.

The name of the recalcitrant tribes was also given by the Romans themselves, calling them wandering, brave or ferocious. Over the following centuries, the Franks repeatedly caused trouble to the rulers of the Roman Empire, constantly making daring raids on food caravans and border settlements, exterminating civilians and taking women and children into captivity. Ultimately, the emperor was forced to cede a large part of Gaul to the Franks.

At the end of the VI century. there was a division of the Frankish tribes into Salistic and Repuar Franks (the former lived on the territory of the sea coast, the latter inhabited the banks of rivers and lakes).

Merovingian era

The founder of this Frankish state is traditionally considered to be King Clovis, who ruled the local tribes in 481. According to ancient chronicles, Clovis was the grandson of Merovei himself, the ancestor of the legendary Merovingian dynasty. Leading the campaigns of his warlike people for several decades, the "divine descendant" proved to be a talented commander and a cunning diplomat (of course, if the definition of diplomacy is applicable to the dark times of the early Middle Ages).

The origin of the Merovingian dynasty itself also causes a lot of controversy and controversy. Some experts consider them to be the descendants of Jesus Christ and Mary Magdalene, who allegedly settled in French territory. The divine origin of the representatives of the royal family at one time was supported by the church, there are even records of "eyewitnesses" who saw the magical healing of King Merovei from a mortal wound received in battle with neighboring tribes.

Presumably in 496, Clovis became the first ruler of the French state to adopt the Christian faith, and the city of Reims, where this important historical event, has since become the traditional coronation site for all subsequent monarchs. However, despite the obvious religious preferences of their husband, both of his wives were adherents of the cult of Saint Genevieve, who, according to legend, was the patroness of the city of Paris, which became the capital of a rapidly growing empire.

The exact date and cause of death of King Clovis remain unknown, presumably he was seriously wounded during another military conflict with a neighboring kingdom and died, leaving four sons. From that time on, the gradual extinction of the legendary Merovingian dynasty began, since none of the subsequent descendants of Clovis were distinguished by any talents.

After the death of King Clovis, the country was divided by his four sons. However, the joint rule did not bring the expected results, and for several years spent in continuous feasts and entertainment, the heirs of the great dynasty did not make a single military campaign, for which they received the unflattering nickname "Lazy". The next ruler, Childeric III, also did not enjoy the love of his subjects and was soon removed from the throne by a more popular competitor. His further fate is unknown.

After the short reign of Childeric III, which was not marked by any significant events (with the exception of a coup d'état), King Pepin, a representative of the Carolingian dynasty, ascended the throne.

Years of Carolingian rule

The new monarch was distinguished by his very small stature, for which he quickly received the nickname "Short", which he bore all his life. However, despite his very modest physical data, Pepin entered the history of the French Empire as a talented politician, and his military campaigns, undertaken from 714 to 748, significantly expanded the borders of the state. In addition, the new monarch was a zealous supporter of the Catholic Church and enjoyed the favor of the Pope, who declared the descendants of the Carolingian dynasty the legitimate heirs to the French throne. Pepin the Short died in 748, leaving his eldest son Charles, known to posterity as Charlemagne, as heir. Being a brave and skillful warrior, the young king continued the aggressive campaigns of his father and annexed almost the entire western territory of the European part of the continent to his possessions, and by 799 the French empire was a very large state.

Many historians believe that Abbot Hugo got the nickname “Capet” due to his manner of dressing - he preferred the cape of a secular priest to the royal mantle (popularly called “kapa”), in which he even met the ambassadors of neighboring states. Subsequently, the nickname given to one person turned into the name of the entire Capetian dynasty, who ruled the French empire for several hundred years.

In 800, Charlemagne received the imperial crown from the hands of Pope Leo III, and in 801 a succession law was signed, according to which, after the death of the monarch, the right to rule was transferred to his eldest son. Thus, the centuries-old tradition of succession to the throne by all the children of the king (including illegitimate ones), which created a lot of problems for the people, was abolished.

After the death of Charlemagne, his eldest son Louis I ascended the throne, who continued glorious tradition aggressive campaigns and carried out the first series of legislative reforms in the history of the French state. First of all, the new ruler issued a series of laws that significantly changed the position of the church, which very soon gained control over state power. For the first time, clergy and religious figures began to play an essential (and perhaps even the main) role at the royal court. This was largely made possible thanks to the spiritual mentors of the young Louis - Aquinas priests Benedict and Elisachar, with whom the king was very close until his death.

During the reign of the young monarch, not only the attitude towards the clergy, but also towards the imperial power itself underwent significant changes, Louis began to be considered "the shepherd of the Christian people entrusted to him, called to lead him to salvation", while Charlemagne and all his predecessors developed a reputation as mere "collectors of lands". In addition to the political talent that Louis undoubtedly possessed, from the few surviving documents it can be concluded that the descendant of Charlemagne was also endowed with rare spiritual qualities, in particular an extraordinary sense of justice, thanks to which he earned the nickname "Pious" among the people. Unfortunately, the children did not inherit the noble character of their father and, after his death, unleashed a bloody battle for the throne, which sadly affected the economic and political situation in the country. The last ruler of the Carolingian dynasty was Louis V, who left no male heirs. After long disputes, in 987 the abbot Hugo Capet was elevated to the throne, who became the founder of a new royal dynasty.

Capetian dynasty

The reign of Hugo Capet and his descendants became a bloody page in the history of all of Europe. Being a zealous defender of the Catholic Church, the new ruler began an active struggle with other religious movements, which led to numerous lawsuits and public executions of all "infidels". In 1095, the abbot gathered a large army, which included representatives of the most noble French families, and organized the first Crusade in history against Jerusalem, the population of which was weakened by constant conflicts with Turkish soldiers.

Under the subsequent rulers of the Capetian dynasty, the scale of religious wars reached incredible proportions. The Second Crusade was undertaken in 1147, in which, in addition to the French knights, German troops also participated. However, despite the large army (according to some reports, more than 70,000 people participated in the campaign), the campaign ended in failure (the Germans, broken by the epidemic, were forced to return to their homeland, and the subjects of the French king were defeated near Honn).

In July 1147, the joint forces of the crusaders for several days unsuccessfully besieged Damascus, which was considered the richest and most fortified city of the Byzantine state. Having not achieved victory and having lost most of his knights, the French king Louis was forced to return home. Despite a series of failures, the popes and European monarchs did not soon give up their attempts to expand the Kingdom of Jerusalem at the expense of neighboring states.

The initiator of the Crusade was Pope Urban II, who turned to the French knights with a request to help in the liberation of the Holy Land (as the Catholic priests called Jerusalem) from the Muslims. The formal reason for the conflict was the refusal to issue sacred relics, but subsequently a simple military campaign turned into a serious military campaign, which involved most European countries. In the course of prolonged hostilities, a number of Christian states were founded, which included the Kingdom of Jerusalem (later this region became known as the Latin East).

The next Crusade was organized in the second half of the 12th century, led by such legendary generals as Frederick Barbarossa and the English King Richard Lion Heart, but, like last time, the European knights met fierce resistance (the leader of the Saracen army was Salah ad-Din, who had a reputation as a talented and cunning commander). At first, everything turned out quite well, and the French troops captured Sicily and even founded the kingdom of the Lusignans, but then the troops of Salah ad-Din won a series of unexpected victories, and the feuds that began between the English and French feudal lords did not allow the military campaign to continue.

Subsequent campaigns (in 1202, 1217, 1239 and 1248) did not bring stable success to the Europeans, and the last (ninth and extremely unsuccessful) attempt to capture Palestine, undertaken by the crusaders in 1270, forever crossed out the hopes of European monarchs to conquer the eastern peoples.

While numerous detachments of crusader troops unsuccessfully stormed Muslim cities, the first signs of feudal relations began to appear in France itself, and by the middle of the 10th century. the power of the French king did not extend to the entire territory of his own state, and even in his own duchy he had to reckon with the interests of his recalcitrant vassals, whose loyalty primarily depended on the size of the monetary reward. For the money received from the king, vassals acquired fiefs (neighboring duchies or plots of unoccupied territories), which they then gave to their relatives. Representatives of the Capetian dynasty themselves also actively acquired land, earning fabulous sums on the Crusades (initially, their direct family possession was only an insignificant plot located in the suburbs of Paris). As a result of these transactions, by the end of the X century. they managed to quadruple the area of ​​their family estate.

The direct descendants of Hugh Capet were in power until 1328, the last of them, Hugh-Charles IV the Handsome, was replaced on the throne by Philip VI, a representative of the lateral Capetian dynasty - Valois.

In the 30 years that elapsed between the death of Louis XI in 1483 and the accession of Francis I in 1515, the French Empire emerged from the Middle Ages. The initiator of these global transformations was a thirteen-year-old boy who ascended the French throne under the name of Charles VIII. From his royal ancestor, the most unloved by the people in the entire previous history of the French state, Charles received an economically and politically prosperous empire. The favorable situation on the external and internal political front contributed to the rapid implementation of the new political course. In addition to the start of a series of state reforms, which subsequently allowed the country to painlessly make the transition from the Middle Ages to the next stage of its development, the reign of young Charles was also marked by two very important events that significantly changed the political map of Western Europe. The first of these was the marriage to the Duchess Anne of Brittany, through which the previously independent province of Brittany became part of the French Empire.

The new law allowed the French rulers to freely withdraw money from the state treasury, while the return was guaranteed by Parisian tax revenues. Since then, large cities, primarily the capital, have become the largest source of replenishment of the state budget.

Another great achievement of the monarch was the annexation of Naples. Charles VIII died in 1498, and after him, under the name of Louis XI, the Duke of Orleans took the throne. Immediately after the coronation, the new ruler began organizing a military campaign against Italy, the main goal of which was Milan. The second major step of Louis was the adoption of a law on the introduction of a royal loan, which allowed the monarchy to receive significant funds without turning to the Estates General (the highest body of estate representation in France of that period). In addition, the new law made it possible to significantly slow down the growth of taxes.

Gradually, on the basis of the royal loan law, a very stable banking system was formed, which made it possible to invest not only the monarch himself and the wealthy citizens of France, but also the bankers of neighboring countries, who, in addition to the principal debt, were also obliged to pay interest. In modern terms, the law issued by Louis XI was the first model of a public credit system.

After the death of Louis XI, the throne passed to the Count of Angouleme, his relative, who inherited an unusually large and powerful state. Named at the coronation by Francis I, the new monarch became a real symbol of the Renaissance, and the strong banking system of France, whose resources seemed endless, fully corresponded to the predilections of the young king, who paid great attention to the cultural development of his subjects, and was also fond of painting and wrote poetry with pleasure. The influence of culture began to be felt in the appearance of royal fortresses, which gradually turn into beautiful palaces decorated with ornaments. Somewhat later, in the middle of the 15th century, book printing appeared in France, pushing the empire into the ranks of the most enlightened European states and giving a powerful impetus to the development of the French literary language.

The first French printing house was opened at the theological department of the University of Paris. The best German specialists were invited to install the equipment - Mikhail Friburger, Ulrich Goering and Martin Kranz. The first printed book was the complete collection of the letters of Gasparin de Bergama (an authoritative Italian humanist). Not less than important event in the development of French printing was the publication of the Bible (in 1476) and the "Great French Chronicles" (in the same year), and the "Chronicles" were completely printed in French.

However, Francis' foreign policy was far from being so successful, and his Italian campaigns did not bring the expected results. Despite the fact that the first French ruler of the Renaissance never became a famous commander, he nevertheless went down in history as one of the greatest monarchs, thus standing on a par with the English king Henry VIII and the Roman emperor Charles V. The Count of Angouleme ruled the French state from 1515 and died in 1547, leaving the throne to his eldest son, Henry II, who immediately undertook several brilliant military campaigns, conquering Calais from the British and establishing power over the dioceses of Verdun, Metz and Toul, which were previously provinces Holy Roman Empire.

In 1553, Henry married a representative of the influential Italian Medici dynasty, whose head was a wealthy and successful banker. Among other things, Heinrich was a passionate lover of knightly tournaments and often took part in them. In 1559, at one of these competitions, he was seriously injured (the opponent hit the king with a spear in the eye, and the sharp tip of the weapon damaged not only the bone, but also the brain), as a result of which he died.

Henry II had three sons who were the legitimate heirs to the French throne. The eldest of them, Francis II, who ascended the throne in 1560, according to the memoirs of his contemporaries, was a frail and sickly young man. In addition, the young king was under the strong influence of his relatives - the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Lorraine. by the most significant event in the short life of Francis was his marriage to the heir to the Scottish throne, Mary Stuart, with whom he was married by influential relatives. In all the surviving portraits of the young spouses, it is clearly seen that next to his wife, who has amazing external data, Francis II looked like a pale ghost. The cause of painful thinness and physical weakness was a hereditary blood disease with which the young prince struggled since childhood. However, neither the isolated lifestyle (for fear of injury, the young man practically did not leave his chambers), nor the efforts of the court doctors could save the King of France from death. A year after his coronation, Francis II died. The cause of his death was a common cold, which the weakened body could not cope with. After the death of her husband, Mary Stuart was forced to return to her homeland - to the Scottish kingdom.

Francis had no children, and his ten-year-old brother, crowned under the name of Charles IX, was declared the legitimate heir. Since the ruler was still too young, all the threads of state power were concentrated in the hands of his mother, a proud and power-hungry woman. Catherine de Medici began a very aggressive domestic policy, primarily aimed at fighting the Protestants, which was started by Francis I. At the same time, another religious trend was gaining strength in many cities of France - Calvinism, whose followers were wealthy citizens, as well as representatives of wealthy dynasties having significant power and at the royal court. The open confrontation between Catholics and Protestants led to the depletion of the state treasury. To remedy the situation, the monarchy had to increase taxes, which caused extreme discontent among the population.

The active spread of Calvinism and the unsuccessful attempts of the royal dynasty to overcome the economic and political crisis led to a significant drop in the authority of not only the Medici, but the French monarchy as a whole.

The tragic fate of Mary Stuart is worthy of a separate story, but her role in the development of the French state is insignificant. Mary was born in Scotland on December 8, 1542 and was the only heir to the throne, since her two brothers died shortly before her birth. A few weeks after her birth, Mary became Queen of Scotland, and at the age of six she was taken to France, where she was married to the heir to the throne, Prince Francis. However, the years spent in France did not bring Mary family happiness, and the royal mantle was not the subject of her toilet for long. Throughout her later life, the former French queen was the center of conspiracies, scandals and palace intrigues.

The situation was further aggravated by the extremely weak foreign policy of Charles IX and his mother. During the period of their joint rule, not a single major military conflict was noted, therefore, representatives of the nobility, deprived of the opportunity to fight abroad, constantly sought to get out of submission and, not meeting worthy resistance, plotted. Later, the ranks of the discontented nobility were joined by simple artisans, dissatisfied with the sharp increase in taxes. A wave of popular uprisings swept across the country.

Representatives of the Guise dynasty (zealous supporters of the Catholic Church) preferred the advantageous position of the defenders of their faith and enjoyed the support of the pope.

Huguenots and representatives of other religious denominations constituted another numerous camp, which included no less influential people (such as, for example, Mathieu de Montmorency, Louis de Conde and Gaspard de Coligny).

In 1562, among the inhabitants of Paris, divided into two camps, bloody clashes began, which a year later engulfed the whole country. Periods of fierce struggle were occasionally interrupted by short-term peace negotiations, during which the parties tried to reach an understanding (during the attempts, it was decided to still grant the Huguenots the right to be in certain territories, but a document was attached to the agreement containing a list of restrictions that actually made the implementation of this right impossible). In the process of preparing the third formal agreement, a dispute arose that led to one of the bloodiest events in the history of Europe.

The essence of the conflict was in religious contradictions: one of the obligatory conditions of the peace treaty was the marriage of the king's sister Margaret with a young descendant of the Navarrese kings, who, in fact, was the leader of the Huguenots. The dissatisfied king immediately ordered the arrest of the groom, which led to a terrible tragedy. the day before holiday in honor of St. Bartholomew, the supporters of the king organized the mass extermination of the Huguenots. According to numerous testimonies of contemporaries that have come down to us in the form of diaries and letters, that night Paris was literally drowning in the blood of innocent victims who were killed in their own homes, beaten and hung right on the streets of the city. Henry of Navarre miraculously managed to escape, but more than one thousand of his associates were killed on Bartholomew's night.

The death of Charles IX a year after the tragedy in Paris only exacerbated the already bloody conflict. The childless king's rightful heir was undoubtedly his younger brother, but the unpopular royal relative was significantly inferior in leadership qualities to his relative Henry of Navarre. The accession of the duke to the throne was opposed by the leaders of the Catholics (speaking on the side of the majority of the country's population), who could not allow the accession of the main leader of the Huguenots and put forward their candidate, Henry of Giza.

The French nobles and ordinary citizens were very emotional about the religious disagreements of their rulers, during which they became more and more convinced of the complete helplessness of the descendants of Francis I. Meanwhile, the French Empire was on the verge of collapse, and even the desperate attempts of the Queen Mother to restore the authority of the royal family did not bring success. . Catherine de Medici died the same year as Henry III, leaving her country to political and economic abyss.

After the death of most of his rivals, Henry of Navarre gained considerable military superiority, and also enlisted the support of a very large group of moderate supporters of Catholicism. In 1594, Henry took the most unexpected step in his entire life. To end the constant religious conflicts, he renounced Protestantism, after which he was crowned at Chartres.

Realizing that the political advantage was on the side of the representative of the Guise dynasty, Henry III ordered the murder of not only the duke himself, but also his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, which caused a new wave of indignation among the French population. Popular anger forced the king hastily to take the side of Henry of Navarre. A few months later, the legitimate ruler of France, Henry III, died under very mysterious circumstances (subsequently, a zealous Catholic monk was accused of his death).

In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was signed, according to which the Huguenots were officially recognized as a political minority and received the right to self-defense and work. This document put an end to the many years of civil war that ravaged the country and destroyed a significant part of the French population.

Henry of Navarre received the name of Henry IV and began a series of legislative changes, the main purpose of which was the economic stabilization of the situation. The right hand of the new king was the Duke of Sully, an intelligent and far-sighted man, through whose efforts prosperity and order were achieved. Maximilien de Bethune, who entered the history of France as the Duke of Sully, began his career as Minister of Finance, to which he was appointed in 1597. In 1599, he became the chief superintendent of communications, a few years later he received the post of chief commander of all artillery, and also inspector of all French fortresses.

The most notable achievements of the government of Henry IV were the decrees of 1595 and 1597, temporarily protecting the property of farmers from creditors and the administration and prohibiting the sale of property and tools taken for debts. In the course of further agricultural reforms, the amount of the tax paid by the peasants was reduced, which greatly facilitated their life. Thanks to these thoughtful actions, the last years of Henry's reign passed peacefully and prosperously.

Contemporaries characterized Sully as a straightforward, very honest and thrifty person (apparently, it was precisely these qualities that allowed the duke to stay in such high positions, despite numerous conspiracies of rivals). Already being the French king, Henry, boundlessly trusted Sully, constantly consulted with him and often followed his instructions.

At a time when all the events described above were taking place in the state, neighboring European countries gradually became involved in a grandiose conflict, the cause of which was all the same religious differences. Starting as a clash between German Protestants and Catholics, the confrontation gradually grew into the largest pan-European clash, in which almost all countries became participants, with the exception of Switzerland and Turkey.

Despite the explicit religious orientation of the Thirty Years' War, most historians believe that its main goal was to undermine the authority of the powerful Habsburg dynasty. Gradually, France was also drawn into the maelstrom of conflict. But in 1610, King Henry IV was killed during the preparation of the next military campaign. This tragic event kept the country from premature participation in the Thirty Years' War.

After the death of Henry, his nine-year-old son, crowned Louis XIII, took the throne. Queen Marie de Medici became regent under the minor monarch. Mary's close friend and mentor was Armand Jean de Plessis, Bishop of Luzon, better known as Cardinal Richelieu. In 1624, he was appointed official representative of the king and virtually single-handedly ruled the country, earning a reputation as one of the greatest politicians in the history of France. Thanks to a large army of quartermasters (secret agents), Richelieu managed to restore the authority of royal power in noble circles, but his greatest achievement was the opening of the French Academy of Sciences, which the cardinal continued to patronize until his death.

But there was also a negative side in Richelieu’s activities, for example, the agent network organized by the cardinal significantly infringed on the rights of noble families and practically deprived them of their independence, in addition, Richelieu continued to actively fight against the Huguenots, forcing the king to pass a law on the seizure of all fortresses and castles from them. However, despite the obvious ambiguity of the political course pursued by Richelieu, most of his plans turned out to be very successful and brought benefits to the state. The death of the bishop in 1642 was a terrible blow to the royal family (most historians are inclined to conclude that Richelieu died a natural death, but some of them still believe that the Huguenots poisoned him). A year later, the ruler himself died, and although his heir, Louis XIV, was barely 5 years old at that time, the transfer of power was surprisingly calm.

A huge role in this process was played by the protege and student of the late de Plussy, Cardinal Mazarin. Anna of Austria, his mother, was appointed guardian of the little ruler, but the real power was concentrated in the hands of the cardinal. Throughout his life, Mazarin actively pursued royal policy domestically, but in the international arena he adhered to the course outlined by Richelieu. Major foreign policy achievements of French diplomats were the Versailles and Pyrenean peace treaties.

By the time of Mazarin's death in 1661, Louis XIV had already reached his majority and had the opportunity to govern his state with his own hands. The young king moved away from the policy of peace negotiations and began active hostilities. The key to the success of military campaigns was a large, well-trained army, the skill and undoubted talent of commanders, among whom there were truly legendary personalities (Vicomte de Turin, Prince of Condé, etc.). After the death of Cardinal Mazarin, Jean-Baptiste Colbert became the right hand of the French king.

Engaged in the service of the late cardinal in 1651, Colbert managed to make a truly dizzying career under Louis XIV: in 1661 he became a member of the Supreme Council, in 1664 he was appointed surintendent of public buildings and manufactories, in 1665 he became comptroller general Finance, and in 1669 - Minister of the Sea.

Colbert's economic policy was mainly aimed at raising funds to ensure the endless military campaigns of the French king, and his radical methods (such as an increase in the customs tariff in 1667, an increase in trade duties on the import of foreign goods, a sharp increase in indirect taxes) caused large peasant uprisings. Even during the life of Louis XIV, contemporaries accused him of an excessive and “extremely dangerous love for war” and more than once reproached the king for the fact that this passion of his led to the invasion of French territory by enemy troops, to the complete depletion of the once rich state treasury. Indeed, in the last years of his life, the king got involved in the desperate War of the Spanish Succession, which ended in the complete defeat of the French army and almost led to a split in the state itself (only the lack of mutual understanding in the ranks of its opponents saved France from ruin). Louis XIV died at an advanced age in 1715, and his young great-grandson ascended the throne, crowned under the name of Louis XV. The self-appointed Duke of Orleans became regent for the minor ruler. The reign of Louis XV resembled an unfortunate parody of the reign of his predecessor.

In 1720, the ambitious regent of the king was involved in a huge scandal, which was caused by the failure of the Mississippi project, organized by John Law with the tacit consent of the Duke of Orleans. This project, in fact, was an unprecedented speculative scam, the purpose of which was the rapid replenishment of the state treasury.

Another, perhaps the most corrupt industry was the sale of the right to collect taxes, which by that time no longer brought positive results. The well-trained army of Louis XIV, handed over to the hands of the aristocracy, turned into a collection of demoralized, ragged and hungry soldiers, ready at any moment to raise an uprising against their superiors. With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756, Louis XV began to pay noticeably more attention to his army.

The Seven Years' War, which raged in Europe from 1756 to 1763, was one of the largest conflicts of the 18th century, which involved most of the colonial powers of both the Old and New Worlds. The cause of the bloody conflict that broke out was a direct clash of interests of Great Britain, France and Spain in the struggle for the North American colonies. Later, the English politician Winston Churchill called the seven-year confrontation "the first world war."

French troops were forced to fight in the territories of Spain and Prussia (in the latter case, France participated in the War of the Austrian Succession). Constant participation in military conflicts greatly affected the economic and political state of the French Empire, which by the end of the Seven Years' War had lost most of its colonies and was on the verge of a grandiose social crisis.

The difficult situation that developed within the country, as well as its loss of international prestige, ultimately led to the revolution of 1789. In the course of numerous bloody clashes, the French people managed to briefly get rid of both the feudal remnants of the era of medieval chivalry and the monarchy itself. However, at the beginning of the path of democratic development of the state, Napoleon came to power.

Golden years of the French Empire. The era of Napoleon I

The whole history of the empire of Napoleon I is filled with contradictions and paradoxes. No less mysterious is the very figure of the emperor.

With the reins of government in his hands, Napoleon launched unprecedented (since the time of the Roman legionnaires) military campaigns, during which he annexed most of the neighboring states. In 1814, under pressure from his political opponents, the emperor abdicated, but a year later he ascended the throne again. Napoleon's second reign was short-lived. After the crushing defeat of the French troops at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, Bonaparte was exiled to St. Helena, where he later died all alone.

On the one hand, Napoleon strove in everything to correspond to the title of emperor of one of the largest European states. To this end, he started a lush courtyard, for which he independently developed the rules of etiquette. As in the court of the powerful and hated by all the Bourbons, the subjects of Napoleon Bonaparte wore long and beautiful titles (for example, great admiral, constable, archchancellor or archtreasurer). Being a descendant of an old, but by no means royal family, Napoleon equated himself with Charlemagne, giving the order to hold his coronation in Milan and independently placing the crown of the Lombard monarchs on his head.

Napoleon Bonaparte went down in world history as a talented commander, statesman and ambitious conqueror. The future emperor of France was born on August 15, 1769, his father was a prosperous lawyer Carlo Bonaparte, and his mother was a representative of the old patrician family of Ramolino. The rather high social position of his parents allowed Napoleon to receive a good education. In 1799, as a result of a coup d'état, Bonaparte was appointed first consul of the French Republic, and in 1804 he proclaimed himself emperor.

On the other hand, France, under the rule of Bonaparte, was not like any of the monarchies that existed at that time, differing from them in the origin and nature of power, the presence of elementary democratic rights, as well as the visible power of the people over their ruler. Although the fact of Napoleon's dependence on the opinion of the population of his state was specially cultivated by Bonaparte himself, historians believe that such tactics helped the emperor enlist the support of his subjects. In this way, Napoleon tried to instill both monarchical and democratic principles in the French state.

One of the most important achievements of the emperor's domestic policy was the adoption of a document that went down in history as the Napoleonic Code. Specially convened for its creation, a commission of four famous lawyers developed a code and, in a record short time, brought them into line with French customs. In 1804, the work of lawyers was approved by Napoleon as the first Civil Code in the history of France.

Historians perceive this document very ambiguously, on the one hand, pointing to the powerless position of the country's women, who were made completely dependent on their husbands and families, and on the other hand, noting that the code contains provisions on universal equality before the law, inviolability of the person, freedom of conscience etc. In subsequent years, Napoleon also approved the codes of commercial and criminal legislation, in which the principles of the bourgeois state were finally fixed, and the government of France was now the guarantor of their implementation.

Bonaparte himself was well aware of the political meaning of the laws he introduced. In his diary, he wrote that his true glory was not in forty successful battles, but in a civil code that would "live" forever. And, as time has shown, the ambitious emperor turned out to be right, and after his death, the rulers of European states, when drafting bills, continued to be based on the principles set forth in the Napoleonic Code.

In addition to significant legislative changes, Napoleon carried out a number of successful reforms in the field of education. In 1808, the first university was established by a special imperial decree. In the next few years, a single centralized system developed in France, which covered all levels of education, both primary and higher.

Napoleon's foreign policy was unusually aggressive, and the military campaigns undertaken in the period from 1799 to 1810. in large letters his name was written in the book world history. In the last years of Napoleon's reign, the discontent of the French population gradually began to increase. First of all, this was facilitated by the military failures of Bonaparte (the military campaign against Russia ended in a complete disaster), as well as the ban on the import of English goods, which caused an acute shortage of raw materials in the empire. Despite the strictest ban, trade with England continued, which incredibly irritated Napoleon and forced him to make mistake after mistake. However, the final point in the political and military career The French emperor was set up by the Battle of Waterloo, in which his troops were defeated.

The Battle of Waterloo took place in 1815 and entered the textbooks as the last battle of Napoleon Bonaparte. Very symbolic is the fact that the French emperor collapsed in a battle with his longtime enemies - the British. From the very first minutes of the fierce struggle, it became clear that Napoleon's luck had left this time, his soldiers were dying one by one, and, realizing the futility of further resistance, Bonaparte ordered a retreat.

Returning to Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated the throne for the second time. Former subjects betrayed the deposed emperor to the English troops. The death of Napoleon on the island of St. Helena on May 5, 1821 ends the history of the French Empire itself, whose power from the middle of the 16th century. knew no boundaries, and the expanses covered by it far exceeded the territory modern France. However, despite the fact that scientists already know most of the facts, the whole history of this state is full of mysterious events and bloody secrets that will occupy the minds of modern historians for a long time to come.

During the next Visigothic palace coup one of the groups of conspirators turned to their African neighbors for help (711), help came immediately, making colossal changes in world history. The Mauritanian Arab-Berber corps under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad, later called the Moors, successfully crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, put an end to the three hundred year rule of the Visigoths. Under the onslaught of the Arabs, who, without much bloodshed, occupied province after province, moving further and further deep into the Iberian Peninsula.

By the middle of the eighth century, most of modern Spain and Portugal became under the control of the Damascus Caliphate. The newly created Arab state was called Al Andalus, it was ruled by the governor of Damascus until 756, until Abdurrahman I proclaimed it a separate caliphate with a capital.

The era of Arab rule over the Spanish territories cannot be called unequivocally aggressive. During the existence of the Mauritanian state, the cultural development of medieval Spain, divided by two different religions, followed different paths. Its northern part, which remained under the control of the Visigoths, developed according to the European scenario, but the southern part, occupied by the Arabs, received a significant development impetus from the influence of advanced Eastern science, trade, crafts, and architecture.

The Moorish style of architectural structures can still be traced in the appearance of the ancient city blocks of the southern provinces. Muslims were tolerant of representatives of other religious concessions without provoking ethnic hatred, thus maintaining the state order. In a short time, the Roman irrigation systems destroyed by the barbarians were recreated, high-quality education was again developed, trade flourished, science and crafts developed.

The greatest flourishing of the Cordoba caliphate was observed during the reign of Abdurrahman III, who proclaimed himself the caliph of the new caliphate (923), opposing himself to the Damascus caliphate, its rulers, the Abbasid dynasty. The state had 12,000 settlements with the largest cities, Toledo, the capital had more than half a million inhabitants. Cordoba University was the best educational institution then known world, his library consisted of 400,000 handwritten scrolls.

The time of the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba, the beginning of the 11th century, was marked by the reign of Hishame II, the son of the great Abdurahman III, who turned out to be a weak ruler, unable to maintain autocracy after the death of the vizier Mansur, who actually ruled the country. The caliphate collapsed, power was divided among many small kingdoms - taifas.

The first victory of the Moors on the Guadalete River, now the territory of the modern province of Andalusia, on July 19, 711, then two years later the death of the last Visigoth king Roderic, sealed the fate of the Visigothic kingdom.

However, the very rapid advance of the Moors, the rapid capture of almost all of Spain, the difficulties of communication between the detachments created by vast territories, internecine conflicts, political disagreements between the Arab minority and the Berbers, all these factors significantly weakened the degree of Muslim influence in the occupied lands. In fact, the unity of the caliphate has always been only the desired illusion of its rulers.

In essence, the reconquista is an ongoing 700-year struggle begun by the Visigoths with their African invaders, the beginning of which is considered the first serious defeat suffered by the Arab troops in 718 from the army of Christians led by the Visigothic commander Pelayo, in the Covadonga Valley in northern Spain. Thus, the Christians gradually occupied the lands that the Muslims could not adequately defend, as a result, the warring parties, by the end of the 8th century, formed the border region - Castile.

The initial period of the reconquista of the 10th century can be geographically identified as two centers of the liberation struggle; western from the side of the kingdom of Leon, eastern kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. Two years later, thanks to the unification of the two kingdoms of Quistilla and Leon, a powerful western stronghold of confrontation was formed at the same time a major political force, and the united kingdom received the priority right to annex the lands conquered from the Moors. By the end of the tenth century, the troops of Castile, led by King Alfonso VI, captured Toledo, moving the border with the Caliphate to the Duero and Tagus rivers.

According to a similar scenario, military events developed from the eastern part of Christian Spain, the result of the unification of the kingdoms of Navarre, Aragon, the counties of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community was the formation of the county of Catalonia, which by the end of the 13th century liberated vast territories now belonging to modern Murcia from Arab domination, as well as the Balearic Islands.

Such major victories were due not only to the art of the weapons of the crusaders, but often as a result of the disorganization, disunity, and weakness of small Muslim taifas.
It should be noted that very often Christian mercenaries, for various reasons, more often simply for a decent reward, directed their weapons against the crusaders who brought death to Muslims.
One of these mercenaries was the national hero of Spain, sung by the folk epic, Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, better known as Cid, from the Arabic “seid” - master, the crown of his career was the post of ruler of Valencia in 1094.

Not wanting to pay tribute to the Christians, the Arab emirs asked for help from the Almoravids, who created a powerful North African state (the modern kingdom of Morocco). Thus the second wave of Muslims swept the Iberian Peninsula. The Almoravids removed the former rulers from the rule of the taifas, restoring a single power in the entire state of Al Andalus, significantly pushing the crusaders in the northeast, capturing Valencia. However, after a severe defeat from the Christian army at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), their power was seriously weakened.

The Catholic Church also waged a powerful ideological war against Islam, strengthening the mentality of the crusaders, for example, the king of Aragon established the first spiritual and knightly order of the Templars, then such orders as Alcantara, Calatrava, Santiago began their activities in other parts of Spain. These powerful spiritual organizations were of great help in the fight against the Almohads, holding strategically important points, improving life, raising the economy of the recently recaptured border regions.

The 13th century marked the end of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula; cities such as Taragona (1110), Zaragoza (1118), Calatayud (1120), Valencia (1238), Cordoba (1238), (1247) were liberated. Only one invincible city remained, the last stronghold of the Muslims - which, under the continuous onslaught of King Ferdinand II of Castile, was left (January 1492). The result of long negotiations was an agreement according to which the troops of Emir Mohammed XII who left the city were given an unhindered retreat to the coast of North Africa.

For the most part of the former Muslim possessions, the indigenous Spanish population was loyal to the Arabs, not preventing them from remaining in their former places, preserving their faith, only in the Muslim uprising of 1264, which resulted in the mass expulsion of the Arab population.

By the end of the reconquista, real political power in the country was divided between the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Both kingdoms were in a fever of internecine conflicts.

The middle of the fourteenth century is marked by the confrontation between Pedro the Cruel and his half-brother Enrique of Trastamara. The British were then waging a hundred-year war with the French. Pedro the Cruel ruled the kingdom of Castile (1350 - 1369), until the exiled Enrique, with the support of the French king Charles V, seized power by proclaiming himself King Enrique II (1369), defeating Pedro's army on the plains of Montel. However, the conspiracies did not stop there, the Duke of Lancaster, having married the eldest daughter of Pedro, laid claim to the throne of Castile.

After the death of Enrique, until the age of Crown Prince Juan II, the country was actually ruled by his younger brother, Ferdinand. Aragon, led by its king Alphonse V, expanded its influence over the Mediterranean, going further after the capture of the Bolearic Islands, conquered Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, then took possession of significant lands of southern Italy (1416-1458).

As the territories increased, the kings of both states needed to change the system of government by creating supervisory bodies over numerous governors, whose number was constantly increasing. The power of monarchs and royal officials was limited by the cortes (parliaments). Delegations of cities were additionally created to oversee the activities of the Cortes.

The Cortes, being by no means democratic bodies, represented the interests of the wealthy segments of the population. If the Cortes of Castile were an obedient tool of the monarch, especially during the reign of Juan II, then Aragon and Catalonia adhered to a different concept of power. It proceeded from the fact that political power was initially established by free people by concluding an agreement between those in power and the people, which limited the rights and obligations of both parties. Accordingly, any violation of the agreement by the royal power was considered a manifestation of tyranny (1412 - 1419).

The reign of the next Castilian king, Enrique IV the "Powerless" (1454–1474), gave rise to anarchy. Under pressure from the opposition-minded nobility, he signed a declaration by which he recognized his brother Alphonse as king (1465). However, many cities supported Enrique, a civil war began, which continued after the sudden death of Alfonso (1468). As a condition for ending the rebellion, the nobility put forward the demand of Enrique to appoint her half-sister Isabella as the heir to the throne. Enrique agreed, Isabella married the Infante of Aragon, Fernando (1469) (hereinafter known as the Spanish king Ferdinand).

After the death of Enrique IV (1474), Isabella was declared queen of Castile, and Ferdinand, after the death of his father Juan II (1479), took the throne of Aragon. So the two largest kingdoms united, creating a state.

The speeches of the peasants of Catalonia were directed against the tightening of land taxes, especially intensified by the middle of the 15th century, becoming the pretext for a new civil war (1462 - 1472) between the Catalan parliamentary elite who supported the landowners and the monarchy who stood up for the peasants. Alphonse V abolished some feudal duties (1455), and after another peasant revolt, Ferdinand V signed (1486) the so-called “Guadalupe maxim”, effectively abolishing serfdom, as well as many feudal duties.

The "Catholic kings" Ferdinand and Isabella, under the influence of the clergy, approved the church court - the Inquisition (1478), designed to protect the purity of the Catholic faith. The persecution of Jews, Muslims, and later Protestants began. Anyone could be declared a heretic. Hundreds of thousands of people suspected of heresy went through torture and ended their lives at the stake. They also persecuted the Mariskas or Marans - Christians, previously converted descendants of the Moors, converted Jews. A lot of Jews migrated from Spain to the territory of the Netherlands, then belonging to the Spanish kingdom.

The administration of the higher offices became wholly the privilege of the king; the higher clergy were also subordinate to the monarch; Ferdinand was elected grand master of the three orders of chivalry, making them an effective instrument of the crown; the inquisition helped the government control the nobility at the same time effectively manage the people. The administration was reorganized, the royal revenues were increased, part of them went to encourage the development of sciences, to support the arts.

Excursion tours to Spain resort coast Costa del Sol

Posted in category Tagged ,

On the territory of modern Israel. They founded the city of Cadiz, which was then called Gadir or Gader. This city became the center of the Phoenician colonies.

Subsequently, the Phoenicians, being skilled navigators, reached Africa and founded the state of Carthage there with the capital of the same name (the territory of modern Tunisia). The inhabitants of Carthage continued to develop new lands, including on the Iberian Peninsula. After 680 BC Carthage became the main center of Phoenician civilization, and the Carthaginians established a trading monopoly in the Strait of Gibraltar.

The Greeks settled on the east coast, their city-states were located on the territory of modern Costa Brava.

At the end of the First Punic War, Hamilcar and Hannibal subjugated the south and east of the peninsula to the Carthaginians (237-219 BC). Then the Carthaginian commander Hamilcar created the Punic Empire and moved the capital to New Carthage (Cartagena). New Carthage becomes the center of development of the Iberian Peninsula.

After the defeat of the Carthaginians, whose troops were led by Hannibal, in the Second Punic War in 210 BC. e., the Romans came to the Iberian Peninsula. The Carthaginians finally lost their possessions after the victories of Scipio the Elder (206 BC).

But for almost two centuries, the Celtiberians resisted the Roman Army in the central and northern parts of the peninsula. The Basque tribes that inhabited the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula were never conquered, which explains their modern special language dialect, which has nothing to do with the Latin group of languages.

Roman period in Spanish history

Gradually, the Romans conquered the entire Iberian Peninsula, but they succeeded only after 200 years of bloody wars. Spain became the second most important center of the Roman Empire after Italy itself. She gave the first provincial consul, the emperors Trajan, Adrian and Theodosius the Great, the writers Martial, Quintilian, Seneca and the poet Lucan.

Spain completely fell under the influence of the Romans. Local languages ​​were forgotten. The Romans laid a network of roads in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. In the major centers of Roman Spain, like Tarracon (Tarragona), Italica (near Seville) and Emerita (Merida), theaters, arenas and hippodromes were built, bridges and aqueducts were erected. Through seaports there was an active trade in metals, olive oil, wines, wheat and other goods. Not only trade flourished, but industry and agriculture were at a high level of development. The population was very numerous (according to Pliny the Elder, under Vespasian there were 360 ​​cities).

Very early in Spain, Christianity penetrated and began to spread, despite the bloody persecution. The Christian Church had a good organizational structure even before the baptism of the Roman emperor Constantine in 312.

From the second half of the 5th c. n. e. until 711-718

On the territory of Spain - the feudal state of the Visigoths. They defeated Rome in 410, in the 5th century. captured most of the Iberian Peninsula. At the beginning of the 8th century the state of the Visigoths was conquered by the Arabs, who created a number of feudal states on its territory

Arab domination

But after all, Spain was also under the yoke, only the Arab one, which, starting from the VIII century, lasted more than 700 (!) Years, from 718 year on 1492 the year when the last stronghold of the Arabs, the Emirate of Granada, fell in Spain. And apparently, the Arab yoke for the peoples of Spain (being, of course, also a national tragedy, only lasting not 230, but 700 years) at the same time served as a powerful stimulus for the struggle for national revival and the creation of a strong unified Spanish state.

Reconquista

The Spaniards fought the Arab conquerors continuously, starting in 718. Their "Battle of Kulikovo" is a battle in the valley of the Covadonga River in Asturias back in 718, when a local militia led by Pelayo defeated a detachment of Arabs.

Since that time, the so-called Reconquista"- that is, the war for the conquest of the Spanish lands from the Arabs. It was during the Reconquista, which lasted 700 (!) years, the Spanish kingdoms of Aragon, Castile and others arose, which later, in their common interests of joint struggle against the Arabs, voluntarily united as a result of the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon 1479 year into a single Spanish state. And 13 years later, in 1492 year, with the Arab yoke in Spain was over.

16th century

The Spaniards, united in the struggle against a common enemy into a single state, at the same time carried out colonial conquests in America and created a vast and prosperous Spanish empire by the middle of the 16th century. The heyday of the Spanish Empire under Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand V. However, the influx of gold from across the ocean did not contribute to the development of the country's economy, numerous Spanish cities remained predominantly political, but not trade and craft centers. The policy of the ruling circles more and more suppressed the development of trade and crafts, exacerbating the economic and then political lagging behind Spain from the countries of Western Europe. From the middle of the XVI century. under King Philip II - economic decline, wars with England, loss of maritime dominance. Beginning of the "House of the Austrian Kings" period (1516).

17th century

By the end of the 17th century, the country's economy and the state apparatus fell into a state of complete decline, the cities and territories were depopulated. Due to the lack of money in many provinces returned to barter. Despite exceptionally high taxes, the once luxurious court of Madrid was unable to pay for its own maintenance, often even a royal meal.

18th century

1701-1714

The struggle of European dynasties for the Spanish throne. War of the Spanish Succession. It began after the death in 1700 of the last Spanish Habsburg. In 1701, France installed Louis XIV's grandson Philip V of Bourbon on the throne of Spain; Austria, Great Britain, Holland, Prussia and others (the "Coalition") opposed.

Major battles:

1704 - under Hochstedt

1709 p under Madplak

1712 - under Denen

1713-1714

End of the War of the Spanish Succession. Utrecht and Rastatt (1714) worlds. The main result of the war was the strengthening of the naval and colonial power of England. End of the "House of the Austrian Kings" period. Philippe of Bourbon was left Spain with colonies in exchange for the renunciation of his and his heirs from the rights to the French throne. The Habsburgs (Austria) received Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy. Great Britain received Gibraltar and the city of Mayon on the island of Menorca, as well as the right to import Negro slaves into the American possessions of Spain (“the right of asiento”) and a number of possessions in North America from France. In the XVIII century. The monetary unit of Spain was put into circulation - 1 peseta, equal to 100 centimes.

In the middle of the XVIII century A number of important reforms were carried out in the country. Taxes were lowered, the state apparatus was updated, the rights of the Catholic clergy were significantly limited.

Further changes led to positive results. In Catalonia and some port cities, the development of manufactory production began, trade with the colonies flourished. But due to the complete economic decline of the previous time, the development of industry and transport in the country was possible only by the state and required large loans.

19th century

During the 19th century, from 1808 year, Spain experienced five (!) revolutions that followed almost with the frequency of a courier train: after 6,11,11 and 12 years one after another, until the revolution 1868-1874 years. During this period, the Spaniards developed five drafts of the Constitution, of which four were adopted and worked. The first, so-called Cadiz constitution was adopted in 1812.

Five unfinished revolutions:

1. Revolution of 1808-1814

Merged with the struggle against the French occupiers.

The most important events: - a popular uprising in March 1808 in the city of Aranjuez, where the imperial court was located, spread to Madrid. Result: the resignation of Prime Minister M. Godoy and the abdication of Charles IV (King Carlos the Elder of Spain) in favor of his son Ferdinand (King Ferdinand VII); - entry on March 20, 1808 of French troops in Madrid, the capture by the French of King Ferdinand VII of Spain;

The meeting in Bayonne in June-July 1808 of representatives of the nobility and the highest administration (“Bayonne Cortes”), which recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain and adopted the Bayonne constitution. The constitution was proposed by Napoleon I and defined Spain as a constitutional monarchy with disenfranchised Cortes;

The armed struggle of the people and the remnants of the regular army against foreign invaders;

Creation in the liberated territories of authorities (junta) and in September 1810 - the Central Junta;

Convocation on September 24, 1810 on about. Leon of the Constituent Assembly of Spain, which moved on February 20, 1811 to the city of Cadiz ("Cortes of Cadiz"). The Cadiz Cortes acted until September 20, 1812. They adopted the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and a number of democratic anti-feudal laws (freedom of speech and press, the destruction of the rights and privileges of seniors, etc.). The constitution was in force in 1812-4814. in unoccupied French territory. Proclaimed Spain a constitutional monarchy;

The victory of the counter-revolution after the defeat of the armies of Napoleon I by the allied forces, the return of King Ferdinand VII from French captivity in 1814 and the restoration of absolute monarchy.

2. Revolution of 1820-1823

It happened 6 years after the first revolution. Major events:

The speech of the people under the leadership of the leader of the party of the left liberals ("exaltados") Riero y Nunez in January 1820 in Cadiz;

In March 1830, the restoration of the Cadiz Constitution of 1812;

In March - April 1820, the formation of the constitutional Government of the party of right-wing liberals ("moderados"), which carried out a number of reforms;

In August 1822, the transfer of power to the government of "exaltados", a law on agrarian reform was adopted, which was not implemented;

September 30, 1823 - capitulation of the constitutional Government; - October 1, 1823 King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy.

3. Revolution of 1834-1843

It happened 11 years after the second revolution under the 4-year-old daughter of Ferdinand VII, Queen Isabella, and regent Maria Christina. King Ferdinand VII died in 1833.

Major events:

In October 1833, the manifesto of the regent Maria Christina on the preservation of the absolutist order after the death of the king;

In January 1834, the Moderados government was formed;

Popular uprisings under the slogan of restoring the Cadiz Constitution of 1812;

In September 1835, the formation of the government of the bourgeois-liberal Progressive Party, which began the sale of church lands;

In June 1837, the convocation of the Constituent Cortes and the adoption by them of a new Constitution, which retained the right of "veto" for the king;

At the end of 1837 the Progressives were removed from power;

In October 1840, the Progressives came to power again (the government of General B. Espartero);

In July 1843, a counter-revolutionary coup led by General Narváez (Duke de Valencia, head of the moderados party, head of several governments in the following years until 1868) Restoration to the throne of Queen Isabella II, who was 13 years old. In fact, until 1851

military dictatorship. Narvaez.

4. Revolution 1854-1856

It happened again under Queen Isabella II 11 years after the third revolution.

Major events:

June 28, 1854 military uprising and forced appointment by Queen Isabella II of the Progressive General B. Espartero as prime minister;

In November 1854, the convocation of the Constituent Cortes. Adoption of laws on "deamortization" (sale of land of the church, monasteries, state, peasant communities);

13 Tolya 1856 dismissal of Prime Minister B. Espartero by Queen Isabella II. In response, uprisings began, which were suppressed;

The formation of the new government of O "Donnell (Count of Lusensky, Duke of Tetouan, head of the Liberal Union"

Party of right-wing liberals, founded in 1854 Opponent of the deep revolution, prepared a counter-revolutionary coup (1856). Dissolution of the Constituent Cortes, restoration of the constitution of 1845 and other pre-revolutionary laws;

Restoration of absolute monarchy by Queen Isabella II,

5. Revolution 1868-1874

It happened again under Queen Isabella II 12 years after the fourth revolution.

Major events:

Emigration of Queen Isabella II;

February 11, 1869, convocation of the Constituent Cortes, which adopted a constitution introducing democratic freedoms;

On November 16, 1870, Amadeus of Savoy was elected to the throne - a representative of the dynasty of the rulers of Savoy, the kings of the Sardinian kingdom, the kings of the united kingdom of Italy. Republican uprisings, the emergence of Spanish groups of the First International;

June 1873 - meeting of the new Constituent Cortes, who developed a draft of a new Republican constitution. Left-wing Republican F. Pi-i-Margal (1824-1901) was elected Prime Minister

Revolutionary democrat, utopian socialist;

July 1873 - anti-government uprisings with the active participation of anarchists-Bakuninists under the slogan of fragmenting the country into small cantons. Fall of the government of Pi-i-Margal;

December 29, 1874 - a new coup, the monarchy was restored, Alfonso XII (son of Queen Isabella II) was proclaimed king of Spain.

Despite the fact that each of these revolutions eventually ended in the defeat and restoration of the absolute monarchy, the sacrifices and hardships endured by the people could not be in vain: in society, of course, civil legal awareness grew, and the vector of its democratic development appeared and grew.

The defeat in the war with the United States and the loss of almost all Spanish colonies was perceived in Spain as a national catastrophe. 1898 the year brought the Spaniards a keen sense of national humiliation. The reasons for the military defeat were immediately connected with the economic, social and political problems of the country's development. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. a number of labor laws were adopted, which introduced in Spain the most elementary norms of the labor legislation of European countries.

20th century

During the First World War, Spain was neutral, but its economy was seriously affected.

After the overthrow of King Alfonso XIII of Spain in the last revolution in 1931, the royal family emigrated to Italy. In Spain, the Republic was proclaimed, then a civil war began, which ended in 1939 with the capture of Madrid by the rebels and the establishment of a lifelong dictatorship Francisco Franco.

Franco became, for various reasons, a sovereign dictator with unlimited powers. As far as is known, at that time he did not show benevolent feelings towards the monarchy in general and towards the royal family in particular. Rather, vice versa. Franco ruled rigidly, single-handedly, and competitors, even defeated ones, were, to put it mildly, undesirable for him. He did not even need partners (especially from monarchical circles) to govern the country. However, later, just 8 years later, in 1947, Franco takes an unexpected and non-standard step. He announces a new, non-gradional form of government of the country, officially defining Spain as " Kingdom under an unoccupied throne»

At the same time, Franco himself was then only 58 years old, he was the recognized leader of the nation (“Caudillo”), his power was stable, and he was not at all going to cede it to anyone,

Franco approaches the grandson of the deposed King Alfonso XIII, Prince Juan Carlos (born in 1938, the parents are the son of King Alfonso XIII Juan de Bourbon and the granddaughter of the English Queen Victoria Maria de Bourbon y Orleans). In 1948, the prince moved permanently to Spain, later studying at the Academy of the Army, Air Force and Navy, as well as at the University of Madrid. In 1962, Juan Carlos marries Princess Sofia, the daughter of King Paul I of Greece and Queen Federica.

Finally, in July 1969, Franco solemnly proclaims Juan Carlos the Prince of Spain (without renouncing, of course, his powers as a dictator).

Thus, Franco not only strengthened his personal power after the end of the Second World War and the collapse of the ideas of fascism (when anti-fascist sentiments sharply intensified in society), but also, which is much more important! - consistently and ahead of time prepared for himself such a successor, who (given the mentality of the Spanish people) immediately became inaccessible to any possible contenders for power both during this period and after the death of Franco.

It is well known from the history of many countries that after a strong ruler, and even more so an illegitimate dictator, there comes, as a rule, a very troubled time of struggle for power, which brings great misfortunes to the country and people. Franco did not act like many dictators like him, who acted according to the principle: “After me, at least sweat!” and did not allow any candidates for successors next to him, but showed great statesmanship, true concern for his people and the future of the country.

Apparently, therefore, despite all the cruelties and injustices of his regime, the Spaniards in our time rarely speak ill of him. They do not discuss this period and prefer not to talk about it. However, the monument to Franco, erected back then on the former Generalissimo Avenue, and now Castellana Avenue in Madrid, still stands.

In Spain, until very recently, coins of those years with the profile of Franco were in use. Moreover, about 50 km from Madrid there is a place called "EL ESCORIAL". There is a super-giant pantheon complex with the grave of Franco and the graves of both his fascist supporters and his Republican opponents. Both those and others. Now it is a place of pilgrimage for tourists.

Thanks to Franco, Spain, being a country with a totalitarian fascist regime, not only developed relatively well economically in the difficult pre-war period, not only relatively bloodlessly followed its historical path as an ally of German fascism between the Scylla of Germany and the Charybdis of the USSR with its Western allies during World War II, but even after the death of the dictator, it managed to smoothly move onto the democratic path of its development, although in form a monarchy was again established in the country, though not absolute, but constitutional.

Yes, and the monarchs are no longer the same as before. Juan Carlos, who replaced Franco, is a comprehensively educated person with democratic convictions and a modern mind. This, so to speak, is an “enlightened monarch”.

And Franco, having been in power continuously for 36 years as "Caudillo", that is, the sole leader and leader of the nation, quietly died in his bed in 1975 at the age of eighty-three years.

In November of the same 1975, according to Franco's will, Prince Juan Carlos was proclaimed king of Spain. This happened 44 years after the overthrow of his grandfather, King Alfonso XIII, from the throne.

Already in April 1977, trade unions and left-wing political (including communist) parties were legalized in Spain, diplomatic relations with Russia (USSR) were restored, and a cooperation agreement was concluded between the United States and Spain. December 1978 a new constitution came into force 1982 Spain was admitted to NATO, and in 1985 became a member of the European Community

Thus, just 10 years after the end of the most brutal and long military fascist dictatorship, Spain carried out its “perestroika” without any special storms and upheavals and turned into a prosperous democratic state in Europe.

The most important events of the XX century

1931-1939

Democratic revolution of the socialist type.

Major events:

December 9, 1931 - adoption of the Constitution of the Republic; - 1933 - the creation of the fascist party "Spanish Falange" (from the second half of the 50s called the "National Movement");

January 1936 - creation of the Popular Front;

February 16, 1936 - victory of the Popular Front in the elections, agrarian reform, large banks and enterprises placed under state control; - July 17-18, 1936 - Franco's military-fascist rebellion;

March 1939 - the fall of the Republic, the establishment of the dictatorship of Franco.

1947

Spain is declared a "Kingdom under an unoccupied throne".

1953

Spanish-American agreements on US military bases in Spain July 1969 Franco proclaimed King Alfonso XIII's grandson Juan Carlos Prince of Spain. Juan Carlos studied in Portugal in 1946, and since 1948 in Spain. From 1955 to 1960 he was a student at the Academy of the Ground Forces, Naval and Air Forces, in 1960-1962. studied at the University of Madrid. Since 1962 he has been married to Princess Sofia, daughter of King Paul I of Greece and Queen Federica. The wedding ceremony in Athens was attended by 137 kings, queens, princes and princesses from around the world.

1975

Death of Franco. After the death of Franco, Prince Juan Carlos was proclaimed King Juan Carlos 1 of Spain in November 1975. The scope of the anti-fascist movement. Democratization of the political life of the country.

April 1977 Legalization of trade unions and left-wing political parties (including the communist one), dissolution of the National Movement party (“Spanish Falange”). Replacement of the Spanish-American treaty of 1953 on military bases with an agreement on cooperation between Spain and the United States, restoration of diplomatic relations with the USSR.

December 1978

Entry into force of the new Constitution.

March 1979

Parliamentary elections, the victory of the Union of Democratic Center party.

1982

The admission of Spain to NATO: In October 1982, the victory in the parliamentary elections of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party.

1985

The admission of Spain to the EEC.

XXI Century

Well, what is Spain today? This is a country with state structure in the form of a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. The legislature is a bicameral parliament (Cortes). The population is about 40 million people, 68% live in cities. Nationalities: Spaniards (about 75%), Catalans, Basques, Galicians. The country has 50 main administrative units - provinces, which are included in 17 autonomous historical regions, the so-called "autonomies". These include: Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Country, Navarre, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, Extremadura, Leon, Galicia, Castile and some others.

Detailed history of Spain

History of ancient Spain

The first historical information about Spain

The first historical information about Spain is provided by foreigners, since the original population of the peninsula, which we know about from the remains of material culture that have come down to us, did not leave any written evidence that would allow us to more fully interpret the material finds.

The lack of accurate information about the most ancient history of Spain does not allow us to restore the course of events of that distant era.

It is believed that already in the XVIII century. BC. Spain was at war with. However, until the twelfth century BC, when, according to very plausible data, Cadiz was founded by the Phoenicians, it is impossible to outline at least some plausible chronological outline.

More or less accurate dating of events related to the history of Spain becomes possible only from the 11th century. BC. However, the first written evidence, which refers to Spain, refers only to the VI century. BC. These are few and meager texts by Carthaginian and Greek authors, which barely shed light on events. early history Iberian Peninsula. By the 5th and 4th centuries. BC. include the testimonies of Greek historians and travelers, fragmentary and inexplicable. Much more complete are later sources relating to the last two centuries BC. and the first centuries of our era, based on older writings that have not come down to us.

In the same way, in the Bible, in various books of the Old Testament, an area called Tarshish or Tarsis is mentioned, which many researchers consider one of the regions of Spain (the southern part of Andalusia - the Guadalquivir valley or the region of Murcia).

Iberians

The territory of Spain has been inhabited since ancient times.

Already in the III millennium BC. e. Iberian tribes appeared in the south and east of Spain. It is not known exactly where they came from, some hypotheses link their ancestral home to North Africa. These tribes gave the peninsula its ancient name - Iberian.

The Iberians lived in fortified villages, were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and hunting. They had metal tools made of copper and bronze. In those ancient times, the Iberians already had their own script.

The ancient people who created the history of another country well known to us - Georgia, also bore the name of the Iberians. There is still debate about whether there is a connection between the Spanish and Georgian Iberians.

An amazing similarity can be observed in the historical destinies of different countries! Iberians created ancient history and another country well known to us - Georgia. It turns out that the East Georgian Iberian tribes lived on the territory of present-day Spain, which were the basis for the formation of the Georgian people. And the ancient name of Spain "Iberia" (as, by the way, modern name leading Spanish airline) - this is an ancient and Byzantine name. Eastern Georgia ("Kartli").

Kartli, in turn, was historical area in Eastern Georgia in the valley of the Kura River and from the 4th century BC it was called the "Kartli kingdom of Iberia". Here is more information about the two Iberias.

From the end of the 10th century AD, Iberia-Kartli, with its capital in Tbilisi, formed the core of a single Georgian state, which since 1801 joined Russia. Here is such a connection between times and peoples.

Celtiberians

Later, the Celts came to Iberia. The Celts preferred to wage wars and graze cattle, rather than engage in agriculture.

Celts and Iberians lived side by side, sometimes uniting, but more often fighting with each other. Gradually, the peoples merged and created the Celtiberian culture, famous for its militancy. It was the Celtiberians who invented the double-edged sword, which was subsequently adopted by the Roman army and often used against their own inventors.

The union of the Celtiberian tribes had its capital - Numantia.

Turdetans

And in Andalusia at the same time there was a state of Tartessos. Until now, it is not known exactly where the inhabitants of Tartessus, the Turdetans, came from to Spain. They were at a higher stage of development than the Iberians, although they were close to them.

Phoenicians

Around 1100 B.C. e. the Phoenicians came here. They scurried around the colonies of Malaca, Gadir (Cadiz), Cordoba and many others. The country where the Turdetans lived, they called Tarshish. Perhaps it is this rich region of "Tarshish" that is mentioned in the Bible.

Carthaginian colonization

Not only Iberians and Celts lived on the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. The fertile lands of Spain also attracted other peoples. The Phoenicians were the first people whose activities in Spain are recorded in writing. The date of their first appearance in Spain is not exactly known. There is an assumption according to which the Phoenicians around 1100 BC. e. founded Cadiz, at that time called Agadir or Gadir.

There is no doubt that the Phoenicians in the VIII and VII centuries. BC e. traveled along the coast of Spain, exploring the lands of the peninsula; descriptions-routes of these raids are called peripluses.

There are statements of ancient scientists who lived in the 1st century. BC e., that Greek historians owe the first reports about Spain to the Phoenicians.

In Spain, the Phoenicians were chiefly interested in trade and the exploitation of mines. They established themselves in certain areas, founded cities, trading posts and warehouses there. Sometimes their strongholds were located near native settlements, sometimes in areas not yet inhabited. For this purpose, they chose mainly islands or capes close to the coast, where there were convenient natural harbors. Located in such places, the settlements were easy to defend. The Phoenicians erected their fortresses there, arranged warehouses and sanctuaries.

The most important Phoenician colonies were Melkartea (Algeciras), Malaca (Malaga), Eritia (Sancti Petri), Sexi (Hate), Abdera (Adra), Hispalis (Seville), Agadir, or Hades (Cadiz), Ebusa (Ibis) and others. The Phoenicians called the entire Iberian Peninsula Span, or Spania (“unknown”, remote, country).

The Phoenician colonies in Spain, in the process of rapid development, achieved a certain political and administrative independence from the mother country. The center of these colonies was Cadiz. The Phoenicians limited themselves at first only to barter; then they introduced money into Spain, minted in many of the Phoenician colonies.

After the decline of the Phoenician metropolis, its power was inherited by the Phoenician colony on the northern coast of Africa - Carthage. Already in the 7th century. BC e. Carthage became a major trading center and achieved dominance over other fraternal colonies of the Phoenicians in the West. The Carthaginians established a trading monopoly in the Straits of Gibraltar.

The Phoenicians in the Iberian Peninsula had to deal with the Greeks. The main settlement of the Greeks was Emporion, or Emporia ("market"), located in the place where Castellón de Empurias (province of Girona) is now located. The Spanish territory over which they dominated was called by the Greeks Hesperia, or Iberia.

In the VI century. BC e. the influence of Carthage increased significantly. The ancient Phoenician colonies of Spain were absorbed and made directly dependent on Carthage. The Carthaginians traded with the Tartessian federation in the Guadalquivir valley, but made no attempt to conquer it.

For a long time, Carthage maintained peaceful relations with rising Rome; both sides entered into trade treaties and, to a certain extent, shared dominance over the Mediterranean Sea.

However, in the end, a war broke out between them in Sicily, in which the Romans won, ousting the Carthaginians from there. This was the First Punic War (264–241 BC).

After that, a new stage of the Carthaginian colonization of the Iberian Peninsula began. It can be seen as a systematic subordination of the country. The Carthaginians sought to turn the peninsula into a springboard for subsequent wars with Rome. Thus, the Romans provoked the Carthaginian colonization.

The Senate of Carthage in 237 BC instructed to capture Spain to the talented commander and politician Hamilcar from the aristocratic family of Barkidiv, who was at the head of the military party.

In an extremely short time, Hamilcar captured the southern part of the peninsula, between the Guadalquivir and Guadiana rivers.

This was the beginning of the Carthaginian state in Spain.

The best lands of Spain - its southern and eastern shores - became Phoenician possessions; new cities were founded there. In 227 B.C. e. General Hasdrubal founded the city of Cartagena on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula near the only good harbor on the south coast, thus securing control over the rich mineral deposits of the Southeast.

Cartagena became the capital of the new state and the largest colony of the Carthaginians on the territory of modern Spain.

This city, standing on the shores of a convenient bay and surrounded by impregnable hills, immediately turned into one of the most important trading centers of the entire western coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

Not far from the city, they began mining from silver mines, which brought huge incomes. Some of them were sent by Hasdrubal to Carthage, the other part went to the creation and fortifications of a mercenary army.

From the Iberian Peninsula, Carthage received more and more income every year.

The rule of the Carthaginians in Spain was firmly established, and the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula seemed to be a strong springboard for an attack on Rome.

Rome took action. The small Iberian city of Saguntum decided to fall under Roman rule in the face of the threat of an attack by the Carthaginians.

The Roman Senate hesitated at first, but later, in 220, decided to accept Saguntum as a protectorate of Rome in order to be able to control Spain.

Hamilcar's son Hannibal in 220 BC attacked Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome. In the ensuing Second Punic War, the troops of the Carthaginians, led by Hannibal, in 210 BC. e were defeated. This paved the way for the establishment of Roman dominance in the peninsula. In 209, the Romans captured Cartagena, passed through the territory of the whole of Andalusia, and in 206 forced Gadir to surrender.

Thus, after a series of defeats, dominance in the Iberian Peninsula gradually began to pass to Rome.

Roman domination

Visigothic period in the history of Spain

Arab domination

Reconquista

During the entire period of domination of Muslims in Spain, Christians waged a continuous centuries-old war against them, which was called the Christian Reconquista (in translation - “conquest”). The reconquista was started by a part of the Visigothic nobility led by Pelayo. In 718, the advance of the Muslims at Covadonga was stopped.

In the middle of the 8th century, the Asturian Christians, under the leadership of Pelayo's grandson, King Alfonso I, took advantage of the Berber uprising and occupied neighboring Galicia. The conquests continued under Alphonse II (791-842).

The advance of the Arabs into Europe was stopped by the Franks in northwestern Spain, the Franks, whose king was then Charlemagne. The Franks created the Spanish March in the northeast of the peninsula (the border area between the possessions of the Franks and the Arabs), which broke up in the 9th-11th centuries into the counties of Navarre, Aragon and Barcelona (in 1137 Aragon and Barcelona united to form the kingdom of Aragon).

To the north of the Duero and the Ebro, four groups of Christian states gradually formed:

• in the northwest Asturias, León and Galicia, which were subsequently united to form the kingdom of Castile;

• the Basque country, together with the neighboring region, Garcia, was proclaimed the kingdom of Navarre,

• a country on the left bank of the Ebro, Aragon, since 1035 an independent kingdom;

• Margraviate of Barcelona, ​​or Catalonia, which arose from the Spanish March.

In 1085, the Christians captured Toledo, and then Talavera, Madrid and other cities fell under the power of the Christians.

The Battle of Mérida (1230) took Extremadura from the Arabs; after the battle of Jerez de Guadiana (1233), Cordoba was recaptured, and twelve years later - to Seville.

The Portuguese kingdom expanded almost to its present size, and the king of Aragon conquered Valencia, Alicante, and the Balearic Islands.

The reconquista led to the fact that the Spanish peasants and residents of the cities who fought along with the knights received significant benefits. Most of the peasants did not experience serfdom, free peasant communities arose on the liberated lands of Castile, and cities (especially in the XII-XIII centuries) received greater rights.

Muslims moved in thousands to Africa and to Grenada or Murcia, but these states also had to recognize the supremacy of Castile. The Muslims who remained under Castilian rule gradually adopted the religion and customs of the conquerors; many rich and noble Arabs, having been baptized, passed into the ranks of the Spanish aristocracy. By the end of the 13th century, only the Emirate of Grenada remained on the peninsula, forced to pay tribute.

In 1340, Alfonso XI won a brilliant victory at Salado, and four years later, with the conquest of Algeziras, Grenada was cut off from Africa.

In 1469, the marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile took place, the union of the Castilian and Aragonese crowns laid the foundation for the kingdom of Spain. Nevertheless, the political unification of Spain was completed only by the end of the 15th century; Navarre was annexed in 1512.

In 1478, Ferdinand and Isabella approved an ecclesiastical court - the Inquisition, designed to protect the purity of the Catholic faith.

In 1492, with the support of Isabella, Columbus makes his first expedition to the New World and establishes Spanish colonies there. Ferdinand and Isabella move their residence to Barcelona.

In the same year, 1492, Granada was liberated. As a result of more than 10 years of struggle by the Spaniards, the Emirate of Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula, fell. The Reconquista ends with the conquest of Granada (January 2, 1492).

History of Spain in the 16th - first half of the 17th century.

After the end of the Reconquista in 1492, the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal, was united under the rule of the Spanish kings. Spain also owned Sardinia, Sicily, the Balearic Islands, the Kingdom of Naples and Navarre.

In 1516, Charles I came to the throne. By his mother he was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and by his father he was the grandson of Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg. From his father and grandfather, Charles I inherited the Habsburg possessions in Germany, the Netherlands and lands in South America. In 1519, he achieved his election to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation and became Emperor Charles V. Contemporaries, not without reason, said that in his domain "the sun never sets." At the same time, the Aragonese and Castilian kingdoms, bound only by a dynastic union, remained politically divided throughout the 16th century: they retained their class-representative institutions - the Cortes, their own legislation and judicial system. Castilian troops could not enter the lands of Aragon, and the latter was not obliged to defend the lands of Castile in case of war. In the Kingdom of Aragon itself, its main parts (especially Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre) also retained significant political independence.

The fragmentation of the Spanish state was also manifested in the fact that until 1564 there was no single political center, the royal court moved around the country, most often stopping in Valladolid. Only in 1605 did Madrid become the official capital of Spain.

In economic terms, the individual regions were little interconnected. This was largely facilitated by geographical conditions: a mountainous landscape, the absence of navigable rivers along which communication between the north and south of the country would be possible. The northern regions - Galicia, Asturias, the Basque Country had almost no connection with the center of the peninsula. They carried on a brisk trade with England, France and the Netherlands through the port cities of Bilbao, La Coruña, San Sebastian and Bayonne. Some areas of Old Castile and Leon gravitated towards this area, the most important economic center of which was the city of Burgos. The southeast of the country, especially Catalonia and Valencia, were closely connected with the Mediterranean trade - there was a noticeable concentration of merchant capital. The interior provinces of the Kingdom of Castile gravitated toward Toledo, which has long been a major center of crafts and trade.

The young king Charles I (V) (1516-1555) was brought up in the Netherlands before accession to the throne. He spoke little Spanish, his retinue and entourage consisted mainly of Flemings. In the early years, Charles ruled Spain from the Netherlands. The election to the imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire, the journey to Germany and the cost of the coronation required huge funds, which placed a heavy burden on the Castilian treasury.

In an effort to create a "world empire", Charles V from the first years of his reign considered Spain primarily as a source of financial and human resources for the implementation of imperial policy in Europe. The king's widespread involvement of Flemish entourage in the state apparatus, absolutist claims were accompanied by a systematic violation of the customs and liberties of the Spanish cities and the rights of the Cortes, which caused discontent among wide sections of the burghers and artisans. The policy of Charles V, directed against the highest nobility, gave rise to a dull protest, which at times grew into open discontent. In the first quarter of the XVI century. the activities of the opposition forces concentrated around the issue of forced loans, which the king often resorted to from the first years of his reign.

In 1518, in order to pay off his creditors, the German bankers Fuggers, Charles V managed with great difficulty to obtain a huge subsidy from the Castilian Cortes, but this money was quickly spent. In 1519, in order to obtain a new loan, the king was forced to accept the conditions put forward by the Cortes, among which were the requirements:

• so that the king does not leave Spain,

• did not appoint foreigners to public office,

• did not give them at the mercy of tax collection.

However, immediately after receiving the money, the king left Spain, appointing the Flemish governor, Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht.

Revolt of the urban communes of Castile (comuneros)

The violation by the king of the signed agreement was the signal for the uprising of the city communes against the royal power, called the uprising of the comuneros (1520-1522). After the departure of the king, when the deputies of the Cortes, who had shown excessive compliance, returned to their cities, they were met with general indignation. In Segovia, artisans, cloth makers, day laborers, washers, and wool combers revolted. One of the main demands of the rebellious cities was a ban on the import of woolen fabrics from the Netherlands into the country.

In the summer of 1520, within the framework of the Holy Junta, the armed forces of the rebels, led by the nobleman Juan de Padilla, united. The cities refused to obey the governor and forbade his armed forces to enter their territory.

In the spring and summer of 1520, almost the entire country was under the control of the Junta. The cardinal-vicero, being in constant fear, wrote to Charles V that "there is not a single village in Castile that would not join the rebels." Charles V ordered that the demands of some cities be met in order to split the movement.

In the autumn of 1520, 15 cities withdrew from the uprising, their representatives, having gathered in Seville, adopted a document on the withdrawal from the struggle, in which the patriciate's fear of the movement of the urban lower classes was clearly manifested. In the autumn of the same year, the Cardinal Viceroy began open hostilities against the rebels.

Using the enmity of the nobility and cities, the troops of the cardinal-vicero went on the offensive and defeated the troops of Juan de Padilla at the Battle of Villalar (1522). The leaders of the movement were captured and beheaded. For some time, Toledo held on, where the wife of Juan de Padilla, Maria Pacheco, operated. Despite the famine and the epidemic, the rebels held firm. Maria Pacheco hoped for the help of the French king Francis I, but in the end she was forced to seek salvation in flight.

In October 1522, Charles V returned to the country at the head of a detachment of mercenaries, but by this time the movement had already been suppressed.

Simultaneously with the uprising of the Castilian communeros, a struggle broke out in Valencia and on the island of Mallorca. The reasons for the uprising were basically the same as in Castile, but the situation here was aggravated by the fact that the city magistrates in many cities were even more dependent on the grandees, who turned them into an instrument of their politics.

The economic development of Spain in the 16th century

The most densely populated part of Spain was Castile, where 3/4 of the population of the Iberian Peninsula lived. As in the rest of the country, the land in Castile was in the hands of the crown, the nobility, the Catholic Church and the spiritual and chivalric orders. The bulk of the Castilian peasants were personally free. They kept the lands of spiritual and secular feudal lords in hereditary use, paying a monetary qualification for them. In the most favorable conditions were the peasant colonists of New Castile and Granada, who settled on the lands conquered from the Moors. Not only did they have personal freedom, but their communities enjoyed privileges and liberties similar to those enjoyed by the Castilian cities. This situation changed after the defeat of the Comuneros rebellion.

The socio-economic system of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia differed sharply from that of Castile. Here in the XVI century. the most cruel forms of feudal dependence were preserved. The feudal lords inherited the property of the peasants, interfered in their personal lives, could subject them to corporal punishment and even put them to death.

The most oppressed and disenfranchised part of the peasants and the urban population of Spain were the Moriscos - the descendants of the Moors who were forcibly converted to Christianity. They lived mainly in Granada, Andalusia and Valencia, as well as in the rural areas of Aragon and Castile, were heavily taxed in favor of the church and state, were constantly under the supervision of the Inquisition. Despite persecution, the industrious Moriscos have long cultivated such valuable crops as olives, rice, grapes, sugarcane, and mulberry trees. In the south, they created a perfect irrigation system, thanks to which they received a high yield of grain, vegetables and fruits.

For many centuries, sheep breeding has been an important branch of agriculture in Castile. The bulk of the sheep flocks belonged to a privileged noble corporation - Mesta, which enjoyed special patronage of the royal power.

Twice a year, in spring and autumn, thousands of sheep were driven from north to south of the peninsula along wide roads (kanyads) laid through cultivated fields, vineyards, olive groves. Tens of thousands of sheep, moving across the country, caused enormous damage to agriculture. Under pain of severe punishment, the rural population was forbidden to fence their fields from passing herds.

The place enjoyed great influence in the country, since the largest herds belonged to the representatives of the highest Castilian nobility united in it. At the beginning of the 16th century, they achieved confirmation of all the previous privileges of this corporation, which caused significant damage to agriculture.

The tax system in Spain also hampered the development of capitalist elements in the country's economy. The most hated tax was the alcabala, a 10% tax on every trade; in addition, there was still a huge number of permanent and extraordinary taxes, the size of which during the 16th century increased all the time, absorbing up to 50% of the income of the peasant and artisan.

Spain was the first country to experience the impact of the price revolution. During the 16th century, prices increased 3.5-4 times. Already in the first quarter of the XVI century. there was an increase in prices for basic necessities, and especially for bread. It would seem that this circumstance should have contributed to the growth of the marketability of agriculture. However, the system of taxes (maximum prices for grain) established in 1503 artificially kept the prices of bread low, while other products quickly rose in price. This led to a reduction in grain crops and a sharp drop in grain production in the middle of the 16th century. Beginning in the 1930s, most regions of the country imported grain from abroad, from France and Sicily. Imported bread was not subject to the tax law and was sold 2-2.5 times more expensive than grain produced by Spanish peasants.

The conquest of the colonies and the unprecedented expansion of colonial trade contributed to the rise of handicraft production in the cities of Spain and the emergence individual elements manufactory production, especially in cloth-making. Manufactories arose in its main centers - Segovia, Toledo, Seville, Cuenca. A large number of spinners and weavers in the cities and in the region worked for the buyers. At the beginning of the 17th century, the large workshops of Segovia numbered several hundred hired workers.

Since Arab times, Spanish silk fabrics have been very famous in Europe, famous for their high quality, brightness and fastness of colors. The main centers of silk production were Seville, Toledo, Cordoba, Granada and Valencia. Expensive silk fabrics were little consumed in the domestic market and were mainly exported, as well as brocade, velvet, gloves, hats made in the southern cities: At the same time, coarse cheap woolen and linen fabrics were imported into Spain from the Netherlands and England .

In 1503, the monopoly of Seville on trade with the colonies was established and the “Seville Chamber of Commerce” was created, which controlled the export of goods from Spain to the colonies and the import of goods from the New World, mainly consisting of gold and silver ingots. All goods intended for export and import were carefully registered by officials and subject to duties in favor of the treasury.

Wine and olive oil became the main Spanish exports to the Americas. Investing money in the colonial trade gave very large benefits (profits were much higher here than in other industries). In addition to the Seville merchants, merchants from Burgos, Segovia, and Toledo took part in the colonial trade. A significant part of the merchants and artisans moved to Seville from other regions of Spain, primarily from the north. The population of Seville grew rapidly: from 1530 to 1594 it doubled. The number of banks and merchant companies increased. At the same time, this meant the actual deprivation of other regions of the opportunity to trade with the colonies, since, due to the lack of water and convenient land routes, transporting goods to Seville from the north was very expensive. The monopoly of Seville provided the treasury with huge incomes, but it had a detrimental effect on the economic situation of other regions of the country. The role of the northern regions, which had convenient outlets to the Atlantic Ocean, was reduced only to the protection of fleets heading to the colonies, which led their economy to decline at the end of the 16th century.

The development of the main branch of Spanish industry - the production of woolen fabrics - was held back by the export of a significant part of the wool to the Netherlands. In vain, the Spanish cities demanded to limit the export of raw materials in order to lower their price in the domestic market. The production of wool was in the hands of the Spanish nobility, who did not want to lose their income and, instead of reducing the export of wool, sought the issuance of laws that allowed the import of foreign cloths. 1

Despite the economic upsurge of the first half of the 16th century, Spain remained generally an agrarian country with an underdeveloped domestic market, some areas were locally closed in economic terms.

Political system

During the reign of Charles V (1516-1555) and Philip II (1555-1598) there was an increase in central power, but the Spanish state was politically a motley conglomerate of disunited territories. The management of individual parts of this huge state reproduced the order that had developed in the Aragon-Castile kingdom itself, which constituted the political core of the Spanish monarchy. At the head of the state was the king, who headed the Council of Castile; there was also the Council of Aragon, which ruled Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia. Other Councils were in charge of territories outside the peninsula: the Council of Flanders, the Italian Council, the Council of the Indies; these areas were managed by viceroys, who were appointed, as a rule, from representatives of the highest Castilian nobility.

The strengthening of absolutist tendencies in the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries led to the decline of the Cortes. Already in the first quarter of the 16th century, their role was reduced exclusively to voting new taxes and loans to the king. More and more often, only representatives of cities began to be invited to their meetings. From 1538 the nobility and clergy were not officially represented in the Cortes. At the same time, in connection with the mass migration of nobles to the cities, a fierce struggle broke out between the burghers and the nobility for participation in city self-government. As a result, the nobles secured the right to occupy half of all positions in municipal bodies. In some cities, for example, in Madrid, Salamanca, Zamora, Seville, a nobleman had to be at the head of the city council; the city mounted police were also formed from the nobles. Increasingly, nobles acted as representatives of the cities in the Cortes. This testified to the strengthening of the political influence of the nobility. True, the nobles often sold their municipal positions to wealthy citizens, many of whom were not even residents of these places, or rented them out.

The further decline of the Cortes was accompanied in the middle of the 17th century. deprivation of their right to vote taxes, which was transferred to the city councils, after which the Cortes ceased to convene.

In the XVI - early XVII century. large cities, despite significant progress in the development of industry, largely retained their medieval appearance. These were urban communes, where the urban patriciate and nobles were in power. Many city dwellers who had fairly high incomes acquired “hidalgia” for money, which freed them from paying taxes, which, with all their weight, fell on the middle and lower strata of the urban population.

Beginning of the decline of Spain

Charles V spent his life on campaigns and almost never visited Spain. Wars with the Turks, who attacked the Spanish state from the south and the possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs from the southeast, wars with France due to dominance in Europe and especially in Italy, wars with their own subjects- Protestant princes in Germany - occupied all his reign. The grandiose plan to create a world Catholic empire collapsed, despite the numerous military and foreign policy successes of Charles. In 1555, Charles V abdicated and handed over Spain, along with the Netherlands, colonies and Italian possessions, to his son Philip II (1555-1598).

Philip was not a significant person. Poorly educated, limited, petty and greedy, extremely stubborn in pursuing his goals, the new king was deeply convinced of the steadfastness of his power and the principles on which this power rested - Catholicism and absolutism. Gloomy and silent, this clerk on the throne spent his whole life locked up in his chambers. It seemed to him that papers and prescriptions were enough to know everything and dispose of everything. Like a spider in a dark corner, he weaved the invisible threads of his politics. But these threads were torn by the touch of the fresh wind of a stormy and restless time: his armies were often beaten, his fleets went to the bottom, and he sadly admitted that "a heretical spirit promotes trade and prosperity." This did not prevent him from declaring: "I prefer not to have subjects at all, than to have heretics as such."

Feudal-Catholic reaction was rampant in the country, the highest judicial power in religious matters was concentrated in the hands of the Inquisition.

Leaving the old residences of the Spanish kings of Toledo and Valladolid, Philip II set up his capital in the small town of Madrid, on the desolate and barren Castilian plateau. Not far from Madrid, a grandiose monastery arose, which was also a palace-tomb - Escorial. Severe measures were taken against the Moriscos, many of whom continued to secretly practice the faith of their fathers. The Inquisition fell upon them especially fiercely, forcing them to abandon their former customs and language. At the beginning of his reign, Philip II issued a series of laws that increased persecution. Driven to despair, the Moriscos rebelled in 1568 under the slogan of preserving the Caliphate. Only with great difficulty did the government succeed in suppressing the uprising in 1571. In the cities and villages of the Moriscos, the entire male population was completely exterminated, women and children were sold into slavery. The surviving Moriscos were expelled to the barren regions of Castile, dooming them to starvation and vagrancy. The Castilian authorities mercilessly persecuted the Moriscos, the Inquisition burned "apostates from the true faith" in masses.

The economic decline of Spain in the second half of the XVI-XVII centuries.

In the middle of the XVI - XVII centuries. Spain entered a period of prolonged economic decline, which first affected agriculture, then industry and trade. Speaking about the reasons for the decline of agriculture and the ruin of the peasants, the sources invariably emphasize three of them: the burden of taxes, the existence of maximum prices for bread, and the abuse of the Mesta. Peasants were driven from their lands, communities were deprived of their pastures and meadows, this led to the decline of animal husbandry and the reduction of crops. The country experienced an acute shortage of food, which pushed up prices even more.

In the second half of the XVI century. in Spain, the concentration of landed property in the hands of the largest feudal lords continued to increase.

A significant part of the noble estates enjoyed the right of majorate, they were inherited only by the eldest son and were inalienable, that is, they could not be mortgaged and sold for debts. Church lands and possessions of spiritual and knightly orders were also inalienable. Despite the significant debt of the highest aristocracy in the 16th-17th centuries, unlike England and France, the nobility retained their land holdings and even increased them by purchasing domain lands sold off by the crown. The new owners liquidated the rights of communities and cities to pastures, seized communal lands and allotments of those peasants whose rights were not properly formalized. In the XVI century. the right of primacy extended to the possessions of the burghers. The existence of majorates removed a significant part of the land from circulation, which made it difficult for the development of capitalist tendencies in agriculture.

While the decline of agriculture and the reduction of grain crops became noticeable throughout the country, industries associated with the colonial trade flourished. The country imported a significant part of the consumed grain from abroad. At the height of the Dutch Revolution and the religious wars in France, due to the cessation of the import of bread, a real famine began in many areas of Spain. Philip II was forced to allow even Dutch merchants who brought bread from the Baltic ports into the country.

At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII century. The economic decline affected all sectors of the country's economy. Precious metals brought from the New World to a large extent fell into the hands of the nobles, in connection with which the latter lost interest in the economic development of their country. This determined the decline not only of agriculture, but also of industry, and primarily the production of fabrics. Already at the beginning of the XVI century. in Spain, complaints were heard about the destruction of crafts, about the massive ruin of artisans.

It would be possible to reduce the cost of production by introducing protectionist duties, lowering prices for agricultural products and raw materials within the country, and prohibiting their export. Despite repeated requests from cities to reduce the export of wool, it constantly increased and increased from 1512 to 1610 by almost 4 times. Under these conditions, expensive Spanish fabrics could not compete with cheaper foreign ones, and Spanish industry was losing markets in Europe, in the colonies, and even in its own country. The trading companies of Seville, starting from the middle of the 16th century, began to increasingly resort to replacing expensive Spanish products with cheaper goods exported from the Netherlands, France, and England. The fact that until the end of the 60s, i.e., during its formation, when it especially needed protection from foreign competition, had a negative effect on Spanish manufactory, the commercial and industrial Netherlands were under the rule of Spain. These areas were considered by the Spanish monarchy as part of the Spanish state. Duties on wool imported there, although they increased in 1558, were two times lower than usual, and the import of finished Flemish cloth was carried out on more favorable terms than from other countries. All this had the most pernicious consequences for the Spanish manufacture; Spanish merchants withdrew their capital from manufactories, since participation in the colonial trade in foreign goods promised them big profits.

By the end of the century, against the background of the progressive decline of agriculture and industry, only colonial trade continued to flourish, the monopoly of which still belonged to Seville. Its highest rise belongs to the last decade of the 16th century. and the first decade of the 17th century. However, since the Spanish merchants traded mainly in foreign-made goods, the gold and silver coming from America hardly lingered in Spain. Everything went to other countries in payment for the goods that supplied Spain itself and its colonies, and also spent on the maintenance of the troops. Spanish iron, smelted on charcoal, was supplanted on the European market by cheaper Swedish, English and Lorraine iron, which began to be made using coal. Spain now began to import metal products and weapons from Italy and German cities.

The northern cities were deprived of the right to trade with the colonies; their ships were entrusted only with the protection of caravans heading to the colonies and back, which led to the decline of shipbuilding, especially after the Netherlands revolted and trade across the Baltic Sea sharply decreased. A heavy blow was dealt by the death of the Invincible Armada (1588), which included many ships from the northern regions. The population of Spain increasingly rushed to the south of the country and emigrated to the colonies.

The state of the Spanish nobility seemed to do everything in order to upset the trade and industry of their country. Enormous sums were spent on military enterprises and the army, taxes were increased, and the public debt grew uncontrollably.

Even under Charles V, the Spanish monarchy made large loans from foreign bankers, the Fuggers, to whom income from the lands of the spiritual and knightly orders of Sant Iago, Calatrava and Alcantara, whose master was the king of Spain, was transferred to repay the debt. Then the Fuggers got the richest mercury-zinc mines of Almadena. At the end of the 16th century, more than half of the treasury's expenditure was the payment of interest on the public debt. Philip II declared state bankruptcy several times, ruining his creditors, the government was losing credit and, in order to borrow new amounts, it had to give Genoese, German and other bankers the right to collect taxes from certain regions and other sources of income, which further increased the leakage of precious metals from Spain .

An outstanding Spanish economist of the second half of the 16th century, Thomas Mercado, wrote about the dominance of foreigners in the country's economy: “No, they could not, the Spaniards could not calmly look at foreigners prospering on their land; the best possessions, the richest estates, all the income of the king and nobles are in their hands. Spain was one of the first countries to embark on the path of primitive accumulation, but the specific conditions of socio-economic development prevented it from taking the path of capitalist development. The huge funds obtained from the robbery of the colonies were not used to create capitalist forms of economy, but went to the unproductive consumption of the feudal class. In the middle of the century, 70% of all post-treasury revenues fell from the metropolis and 30% were given by the colonies. By 1584, the ratio had changed: income from the metropolis amounted to 30%, and from the colonies - 70%. The gold of America, flowing through Spain, became the most important lever of primitive accumulation in other countries (and above all in the Netherlands) and significantly accelerated the development of the capitalist system in the bowels of feudal society there. In Spain itself, which began in the 16th century. the process of capitalist development was suspended. The disintegration of feudal forms in industry and agriculture was not accompanied by the emergence of the capitalist mode of production. This was the main reason for the economic decline of the country.

If the bourgeoisie not only did not grow stronger, but was completely ruined by the middle of the 17th century, then the Spanish nobility, having received new sources of income, strengthened economically and politically. It lived exclusively by plundering the people of its own country and the peoples of the provinces and colonies dependent on Spain. No such group as the English "new nobility" or the French "nobility of the mantle" developed within it.

Spanish absolutism

As the commercial and industrial activity of the cities declined, internal exchange decreased, communication between the inhabitants of different provinces weakened, and trade routes became empty. The weakening of economic ties laid bare the old feudal features of each region, and the medieval separatism of the cities and provinces of the country was resurrected.

Under the prevailing conditions, a single national language was not developed in Spain, separate ethnic groups still remained: the Catalans, Galicians and Basques spoke their own languages, different from the Castilian dialect, which formed the basis of the literary Spanish language. Unlike other European states, the absolute monarchy in Spain did not play a progressive role and could not provide true centralization.

Foreign policy of Philip II

The decline was soon revealed in the foreign policy of Spain. Even before accession to the Spanish throne, Philip II was married to the English Queen Mary Tudor. Charles V, who arranged this marriage, dreamed not only of restoring Catholicism in England, but also, by joining the forces of Spain and England, to continue the policy of creating a worldwide Catholic monarchy. In 1558, Mary died, and the marriage proposal made by Philip to the new Queen Elizabeth was rejected, which was dictated by political considerations. England, not without reason, saw Spain as her most dangerous rival at sea. Taking advantage of the revolution and the war of independence in the Netherlands, England tried in every possible way to ensure its interests here to the detriment of the Spanish, not stopping at open armed intervention. English corsairs and admirals robbed Spanish ships returning from America with a cargo of precious metals, blocked the trade of the northern cities of Spain.

Spanish absolutism set itself the task of crushing this "heretical and robber nest", and, if successful, taking possession of England. The task began to seem quite feasible after Portugal was annexed to Spain. After the death of the last representative of the reigning dynasty in 1581, the Portuguese Cortes proclaimed Philip II their king. Together with Portugal, the Portuguese colonies in the East and West Indies also came under Spanish rule. Reinforced with new resources, Philip II began to support Catholic circles in England, intriguing against Queen Elizabeth and putting forward a Catholic, Queen Mary of Scots, to the throne instead of her. But in 1587 the conspiracy against Elizabeth was uncovered, and Mary was beheaded. England sent a squadron under the command of Admiral Drake to Cadiz, who, breaking into the port, destroyed the Spanish ships (1587). This event was the beginning of an open struggle between Spain and England. Spain began to equip a huge squadron to fight England. The "invincible armada" - the so-called Spanish squadron - sailed from A Coruña to the shores of England at the end of June 1588. This enterprise ended in disaster. The death of the "Invincible Armada" was a terrible blow to the prestige of Spain and undermined its naval power.

The failure did not prevent Spain from making another political mistake - to intervene in the civil war that was raging in France. This intervention did not lead to an increase in Spanish influence in France, nor to any other positive results for Spain. With the victory of Henry IV of Bourbon in the war, the cause of Spain was finally lost.

More victorious laurels were brought to Spain by her struggle with the Turks. The Turkish danger looming over Europe became especially tangible when the Turks captured most of Hungary and the Turkish fleet began to threaten Italy. In 1564 the Turks blockaded Malta. Only with great difficulty managed to save the island. In 1571, a combined Spanish-Venetian fleet under the command of the natural son of Charles V, Juan of Austria, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto, which stopped the further naval expansion of the Ottoman Empire. However, the victors failed to enjoy the fruits of their victory; even Tunisia, captured by don Juan, again passed to the Turks.

By the end of his reign, Philip II had to admit that almost all of his vast plans had failed, and the maritime power of Spain had been broken. The northern provinces of the Netherlands seceded from Spain. The state treasury was empty. The country experienced a severe economic decline.

Spain at the beginning of the 17th century

With the accession to the throne of Philip III (1598-1621), the long agony of the once powerful Spanish state begins. The impoverished and destitute country was ruled by the favorite of the king, the Duke of Lerma. The court of Madrid amazed contemporaries with splendor and extravagance, while the masses were exhausted under the unbearable burden of taxes and endless requisitions. Even the Cortes, obedient in everything, to whom the king turned for new subsidies, were forced to declare that there was nothing to pay, since the country was completely ruined, trade was killed by the alcabala, industry was in decline, and the cities were empty. The revenues of the treasury were reduced, fewer and fewer galleons loaded with precious metals came from the American colonies, but this cargo often became the prey of English and Dutch pirates or fell into the hands of bankers and usurers who lent money to the Spanish treasury at huge interest.

Expulsion of the Moriscos

The reactionary character of Spanish absolutism was expressed in many of its actions. One notable example of this is the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain. In 1609, an edict was issued according to which the Moriscos were to be expelled from the country. Within a few days, under pain of death, they had to board ships and go to Barbary (North Africa), having with them only what they could carry on their hands. On the way to the ports, many refugees were robbed and killed. In the mountainous regions, the Moriscos resisted, which hastened the tragic denouement. By 1610, over 100 thousand people had been evicted from Valencia. The Moriscos of Aragon, Murcia, Andalusia and other provinces suffered the same fate. In total, about 300 thousand people were expelled. Many became victims of the Inquisition and died at the time of exile.

Spain and its productive forces were dealt another blow that hastened its further economic decline.

Foreign policy of Spain in the first half of the 17th century

Despite the poverty and desolation of the country, the Spanish monarchy retained inherited from the past claims to play a leading role in European affairs. The collapse of all the conquest plans of Philip II did not sober his successor. When Philip III came to the throne, the war in Europe was still going on. England acted in alliance with Holland against the Habsburgs. Holland defended with arms its independence from the Spanish monarchy.

The Spanish governors in the Southern Netherlands did not have sufficient military forces and tried to make peace with England and Holland, but this attempt was thwarted due to the excessive claims of the Spanish side.

In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I of England died. Her successor, James I Stuart, dramatically changed the foreign policy of England. Spanish diplomacy succeeded in drawing the English king into the orbit of Spanish foreign policy. But that didn't help either. In the war with Holland, Spain could not achieve decisive success. The commander-in-chief of the Spanish army, the energetic and talented commander Spinola, could not achieve anything in the conditions of the complete depletion of the treasury. The most tragic thing for the Spanish government was that the Dutch intercepted Spanish ships off the Azores and waged war on Spanish funds. Spain was forced to conclude a truce with Holland for a period of 12 years.

After the accession of Philip IV (1621-1665), Spain continued to be ruled by favorites; the only new thing was that Lerma had been replaced by the energetic Count Olivares. However, he could not change anything - the forces of Spain were already exhausted. The reign of Philip IV was the period of the final decline in the international prestige of Spain. In 1635, when France intervened directly in the course of the Thirty Years, the Spanish troops suffered frequent defeats. In 1638, Richelieu decided to attack Spain on its own territory: French troops captured Roussillon and then invaded the northern provinces of Spain.

But there they ran into the resistance of the people. By the 40s of the XVII century. Spain was completely exhausted. The constant tension of finances, the extortion of taxes and duties, the bossing of an arrogant, idle nobility and fanatical clergy, the decline of agriculture, industry and trade - all this gave rise to widespread discontent among the masses. Soon this discontent broke out.

Deposition of Portugal

After the entry of Portugal into the Spanish monarchy, its ancient liberties were left intact: Philip II sought not to irritate his new subjects. The situation changed for the worse under his successors, when Portugal became the object of the same ruthless exploitation as other possessions of the Spanish monarchy. Spain was unable to keep the Portuguese colonies, which passed into the hands of the Netherlands. Cadiz took over the trade of Lisbon, and the Castilian tax system was introduced in Portugal. The dull discontent that was growing in wide circles of Portuguese society became apparent in 1637; this first uprising was quickly crushed. However, the idea of ​​laying aside Portugal and declaring its independence did not disappear. One of the descendants of the former dynasty was nominated as a candidate for the throne. The conspirators included the Archbishop of Lisbon, representatives of the Portuguese nobility, wealthy citizens. On December 1, 1640, having taken possession of the palace in Lisbon, the conspirators arrested the Spanish viceroy and proclaimed Joan IV of Braganza king.

History of Spain in the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries.

Deep economic decline in the history of Spain at the end of the XVI-XVII centuries. led to the collapse of its political hegemony in Europe. Defeated on land and at sea, almost completely deprived of its army and navy, Spain was expelled from the ranks of the great European powers.

However, by the beginning of the new time, Spain still retained vast territorial possessions in Europe and huge colonies. She held the Duchy of Milan, Naples, Sardinia, Sicily, the Southern Netherlands. She also owned the Canary, Philippine and Caroline Islands and significant territories in South America.

In the middle of the XVII century. The Spanish throne remained in the hands of the Habsburgs. If at the beginning of the XVII century. the outer shell of the former powerful state was still preserved, then in the reign of Charles II (1665-1700), decay and decline engulfed all spheres of the Spanish state. The degradation of the Spanish monarchy was reflected in the personality of Charles II himself. He was physically and mentally underdeveloped, and never learned to write correctly. Unable to independently rule the state, he was a toy in the hands of his favorites - the Spanish grandees and foreign adventurers.

In the second half of the XVII century. Spain also lost its independence in international politics, becoming dependent on France and Austria. This was due to the dynastic connections of the Spanish court. One of the sisters of Charles II was married to Louis XIV, the second - to the heir to the Austrian throne Leopold I. This resulted in a fierce struggle between the Austrian and French groups at the Spanish court, especially since, due to the childlessness of Charles II, the question of the future heir to the throne was acute. In the end, the French party won, and Charles II bequeathed the throne to his French nephew, who in 1700 was crowned as Philip V (1700-1746). The transition of the Spanish throne to the Bourbons caused a sharp aggravation of the contradictions between the Austrian Empire and France, which escalated into a pan-European war "for the Spanish inheritance" (1701-1714).

The territory of Spain became the scene of hostilities of rival powers. The war further aggravated the internal crisis of the Spanish state. Catalonia, Aragon and Valencia took the side of the Austrian Archduke, hoping with his help to maintain their ancient privileges. According to the Peace of Utrecht (1713), Philip V was recognized as king of Spain on the condition of renunciation of the rights to the French throne. Spain lost a significant part of its possessions in Europe: Northern Italy went to Austria, Menorca and Gibraltar - to England, Sicily - to Savoy.

History of Spain XVIII century

History of Spain late 18th - early 19th century

First bourgeois revolution in Spain (1808-1814)

Beginning of the first bourgeois revolution in Spain

On March 17, 1808, crowds of people attacked Godoy's palace in the countryside royal residence of Aranjuez. The favorite fled, but Charles IV had to abdicate in favor of his son Ferdinand VII. Napolnon, having lured first Ferdinand VII and then Charles IV to the French border city of Bayonne, forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother Joseph Bonaparte.

By order of Napoleon, a deputation of representatives of the Spanish nobility, clergy, officials and merchants was sent to Bayonne. They made up the so-called Bayonne Cortes, which drafted the Spanish constitution. Power passed to Joseph Bonaparte, some reforms were proclaimed.

The Spanish did not accept the constitution imposed by the French. They responded to French intervention with a general guerrilla war. “...Napoleon, who - like all people of his time - considered Spain a lifeless corpse, was very unpleasantly surprised, convinced that if the Spanish state is dead, then Spanish society is full of life, and in every part of it the resistance forces are overwhelmed"

Immediately after the entry of the French into Madrid, an uprising broke out: on May 2, 1808, the inhabitants of the city entered into an unequal battle with an army of 25,000 under the command of Marshal Murat. For more than a day there were battles on the streets of the city, the uprising was drowned in blood.

In July 1808, the French army was surrounded by Spanish partisans and capitulated near the city of Bailen. Joseph Bonaparte and his government hastily evacuated from Madrid to Catalonia.

In November 1808, Napoleon led an invasion of the country by a 200,000-strong French army. But the partisan movement at that time swept the whole country. The people's war - the guerrilla - was massive.

In the course of the unfolding war against the invaders, local authorities were created - provincial juntas. They put into practice some revolutionary measures: taxes on large property, contributions from monasteries and clergy, restriction of feudal rights of lords, etc.

In September 1808, during the revolution, a new government of the country was created - the Central Junta, which consisted of 35 people.

Napoleon's army continued to advance. She captured most of Spain, including Seville, where the Central Junta met, which was forced to move to Cadiz, the last city not occupied by the French. However, the invaders failed to extinguish the flames of the guerrilla war.

Constitution of 1812

In September 1810, new unicameral cortes were convened in the city of Cadiz. They included many progressive figures who contributed to the drafting of the constitution adopted in 1812.

The new constitution was based on the principles of popular sovereignty and separation of powers. The power of the monarch was limited by unicameral cortes, which were convened on the basis of a fairly wide suffrage. Men from the age of 25 took part in the voting, with the exception of domestic servants and persons deprived of their rights by court.

The Cortes held the highest legislative power in the country. The king retained only the right of a suspensive veto: if the bill was rejected by the monarch, then it was returned to the Cortes for discussion, and if it was confirmed in the next two sessions, it finally entered into force. The king nevertheless retained considerable power: he appointed senior government officials and senior officers, declared war with the sanction of the Cortes, and made peace.

Reforms of the first bourgeois revolution

The Cortes also adopted a number of decrees:

• feudal obligations were abolished

• church tithe and other payments in favor of the church were eliminated,

• the sale of part of the church, monastic and royal possessions was announced.

At the same time, communal property was liquidated and the sale of communal lands began.

Restoration of absolutism

In connection with the beginning of Napoleon's aggressive campaign in Russia in 1812, a significant part of the army stationed in Spain was sent there. Taking advantage of this, the Spanish troops inflicted a series of crushing defeats on the French in 1812, and in November 1813 they were forced to completely leave the territory of Spain.

Napoleon made an attempt to maintain his influence in Spain through Ferdinand VII, who was a prisoner in France. Napoleon invited him to return to Spain and regain his rights to the throne in exchange for a promise to maintain friendly relations with France. However, the Cortes refused to recognize Ferdinand as king until he swore allegiance to the constitution of 1812.

Ferdinand, returning to Spain, gathered around him supporters of the restoration of absolutism. Assuming the role of head of state, he issued a manifesto declaring the constitution of 1812 invalid, and all the decrees of the Cortes annulled. The Cortes were dissolved, and the liberal ministers who were part of the government they had created were arrested. In May 1814, Ferdinand VII arrived in Madrid and announced the final restoration of the absolute monarchy.

The Inquisition was again completely restored, monastic, church and large secular land property was returned to the former owners.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1820-1823.

Background of the revolution

The feudal-absolutist order, restored in 1814, hampered the development of capitalist relations in industry and agriculture. In Spain, the alcabala (a medieval tax on trade transactions), internal customs duties, and state monopolies remained; Numerous workshops continued to exist in the cities.

In the village, more than 2/3 of the cultivated land was in the hands of the nobility and the church. The system of majorates guaranteed the preservation of the monopoly of the feudal lords on land.

The lack of progress in the economy caused sharp discontent among wide circles of the bourgeoisie, the liberal nobility, the military, and the intelligentsia. The economic weakness of the Spanish bourgeoisie and its lack of experience in political struggle led to the fact that the army began to play a special role in the revolutionary movement in the first decades of the 19th century. Patriotically minded officers began to realize the need for profound changes in the life of the country.

In 1814-1819. in the army environment and in many large cities there were secret societies Masonic type. The participants in the conspiracies, among whom were officers, lawyers, merchants, entrepreneurs, set themselves the goal of preparing a pronunciamiento (a coup d'etat carried out by the army) and establishing a constitutional monarchy.

The beginning of the revolution

The impetus for the beginning of the revolution in Spain was the difficult and unsuccessful war for the independence of the Spanish colonies in Latin America. Cadiz became the center of preparation for the pronunciamiento, in the vicinity of which troops were stationed, intended to be sent to Latin America.

On January 1, 1820, an uprising in the army began near Cadiz, led by Lieutenant Colonel Rafael Riego. Soon, troops under the command of A. Quiroga joined the Riego detachment. The goal of the rebels was to restore the constitution of 1812.

The news of the uprising and campaign of Riego in Andalusia, in which most of his troops died, stirred up the whole country.

In late February - early March 1820, unrest began in largest cities Spain.

On March 6-7, people took to the streets of Madrid. Under these conditions, Ferdinand VII was forced to announce the restoration of the constitution of 1812, the convening of the Cortes, and the abolition of the Inquisition. The king appointed a new government, consisting of moderate liberals - "moderados".

The so-called observation army was created, which included the troops that raised the uprising in the south of the country in January 1820. It was headed by Rafael Riego.

The predominant influence in the "surveillance army" was enjoyed by the left wing of the liberals - "enthusiastic" ("exaltados"). The Exaltados demanded a decisive struggle against the supporters of absolutism and the consistent implementation of the principles of the constitution of 1812. They enjoyed the support of wide circles of the urban population.

The revolution also found a response in the countryside, where the outbreak of unrest brought the agrarian question to the forefront of the political struggle.

The Moderados won the elections for the Cortes, which opened in Madrid in June 1820.

The moderados policy favored the development of industry and trade: the guild system was abolished, internal customs duties, monopolies on salt and tobacco were abolished, and freedom of trade was proclaimed. The Cortes decided to liquidate religious orders and close some of the monasteries. Their property became the property of the state and was subject to sale. Majorates were abolished - henceforth the nobles could freely dispose of their land. Many impoverished hidalgos began to sell them.

In June 1821, the Cortes passed a law abolishing seigneurial rights. The law abolished the legal and administrative power of the lords. However, Ferdinand VII refused to approve the law on the abolition of seigneurial rights, using the right of suspensive veto granted to the king by the constitution of 1812.

"Moderados" did not dare to violate the royal veto. The law on the abolition of seigneurial rights remained on paper.

"Moderados" opposed the intervention of the masses in the political struggle. As early as August 1820, the government disbanded the "surveillance army" and in October restricted freedom of speech, the press, and assembly.

The dissatisfaction of many Spaniards with the indecision of the government in its fight against the counter-revolution led to the discrediting of the moderados. At the same time, the influence of the exaltados increased, with which they pinned hopes for the continuation of revolutionary transformations.

At the beginning of 1822, the exaltados won the elections to the Cortes. Rafael Riego was elected President of the Cortes.

In June 1822, the Cortes passed a law on the wastelands and royal lands: half of this land was supposed to be sold, and the rest to be distributed among veterans of the anti-Napoleonic war and landless peasants. In this way, the "exaltados" tried to alleviate the situation of the most disadvantaged part of the peasants, without violating the fundamental interests of the nobility.

In August 1822, the government of "exaltados" headed by E. San Miguel came to power. The new government led the fight against counter-revolution more actively. While suppressing counter-revolutionary actions, the "exaltados" at the same time did nothing to deepen the revolution. The government of E. San Miguel actually continued the agrarian policy of the moderate liberals.

Counter-revolutionary intervention and the restoration of absolutism

In 1822 it was already clear that the Spanish reaction could not suppress the revolutionary movement on its own. Therefore, the Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance, which met in October 1822, decided to organize intervention. In April 1823, French troops crossed the Spanish border. The government and the Cortes were forced to leave Madrid and move to Seville and then to Cadiz. Despite the heroic resistance of the army of General Mina in Catalonia and the detachments of Riego in Andalusia, in September 1823 almost all of Spain was at the mercy of counter-revolutionary forces.

On October 1, 1823, the decree of Ferdinand VII repealed all the laws adopted by the Cortes in 1820-1823. Absolutism reasserted itself in Spain, and the lands taken from it were returned to the church. In November 1823, Rafael Riego was executed.

Spain's attempts to restore its power in Latin America proved futile. By early 1826, Spain had lost all of its colonies in Latin America, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.

Bourgeois revolution 1820-1823 defeated, but it shook the foundations of the old order, paving the way for the further development of the revolutionary movement.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1834 - 1843.

The reactionary regime of Ferdinand VII, who won in 1823, could not stop the progressive development of capitalism. In the 1930s and 1940s, the industrial revolution began, which aggravated the contradictions between the needs for the development of capitalist relations and the preservation of the "old order". The Spanish bourgeoisie, having lost colonial markets, began to fight more actively against feudal remnants that hindered the development of entrepreneurship and trade in Spain itself.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1854 - 1856.

In June 1854, a group of opposition generals led by O'Donnell called for the overthrow of the government. The uprising in the army gave impetus to the revolutionary movement in the cities. At the end of July, a government was formed headed by the leader of the Progressives, Espartero; "Donnel representing the Moderados.

The government decided to confiscate and sell church lands. Lands that were in the hands of peasant communities were also confiscated and put on sale.

The Espartero-O'Donnell government restored the national militia and convened the Cortes. In 1855-1856, laws were passed that promoted the growth of entrepreneurial initiative and the attraction of foreign capital.

As the revolutionary movement developed, the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility passed into the counter-revolutionary camp. On July 14, 1856, Minister of War O'Donnell provoked the resignation of Espartero and dissolved the Cortes. This step led to an uprising in Madrid. On July 16, the uprising was crushed. The O'Donnell government suspended the sale of church lands and dissolved the national militia. This was the end of the fourth bourgeois revolution.

After the revolution of 1854-1856. Two blocs emerged: the Liberal Union and the Conservatives. The liberal union, led by General O "Donnel, expressed the interests of the bourgeois nobility and the top of the bourgeoisie. The conservatives, led by General Narvaez, represented the interests of the large landowners-nobles. In 1856-1868, the Narvaez government came to power three times and was replaced by the government of O "Donnel.

Bourgeois revolution in Spain 1868 - 1874

The beginning of the fifth bourgeois revolution (1868-1874)

With the development of capitalism, the bourgeoisie in Spain, having strengthened economically, more and more decisively laid claim to political power. By the end of 1867 - the beginning of 1868, a bloc of bourgeois parties had formed, which included the "progressives", the Liberal Union, and republican groups. The leaders of the bloc came to the conclusion that a new military coup was necessary.

In September 1868, an uprising began in Cadiz, which caused a wide response: in Madrid and Barcelona, ​​the rebels seized the arsenals; everywhere began the creation of detachments of "volunteers of freedom." Queen Isabella fled Spain.

By June 1869 a new constitution had been drafted. Spain was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy, a bicameral parliament was formed on the basis of universal suffrage for men. The monarchy is proclaimed, but there is no king. In Spain, there was a fairly long period of struggle between various political forces, which included the governments of a number of European countries. At the end of 1870, the son of the Italian king, Amadeo of Savoy, was proclaimed king of Spain. The Carlist pretender also aspired to become a monarch.

The Basque Country and Navarre became the backbone of Carlism, whose population associated with Carlism hopes for the restoration of ancient local liberties - "fueros". In 1872, the Carlists unleashed a civil war in northern Spain.

First Republic in Spain

The republican movement was expanding in the country, and the influence of sections of the First International was growing. The north of Spain was engulfed in the Carlist war. The deepening political crisis forced King Amadeo to abdicate. On February 11, 1873, Spain was proclaimed a republic.

Now the struggle within the republican camp has already begun. Revolts broke out in southern Spain. The Carlist war continued in the north.

The Spanish bourgeoisie, frightened by the sweep of the revolutionary movement, sought to restore the monarchy. The striking force of all the changes in Spain continued to be the army. On January 3, 1874, the military, dispersing the Cortes, carried out a coup d'état. The new government began preparations for the restoration of the monarchy. In December 1874, Isabella's son, Alphonse XII, was proclaimed king. Thus ended the fifth bourgeois revolution. In 1876 the Carlist War ended with the defeat of the Carlists.

The results of the bourgeois revolutions of 1808-1874.

Cycle bourgeois revolutions, which shook Spain in 1808-1874, destroyed many of the feudal vestiges that stood in the way of the development of capitalism.

History of Spain 19th century

Restoration mode

Cycle of revolutions 1808-1874 ended with the restoration in December 1874 of the Bourbon monarchy. During the reign of King Alphonse XII (1874-1885) and then during the regency of his widow Maria Christina (1885-1902), the monarchical regime acquired relative stability.

In 1875, two political parties took shape in the ruling circles of Spain: liberal and conservative.

The Liberal Party, led by Mateo Sagasta, enjoyed the support of the financial and commercial bourgeoisie. The liberals advocated a gradual "liberalization" of the restoration regime by pursuing an anti-clerical policy (limiting the number of religious congregations, developing secular education) and political reforms (introducing universal suffrage, etc.).

The Conservative Party was led by the head of the first restoration government, A. Canovas del Castillo. The party found support among a significant part of the landed aristocracy and the church. The conservatives advocated a moderate constitutional monarchy that limited both absolute power and democratic freedoms. In the customs area, the conservatives showed themselves as supporters of agrarian protectionism, while the liberals demanded a policy of free trade.

In 1876, the Cortes accepted and the king sanctioned a monarchical constitution, which then existed until 1931. It proclaimed freedom of the press, assembly and association. The bicameral Cortes shared legislative power with the king. The king had supreme command of the army and navy. He appointed ministers and was the head of the executive branch. The Catholic religion was declared the state religion.

Pact El Pardo

In November 1885, when information was received from the royal palace of El Pardo about the hopeless condition of the king, who was ill with tuberculosis, the conservative and liberal parties concluded an unspoken agreement between themselves on alternately coming to power and on jointly protecting the dynasty in the event of new performances by Carlists or Republicans. The treaty became known as the El Pardo Pact. The birth of an heir was expected only a few months later. Saving the dynasty ruling circles gave defiant support to the regency of Maria Christina, established after the death of Alfonso XII on November 25.

In the 1990s, the ruling parties were replaced in power every two or three years, invariably securing their respective position in the Cortes. In the agrarian regions of Spain during this period, the cacique system was widespread, which contemporaries called the "new feudalism" or "the true constitution of Spain." Caciques were people who had the maximum economic influence in the area. As a rule, this was a large landowner or, if the landowner himself permanently lived in Madrid, his representative. The caciques assumed the duties of a political leader, organized elections to the Cortes and, in fact, determined the composition of local governments.

The liberals carried out at the end of the 19th century some part of their political program of transformation. Gradually, Spain acquired the form of a legal state of the European model. In 1881, the Sagasta government allowed the formation of associations, including political parties. Sagasta's second government passed a law in 1890 to introduce universal male suffrage, abolishing the property qualification required by the 1878 law.

Military defeat in 1898 and the problem of Spain

Before the start of the war with the United States, Spain held Cuba and Puerto Rico in the West Indies, the Caroline and Mariana Islands, the Philippines, the Palau Islands in the Pacific Ocean and a number of small possessions on the African continent under its rule. Claims for the division and seizure of Spanish colonial possessions were made by the imperialist powers - the USA and Germany.

In April 1898, a war began between Spain and the United States, which actually sought the transfer of Spanish possessions under their sovereignty. The war lasted only four months and ended in the defeat of Spain. Spain had lost her navy in two battles and could no longer defend her colonies. Under the Paris Peace Treaty of December 10, 1898, Spain lost Cuba, ceded to the United States Puerto Rico and other islands in the West Indies, the island of Guam and the Philippines (for 20 million dollars). Germany in February 1899 forced Spain to sell her the Caroline and Mariana Islands. From the old Spanish colonial empire, only possessions in Africa remained: Spanish Guinea, Western Sahara, Ifni and a few strongholds in Morocco.

The defeat in the war with the United States, the loss of the colonies were perceived in Spain as a national catastrophe. The Spaniards then experienced a keen sense of national humiliation.

It was clear that the root cause of the military defeat of 1898 was the relatively weak development of the Spanish economy.