In the XII century. in Leon a representative institution arose, which was called the same as the previous meetings of secular and spiritual magnates convened by kings - curia or cortes. Researchers are unanimous in the view that the convening of such meetings of estates, in which representatives of cities also participated, should be considered the time of the emergence of the Cortes. Some evidence of such involvement in León dates back to 1188. King Alphonse IX summoned bishops, magnates, and "elected citizens from individual cities." The king swore at this meeting that he would respect the laws and customs of the country. He promised not to declare war or make peace without the consent of the bishops, nobles, and "good people" whose advice he should use in his reign. The king expressed his readiness to submit to the court of his curia if he was accused by any of his subjects, and promised not to take revenge on the plaintiff.
The decree of Alphonse IX established severe punishments for those who seized or destroyed other people's property, and arbitrarily took bail. The inviolability of the dwelling and hereditary possession was established. The one who killed a person who violated this prohibition was not subject to punishment. The decree made it possible to appeal to the royal curia (in accordance with the norms of fueros).
Bishops, magnates and citizens, in turn, swore an oath that they would be loyal to the king and would maintain justice and peace in the kingdom.
In Castile, back in 1170, Fernando II sought advice, in addition to the highest nobility and clergy, also to
urban caballeros 1 . Then representatives of the cities were invited to participate in the royal curia in 1187, when the issue of the marriage of Infanta Berenguela with the emperor's son Conrad Hohenstaufen was discussed with the ambassador of Frederick Barbarossa. Representatives of 50 cities (maiores), along with bishops and magnates, swore to uphold the terms of the marriage contract. But the participation of city delegates in this case was still limited, touching only on the indicated issue. However, it is generally believed that the townspeople acted as participants in the Cortes in Castile from the end of the 12th to the beginning of the 13th century. The opinion of V. Piskorsky that 1188 should be considered the beginning of the history of the Cortes 2 was confirmed in historical literature. The work of the Russian medievalist is still the most thorough and thorough study of the history of the Castilian Cortes.
The early participation of cities in the estate-representative body in León (almost a century earlier than in England) may seem strange, given the economic backwardness of León and Castile compared to other countries. Western Europe. But the appearance of a representative institution in Leon already at the end of the 12th century, and soon in Castile, is associated with the peculiarities historical development these countries - the Reconquista and the prominent role of cities in political life.
In the XI-XII centuries. and León and Castile had to exert every effort to wage wars against the Muslims. In addition, these states fought against each other and against other Christian kingdoms. The kings of Leon and Castile could not always count on the support of the magnates and prelates, who showed particularistic tendencies. The financial and military assistance of the cities became an urgent need. At the same time, attracting the resources of cities that had already achieved great economic importance and political weight was impossible without certain concessions in their favor. The manifestation of this policy of concessions has long been the provision of liberties - fueros. Next-
1 cm: Guglielmi N. La "curia regia en Leon at Castilla. Cuadernos de historia de Espana, XXVIII, 1958, p. 77.
2 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes in the transitional era from the Middle Ages to modern times. Kyiv, 1897.
The next step of the same policy was to involve city delegates in representative bodies.
It is characteristic that already at the church councils (concilia), which took place in 1050 in Coyants and in 1115 in Oviedo, there was a "plebs" - that is, ordinary citizens. But they played the role of an audience, and not full participants in these meetings, unlike the magnates. At this time, by the beginning of the 12th century, the access of citizens to the royal court was noted for informing the king about the needs of the population and presenting complaints. Thus the fuero granted to Toledo in 1118 stipulates that "ten of the elders of the city" may appear before the king to complain.
The convocation of the Cortes by Alphonse IX in 1188 with the participation of representatives of the cities was facilitated by the urgent need to strengthen the position of royal power. In southern Spain, Muslims have intensified. The Almohads captured Alcantara in 1173. A hostile position towards Leon was occupied by Portugal and Castile. There was no unity in the royal house itself. Alphonse IX, who ascended the royal throne in 1188, was intrigued by his stepmother.
The meetings of the Cortes in Benavept in 1202 already quite clearly characterize the appointment of this representative body. Here the issue of providing the king with a monetary subsidy was decided, which later became periodic and received the name moneda fore-ga. Kings often sought a way out of financial difficulties in defacing coins. The Cortes of 1202, which were attended by representatives of the cities, bought from the king the right to mint coins for seven years in advance, paying a huge amount - one maravedi from each person. This was six times more than what the king could collect from the population at the same time, without resorting to the Cortes. At the Cortes in Benavente, other matters were also considered, in particular questions about the conditions under which people hold lands from the church, about the rights of the king to the lands received by nobles from the church as beneficiaries.
The participation of citizens in the Cortes was not immediately established. The sources do not contain data on the presence of citizens at the Cortes in Toro in 1207 and in Burgos and Valladolid in 1215. But later their participation became regular. In cortes
usually attended by representatives of the three Estates. But sometimes the Cortes were held without the participation of the nobility and the clergy, for example in Valladolid in 1295 and 1299.
The first estate in the Cortes, in contrast to France, was considered the secular nobility (estado militar). It started with the voting. The representatives of this estate were primarily rikos ombres. Obviously, they were at the invitation of the king. According to the chronicle of 1241, in the cortes in Burgos, the king sat “with ricos ombres and people from the earth” (con sus ricos ombres et con los de la tierra). The latter are representatives of cities, as well as rural communities that had self-government and had their own consejo 1 . The lowest stratum of the nobility, the infansons, hidalgos, first appeared in the Cortes in 1250 and did not sit at all meetings thereafter. The clergy (estado ecclesiastico) also consisted of upper and lower strata. The archbishops of Santiago, Toledo and Seville, bishops, abbots, masters of military orders belonged to the highest. To the lowest - the clergy of the chapters, the parish clergy. The prelates were present at the Cortes by virtue of their personal right, the lower clergy elected their representatives. But they were in the Cortes for the first time only in 1295 and subsequently participate in the work of this meeting irregularly 2 .
The third estate (estado llano) consisted of representatives of urban communities (civitates, villae). The order of participation of cities in the Cortes was not strictly defined. First of all, obviously, cities and settlements sent their deputies from the territories of the crown itself (gea-lengo), and which cities were determined by the king. Only settlements where they had their own council (consejo) could participate in the Cortes. had such a body or later lost the right to such an institution, he was deprived of the opportunity to participate in the cortes.Toledo was represented in the cortes only from 1348. In some cases, representatives of communities that had their own lords were also involved in the cortes.
Deputies from urban communities were designated as homes bonos, alcaldes, cavalleros, de la tierra, and from 1255
1 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes..., p. 21.
2 See there, With. 16-20.
ordinary becomes the designation procuradores. Only once, in 1268 g., there is a mention of merchants-mercadores.
The above data on the nature of urban government suggests that the delegates of the cities in the Cortes were, as a rule, representatives of the urban elite from the most prosperous hidalgos and caballeros-villanos. There is no need to talk about the participation in the Cortes of the merchant and artisan population of cities. As already noted, these categories of townspeople did not occupy any strong position in municipal government. A single mention of merchants in the Cortes 1268 in Jerez, probably due to the fact that at these Cortes the question of yens for various goods was discussed.
In some cases, the delegations from the communities included peasants. V. Piskorsky made such an assumption on the basis of the mention of the "protocols of the Cortes on participation in Jerez in 1268 g. "good people" from the villages. Based on what we know about the stratification among the peasant population in the XIII century. and the staffing of the councils of cities and villages, we can assume that the omes bonos who fell into the Cortes are mainly the wealthy top of the peasantry. But the trend of historical development was to eliminate them in this era from representation. This trend found its most striking manifestation later, at the beginning of the 15th century, in the petition of the deputies of the Palencian Cortes, “who asked the king not to allow peasants and, in general, persons belonging to the draft estate to the Cortes.
Representatives from ^ cities to the Cortes were appointed by election or by lot. Usually the number of deputies from the city did not exceed four people. Giving deputies a list of requirements, city councils determined their powers. If new questions arose at the meetings, the deputies asked their urban communities for additional instructions and powers.
Cortes were convened, as a rule, by order of the king (or persons replacing him). But sometimes they met without a prior call from the sovereign, as happened in 1282 when deputies from the estates came to Valladolid to decide the issue of succession to the throne, against the will of Alfonso X. So it was
and in 1295 and in 1313. in Valladolid, in 1312 in Palencia 1 .
The meetings took place in various parts of the kingdom, where the this moment royal residence, most often in Valladolid, Burgos, Medina del Campo, Palencia.
In some cases, deputies received maintenance during the period of activity of the Cortes. So, in 1250, Fernando III gave each deputy from Segovia a payment of one maravedi per day if the meeting took place between Toledo and the Muslim border, and a payment of half a maravedi if north of Toledo. The kings guaranteed the safety of all persons who went to the meetings of the Cortes. But during a period of strife, which occurred quite often, the delegates did not have security. This is clear from the answer of the magnates in 1271 to the invitation of Alphonse X to appear at the Cortes in Burgas. They declared that they would not come to the Cortes because of fear for their lives until a general truce was declared 2 .
Meetings were held irregularly, but quite often. Under Alphonse X, for example (that is, from 1252 to 1284), - 16 times, under Sancho IV - 5 times.
The king opened the meeting, delivered a speech from the throne. Oral or writing he set the agenda and sought the opinion of the Cortes on these issues. Estates gave answers to royal proposals. Each of them conferred about their affairs separately. The estates submitted petitions to the king, composed orders (cuadernos), in which they expressed their wishes. The king studied these petitions and answered them, sometimes granting the deputies' requests in whole or in part, sometimes refraining from answering (which meant rejection).
The duration of the session varied from ten to twelve days to two months. From the time of Fernando III, the Cortes of León and Castile were convened jointly. But since 1283, the kings often collected them separately, which caused discontent on the part of the estates. In 1301, the Cortes in Burgos, where only the Castilian communities were present, asked the king to gather together the Cortes of all parts of the kingdom.
1 See: Soule S. Les etats generaux en France. Heule, 1968, p. 119
2 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes..., p. 75-76.
The competence of the Cortes included the discussion of a wide variety of issues of state life: legislation, taxation, foreign policy, succession. The Cortes did not have a very significant influence on legislation, although kings sometimes emphasized that they legislate together with the Cortes. Thus, the decree of King León in 1188 began as follows: "Decrees which were drawn up by Don Alphonse, king of León and Galicia in León, together with the archbishop of Compoetela, with all the bishops and elected citizens of the kingdom." In some cases, the Cortes played not only an advisory role in issuing laws, but also exerted a certain pressure on the king. Without the consent of the Cortes, it was impossible to cancel previously issued laws and fueros. In 1258, in Valladolid, the Cortes demanded from the king that he carry out all the decisions they made.
The importance of the representative body in the financial policy of the state was partly noted above. The need for the consent of the Cortes to introduce new taxes was the most important reason for the inclusion of delegates from cities in this assembly. The news of the first vote of taxes dates back to 1269, when the Cortes in "Burgos" allowed to collect a subsidy from the population in the amount of six monedas foreras 1. But the provision on the consent of the Cortes to levy taxes was not always respected. , kings often resorted to local loans - from the cities of certain regions of the kingdom.For example, Fernando III, during the siege of Seville, turned to the consejos of Galicia with a request to provide him with a loan, promising to repay the debt after receiving the next collection of moneda forera.Such loans were not always worn In 1255, the Caballeros of Valladolida complained to Alfonso X that his father was making forced loans, and in 1256 the townspeople of Rivadivia addressed the king with the same complaint. Alfonso X promised not to resort to such measures.2 But
1 See: Cortes de los antiguos Reinos de Leon y de Castilla, t. I. Madrid, 1861, p. 150.
2 See: O "Callaghan J.F. The Beginning of Cortes of Leon - Castile. - American Historical Review, 1969, June, vol. LXXIV, p. 1528-1529.
a provision was included in the Partidas, which provided that in some cases custom and extreme need could force the king not to apply to the Cortes for permission to levy certain taxes 1 . In 1281 G. the Cortes at Seville agreed to grant the king a loan, as the chronicler writes, "more out of fear than out of 'love'".
The Cortes discussed issues of war and peace, the conclusion of treaties. So, in 1195, at the Cortes in Carrion, it was decided to start a war against the Moors. In 1288, at the Cortes in Haro, the question was discussed: with whom it is preferable to sign an agreement - with the Aragonese or French king. The Valladolid Cortes in 1299 decided to conclude an alliance with the Portuguese king.
The subject of discussion at the Cortes was the claims of Alphonse X to the imperial crown (1266, Toledo), sending a detachment of knights to Lombardy (1273, Burgos). At the Cortes, guardians were appointed for the minor king.
Economic problems occupied a lot of place in the activities of this body. These, in addition to taxation issues, included the alienation of the lands of the crown and the procedure for transferring the lands of monasteries and orders into the possession of caballeros, renting salt springs, setting prices for livestock, measures and weights, etc. Some decisions of the Cortes related to the “working policy” of the state: establishing wage rates for hired workers and craftsmen, prohibition of the creation of craft brotherhoods. Frequently discussed questions administrative structure and the courts, the procedure for appointment to public office and related abuses.
The activities of the Cortes reflected the political struggle that took place in the kingdom between the spiritual And secular nobility, With on the one hand, the townspeople on the other. Depending on the situation, the king supported one side or the other. In the second half of the XIII century. obviously;> the influence of cities has grown. But sometimes the nobility managed to impose their will on the king. Yes, in In 1271, the magnates, having rebelled against Alphonse X, presented a number of demands: to abolish the fueros of cities, which diminished the rights of the ideal
1 See: Siete Partidas, II, 1, 8.
states in the respective territory, to limit the term of service of the hidalgos to the king, to save them from the damage caused to them by the newly created consejos in Leon and Galicia, etc. At the Cortes in Burgos, Alfonso X agreed to satisfy these demands. But more often during this period, the advantage in the Cortes turned out to be on the side of the cities. In 1250, Fernando III, at the request of city representatives, annulled the charters that removed a number of villages from the jurisdiction of consejos. In 1286, in Palencia, ricos ombres and infa.neons were forbidden to acquire villas from the royal domain. In 1293, in Valladolid, it was decided not to appoint noble people as tax collectors, not to give them control over the cities and villages of urban districts, and to deprive the nobles of the right to acquire land in the cities.
The "Third Estate" in the Cortes was the most active. The clergy and secular nobility in some cases petitioned, the townspeople put forward their demands at almost every Cortes.
The most striking example of the influence that the deputies of the cities achieved in the Cortes can serve as the Cortes in Valladolid in 1295. Representatives of the urban class demanded from Queen Maria de Molina the removal of the Archbishop of Toledo, other prelates and secular magnates. "If they are present, we will not come to any decision," these deputies said. The queen, needing the support of the cities, agreed to the removal of the nobility, despite the protests of the archbishop 1 .
At these Cortes, the city deputies put forward a number of demands: to remove bishops and abbots from the royal court; invite "good people" from the cities to the royal palace. The Cortes wanted assurances that the cities and villages from the royal domain would no longer complain to the possessions of the ricos ombres, and the lands of the cities taken from them by the kings Alfonso X and Sancho IV would be returned to them. The deputies demanded that the protection of fortresses in cities and villages be entrusted to caballeros and " kind people» cities. Royal officials were ordered to submit reports on funds collected in subject territories. At the Cortes in Valladolid in 1299, the city deputies again demanded that the collection of taxes be entrusted to "good
1 See: Piskorsky V. Castilian Cortes..., p. 6, 77.
People", and the nobles, who were granted fortresses in the cities by the king, were forbidden to seize the property of the townspeople.
The independent interests of the peasants were not reflected in the activities of the Cortes, with the exception of individual decisions that to a certain extent met their needs. plowing; the demand that the consejos not oppress the peasants who were trying to free themselves from their power 3 .
Various opinions were expressed in the historical literature about the nature and essence of the Cortes of this period. Also in early XIX V. Spanish historian Martynes Marina assessed the Cortes as a representative institution that limited the power of the king. V. Piskorsky emphasized the “pronounced democratic character” of this institution 4, L. Valdeavelliano noted the real significance of “the Cortes in the political life of Leon and Castile. Without their consent, the king could not repeal laws and fueros 5 .
A. Ballesteros and C. Sanchez-Albornoz appreciate the importance of the Cortes even more highly. The latter called the decree of Alfonso IX of 1188 the "Great Spanish Charter" (Carta magna espanola). This charter, in his opinion, stands above the English Magna Carta. The latter is characterized by the desire to ensure the privileges of the nobility and limit the authority of the sovereign. The Spanish charter, on the other hand, was dictated by the desire of the people to ensure peace and justice, to counteract the violations of justice by the magnates, to prevent wastefulness in favor of the clergy, to rule "in agreement with all three classes" 6 .
1 See: Cortes, I, p. 58-59.
2 See: ibid., I, r. 80..
"3 See: O "Callaghan J.F. The Beginning of the Cortes…, p. 1530. See also: I. S. Pichugina The Peasantry and Cortes of Castile in the Second Half of the 13th - First Half of the 14th Centuries. - In the book: Europe in the Middle Ages. M, 1972,
4 See: Piskorsky V. The Castilian Cortes in the Transitional Era…, p, 1.
5 See: Valdeavellano L. G. de. Op. cit, p. 467.
6 Sanchez-Albornoz C. Espana - un enigma historico, t. II, p. 82-83.
A different view was expressed by M. Torres Lopez, D. O "Callaghan, G. Post. According to their point of view, the Cortes were only an advisory body under the leadership and control of the monarch TO O "Callaghan objected to comparing the decree of Alphonse IX with the Magna Carta, noting that it was not wrested from the king by rebellious barons or townspeople. The initiative for its publication belonged to the king, who sought to put an end to violence and for this he wanted to get the support of the townspeople against the prone to rebellion This decree was not confirmed by subsequent rulers, and the population of León and Castile did not see in it the source of their freedoms.
According to X. Manuel Perez-Prendes and Muñoz de Arraco, the Spanish medieval Cortes cannot be identified with the French States General or the English Parliament. The nobility and the clergy appeared in the Cortes as representatives of the political and administrative apparatus, and not of estates. The deputies from the cities opposed in the Cortes not the king, but the top of the clergy and nobility, the highest officials of the administration 2. The central core of the activities of the Cortes is the provision of advice and assistance to the sovereign. monarch 3 .
I. S. Pichugin on the basis of the analysis of the policy of the Cortes in the XIII-XIV centuries. in relation to the peasantry, he concludes that the thesis about the democratic nature of the Cortes "should be subjected, if not to revision, then at least to clarification" 4 .
The Cortes of Leon and Castile, as well as estate-representative institutions of other European countries, represent
1 See: O "Callaghan J.F. Beginning of the Cortes of Leon-Castille…, p. 1514-1515; Post G. Studies in Medieval Legal Thought. Princeton, 1964, p. 79, 117-118.
2 See: O "Callaghan J.F. The Beginning of the Cortes…, p. 1514-1515; Post G. Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, p. 79, 117-118.
3 See: /. Manuel Perez Prendes at Munoz de Arraco. Cortes de Castilla at Cortes de Cadiz. - "Revista de estudios politicos", 1963, No. 126, p. 368-369.
4 I. S. Pichugina The Peasantry and Cortes of Castile in the Second Half of the 13th - First Half of the 14th Centuries. - In the book: Europe in the Middle Ages, p. 194.
were a specific organ political system feudal state. They performed advisory functions, but were not limited to them. This is shown by the above data on the voting of extraordinary taxes and the submission to the king of petitions setting out the demands of the estates regarding government. The Cortes were the arena of struggle between the nobility and the cities. The desire of both those and others to consolidate their demands by the decrees of the Cortes clearly shows the real significance of this body in the second half of the 13th century. The Cortes limited the king in some areas of government, primarily financial, but did not have sufficient funds to implement their decisions. It is characteristic that, trying to achieve satisfaction of their demands from the king, both the nobility and the cities were forced to create juntas and germandads. The emergence of the Cortes reflected an essential feature of the social structure of León and Castile in the 12th-13th centuries: the growth of the influence of the cities* and the corresponding changes in the social base of royal power. It now relied to a certain extent on the consejos and had to take their interests into account in its policy.
The predominance of city representatives in the class-representative institution by the end of the 13th century is a feature of the Leono-Castile kingdom. The activities of the Cortes to a certain extent limited royal power. But the democratic nature of the Cortes and their role in the political system should not be exaggerated. It should be noted that the delegates of the cities in the Cortes were representatives of the top consejos, mostly caballeros. The bulk of the taxable urban population, peons, not to mention the peasants who were under the rule of seigneurs, practically did not participate in the representative body.
The originality of the Leono-Castilian representative institution is associated with the peculiarities of urban development in these countries. The relatively weak and slow development of handicrafts and trade, the low importance of merchants and artisans in the political life of cities explain the fact that these social strata did not play an active role in the Cortes either. If in England and France the merchant-usurious elite of the townspeople are typical city representatives in parliament and the General
states 1 if guests and merchants are ordinary participants Zemsky Sobors in Rus' in the 16th century 2., then in the Leono-Castile kingdom, the main representatives of the cities are caballeros and partly peons from wealthy urban farmers.
Reflecting the well-known expansion of the social base of royal power, the Cortes, by the nature of their activities, did not go beyond the interests of royal power and the ruling class as a whole. At the same time, the emergence of the Cortes in Leon and Castile at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. marks the evolution of the political structure of these countries - the formation of a monarchy with estate representation. The social nature of this monarchy is clearly revealed in its policy towards the main classes of the Leono-Castilian society - the peasants, on the one hand, the nobility z another. The state provided the greatest benefits from the Reconquista to secular magnates and ecclesiastical corporations.
The main burden of the tax burden was placed on the peasants in the villages and the peons in the cities. The state consolidated the dependent state of the masses of the peasantry, although this dependence was not expressed in serfdom. All these are signs of the feudal nature of the Leono-Castilian state.
1 See: Gutnova E.V. The rise of the English Parliament. M., 1960, p. 400, 413; Denisova N. A. On the question of the political role of citizens in the States General of France at the beginning of the 14th century, Vestnik MGU. Ser. IX, History, 1966, No. 3, p. 67.
2 See: Tikhomirov M. N. Class-representative institutions in Russia in the 16th century. - "Questions of History", 1958, No. 5.
It was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Europe. The enormous influence and aggressive policy of its rulers would not have been possible without a slender internal system royal power, which in its decisions relied on the influence of two pillars - the power of the church and secular power. It was the second branch of power that the Cortes represented.
Authority - Cortes
Where and when the Cortes appeared, it is impossible to say for sure. It is known that by the middle of the 12th century this word was already used both in colloquial speech and in official documents. The origin of these organs is associated with the name of the early Spanish kings - Fernando II and Alfonso IX.
The Cortes were elected assemblies, similar to the Parliament in England and France. True, in Spain this form of self-government arose a little earlier. In Castile, King Fernando II turned for advice not only to the nobility and clergy, but also to wealthy citizens - caballeros. It was about the marriage between Infanta Berenguella and Frindich Barbarossa's son Conrad. between the heirs of two influential kingdoms contained many points that required strict execution.
Etymology of the word
Unfortunately, there is no reliable data on what this word means. Knowing where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain does not clarify the actual origin of the term. Most likely, it was borrowed from the Castilian or Aragonese dialect. Spanish, and its original roots have been lost for centuries. In the early Middle Ages, the word often coexisted with the Latin term curia. Perhaps the answer to the question “what are Cortes” lies precisely in Roman law. And here is where and when the Cortes arose in Spain, and how they were transformed into state institute can be answered in more detail. After all, the Cortes are the prototypes of modern parliaments in all European countries.
Decrees of Alphonse IX
About where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, scientists are still arguing. But until the end of the 12th century, all meetings of wealthy citizens and merchants were unsystematic. In 1188 in León, King Alphonse called together wealthy citizens, representatives of the nobility and clergy - the best and most famous people in Spain. For what purpose the Cortes were created can be learned from the brief chronicles of that time. These representatives of the three property classes swore allegiance to their master. And the king, in turn, took an oath that he undertakes to remain faithful to the people, to respect the privileges and customs of the country.
What are cortes? Such contractual relations testify, first of all, to the fact that royalty in Spain it was not absolute - a simple royal decree to raise funds or mobilize citizens did not at all guarantee absolute implementation. And against the backdrop of constant skirmishes with Muslims, such a threat could cost the kings freedom and independence. Therefore, a certain support of the citizens of León and Castile was necessary. It was there that the first organizational meetings in Spain appeared.
What was the purpose of the Cortes?
First of all, to achieve the support of citizens in military operations and state affairs. In the second - to develop certain laws of interaction between citizens, the clergy and ordinary people. These rules concerned the courts, laws on private property, taxes. The set of agreed rules and liberties was called "fueros".
The appearance of the Cortes
Medieval chronicles and chronicles can answer the question of where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain. History says that the first cities governed by the Cortes were Castile and León. The time of the appearance of these collections must be attributed to the 11-12th century. The next step was to provide the most influential part of the townspeople with legislative rights and their gradual transformation into a significant meeting of the Cortes in 1202, when eminent citizens bought the right to mint a gold coin from the royal authorities. For the right to mint, a huge amount was paid, which was almost six times higher than all the king's income from taxes and fees.
Three Estates
To know, the clergy and the townspeople - caballeros - three estates that took part in the work of the Cortes. New legislative assemblies did not always include representatives of the three property classes. Estado militar- secular power- posed questions for consideration by the society. The secular branch was created by the representatives of the king - ricos amberos, and the petty nobility - hidalgo and infanson. The clergy were also present in two guises - the central archbishopric and the local clergy. The third force was represented by estado llano - delegates from urban communities. The order in which they participated was not standardized. First of all, representatives of cities belonging to the crown took part in the Cortes. Another condition was the presence in the city of its own council - consejo. There are cases when the townspeople made their own decisions.
Where and when did the Cortes appear in Spain, consisting of townspeople? Meetings are known in Valladolid in 1295 and four years later. The issues decided at these meetings did not provide for the presence of the nobility and the clergy.
Now the Cortes are the highest legislative bodies of Spain. Here decisions are made concerning the entire state. And it is hard to believe that the beginning of this form of government was laid a thousand years ago in Castile and Leon.
At one time, Spain was one of the most powerful kingdoms in Europe. The enormous influence and aggressive policy of its rulers would have been impossible without a harmonious internal system of royal power, which in its decisions relied on the influence of two pillars - the strength of the church and secular power. It was the second branch of power that the Cortes represented.
Authority - Cortes
Where and when the Cortes appeared, it is impossible to say for sure. It is known that by the middle of the 12th century this word was already used both in colloquial speech and in official documents. The origin of these organs is associated with the name of the early Spanish kings - Fernando II and Alfonso IX.
The Cortes were elected assemblies, like the Parliament in England and the Estates General in France. True, in Spain this form of self-government arose a little earlier. In Castile, King Fernando II turned for advice not only to the nobility and clergy, but also to wealthy citizens - caballeros. It was about the marriage between Infanta Berenguella and Frindich Barbarossa's son Conrad. The marriage contract between the heirs of two influential kingdoms contained many clauses that required strict execution.
Etymology of the word
Unfortunately, there is no reliable data on what this word means. Knowing where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain does not clarify the actual origin of the term. Most likely, it was borrowed from the Castilian or Aragonese dialect of the Spanish language, and its original roots have been lost for centuries. In the early Middle Ages, the word often coexisted with the Latin term curia. Perhaps the answer to the question “what are Cortes” lies precisely in Roman law. But where and when the Cortes arose in Spain, and how they were transformed into a state institution, you can answer in more detail. After all, the Cortes are the prototypes of modern parliaments in all European countries.
Decrees of Alphonse IX
About where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, scientists are still arguing. But until the end of the 12th century, all meetings of wealthy citizens and merchants were unsystematic. In 1188 in León, King Alphonse called together wealthy citizens, representatives of the nobility and clergy - the best and most famous people in Spain. For what purpose the Cortes were created can be learned from the brief chronicles of that time. These representatives of the three property classes swore allegiance to their master. And the king, in turn, took an oath that he undertakes to remain faithful to the people, to respect the privileges and customs of the country.
What are cortes? Such contractual relations testify, first of all, to the fact that royal power in Spain was not absolute - a simple royal decree to raise funds or mobilize subjects did not at all guarantee absolute fulfillment. And against the backdrop of constant skirmishes with Muslims, such a threat could cost the kings freedom and independence. Therefore, a certain support of the citizens of León and Castile was necessary. It was there that the first organizational meetings in Spain appeared.
What was the purpose of the Cortes?
First of all, to achieve the support of citizens in military operations and state affairs. In the second - to develop certain laws of interaction between citizens, the clergy and ordinary people. These rules concerned the courts, laws on private property, taxes. The set of agreed rules and liberties was called "fueros".
The appearance of the Cortes
Medieval chronicles and chronicles can answer the question of where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain. History says that the first cities governed by the Cortes were Castile and León. The time of the appearance of these collections must be attributed to the 11-12th century. The next step was to provide the most influential part of the townspeople with legislative rights and their gradual transformation into representative bodies. Significant is the meeting of the Cortes in 1202, when eminent citizens bought the right to mint a gold coin from the royal power. For the right to mint, a huge amount was paid, which was almost six times higher than all the king's income from taxes and fees.
Three Estates
To know, the clergy and the townspeople - caballeros - three estates that took part in the work of the Cortes. New legislative assemblies did not always include representatives of the three property classes. Estado militar - secular power - raised issues for consideration by society. The secular branch was created by the representatives of the king - ricos amberos, and the petty nobility - hidalgo and infanson. The clergy were also present in two guises - the central archbishopric and the local clergy. The third force was represented by estado llano - delegates from urban communities. The order in which they participated was not standardized. First of all, representatives of cities belonging to the crown took part in the Cortes. Another condition was the presence in the city of its own council - consejo. There are cases when the townspeople made their own decisions.
Where and when did the Cortes appear in Spain, consisting of townspeople? Meetings are known in Valladolid in 1295 and four years later. The issues decided at these meetings did not provide for the presence of the nobility and the clergy.
Now the Cortes are the highest legislative bodies of Spain. Here decisions are made concerning the entire state. And it is hard to believe that the beginning of this form of government was laid a thousand years ago in Castile and Leon.
In the 11th-12th centuries, the clergy and nobility were the backbone of royal power in Spain. To make decisions on religious, political, economic, administrative issues, meetings were convened, which were called curiae. Only representatives of these two estates took part in them. The king did not make decisions alone. At the same time, the secular nobility had a preemptive right to vote over the clergy.
Over time, the composition of these assemblies was replenished with representatives of the third estate. Noble citizens began to be invited there. Since that time, the Curia began to be called Cortes.
The beginning of the appearance of the Cortes
Where and when did the Cortes appear in Spain? The time of their appearance can be considered the convocation of curiae, to which representatives of the townspeople were invited. Researchers agree that there is a very specific answer to the question of what year the Cortes appeared in Spain. Historians call the year 1188. You can answer briefly where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain as follows: in the 12th century, in the kingdom of Leon.
Cortes in Leon
Representatives of the nobility, clergy and delegates from some cities were invited to the curia of King Alfonso IX. This event was the beginning of the creation of the Cortes. The urgent need to consolidate royal power dictated the convocation of a class assembly. The Muslims threatened southern Spain. Relations with Castile and Portugal remained strained. Alphonse IX had recently assumed the throne, and intrigues were woven against him.
The king swore to respect customs and obey adopted laws. He promised to make political decisions only with the approval of the members of the Cortes. Representatives of the secular nobility, church and urban elites also swore allegiance to the king and promised their support in governing the state.
Historian research
If you ask yourself in more detail where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, you can find other data on the participation of citizens in the curiae. Citizens were invited to council in Castile in 1170 and 1187. But then their participation was limited only to advising on a specific issue.
However, in scientific circles, despite the debate about where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, 1188 is still taken as the beginning of their occurrence. Based on the detailed studies of V.K. Piskorsky, a Russian medievalist (specialist in the history of the Middle Ages).
Participation of cities in public administration in Spain can be confusing at first. After all, she economically lagged behind others Western countries. Parliaments in England appeared a hundred years later! But the appearance of the Cortes is due to the historical conditions of the country's development. Cities could provide military and financial assistance. She was vital.
Trying to understand where and when the Cortes appeared in Spain, it should be noted that ordinary citizens were present at church councils in 1050 in Coyants and in 1115 in Oviedo. At that time they were only an audience.
The formation of the Cortes
The policy of granting privileges to cities (fueros) has long been used. They needed to be interested in helping the king. And the next logical step is to attract representatives from the cities to the class meetings.
Over time, the townspeople began to take part in the Cortes constantly. A variety of government issues were brought up for discussion. Newly issued laws, the establishment of new taxes, questions of succession to the throne, decisions to conclude peace or declare war - all this was submitted to the court of the class assembly. But the Cortes were often assigned an advisory role.
Over time, the Cortes began to have great importance in the financial sector. The king needed the support of the class assembly of tax policy. Especially important was the approval of city representatives.
But even if the Cortes agreed, taxes were sometimes not collected in the required amount. Very often, the king simply turned to the cities with a request for a loan. Sometimes by force.
The townspeople tried to negotiate for themselves the most profitable fueros (benefits). In 1202, the Cortes in Benavept purchased the right to mint coins for seven years. The amount of the ransom exceeded the taxes received by six times.
Estates in the representative assembly
Consider how the Cortes were arranged in Spain.
They allowed: to know, the clergy, representatives of the townspeople. Since various issues were considered, it was not necessary for all classes to work simultaneously.
The first estate in Spain is the secular nobility. The king invited her. She was the first to vote.
The second estate is the clergy. It was divided into higher and lower. These layers participated in the Cortes under different conditions.
Representatives of the townspeople constituted the third estate. The delegates were sent from those cities that were determined by the monarch. Only those settlements that had their own council (consejo) were allowed into the Cortes.
The most active in the meetings was the third estate. The demands of the cities were heard at almost every Cortes. The nobility and clergy occasionally petitioned the king.
Growing Influence
Needless to say, the Cortes became a place political struggle all three estates? The king provided support to the parties, depending on the situation.
The influence of cities became significant from the second half of the 13th century. Thus, royal power began to rely heavily on representatives of city councils. IN public policy their interests were taken into account.
The answer to the question of where and how the Cortes appeared in Spain makes it possible to trace the evolution of the country's political structure - the formation of a monarchy with estate representation.
policy
b) all the fullness of state and party power passed into the hands of
c) there were changes in the leadership of the party
2. Who was blamed for the repressions of the 1930s?
a) to Beria and Yezhov
b) Molotov and Malenkov
c) to the organs of the NKVD
3. When did the development of virgin lands begin?
a) in 1953 b) in 1954 c) in 1959 d) in 1962
4. What is the difference between Khrushchev's program and Malenkov's program in the development of agriculture?
a) Khrushchev advocated greater independence of collective farms
b) Khrushchev proposed to increase grain production at the expense of virgin lands
c) increased spending on social development villages
5. What measures relate to the economic policy pursued by Khrushchev?
a) replacement of ministries by economic councils
b) accelerated development of light industry enterprises
c) experiment with the introduction of cost accounting
6. What successes did Soviet science achieve during the years of the “thaw”?
a) landing a man on the moon
b) construction of a nuclear icebreaker
c) the creation of a jet passenger liner
7. Who from Soviet writers with his work "The Thaw" gave the name to the Khrushchev times?
a) A. Solzhenitsyn
b) F. Panferov
c) I. Ehrenburg
8. In what year was the Organization formed? Warsaw Pact?
9. What agreements were concluded between the USSR and the USA after Caribbean Crisis?
a) the dismantling of Soviet missiles in Cuba
b) the withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey
c) the USSR's refusal of economic assistance to Cuba
d) the closure of the American military base in Cuba
10. Which country of Eastern Europe did the Soviet Union introduce its troops in 1956?
a) Bulgaria
b) Czechoslovakia
c) Hungary
a) housing construction
d) adoption of the law on pensions
Option 2
1. What did the strengthening of Khrushchev's position in the struggle for power lead to?
a) to the establishment of a new cult of personality b) to the resignation of G.K. Zhukov
c) to strengthen the position of Malenkov
2. When did the 20th Party Congress take place?
3. Find the correct statement:
a) Khpyshchev's economic program contributed to the extensive development of the economy
b) Khrushchev's economic program contributed to intensive development farms
c) Khrushchev's economic program contributed to the formation of a market economy
4. Why, despite success social policy, Khrushchev's resignation did not cause protests among the Soviet people?
a) Khrushchev's policy exacerbated national contradictions
b) dissatisfaction with the increased role of the CPSU grew
c) there was an increase in the prices of consumer goods
d) the size of the army was significantly reduced
5. What events enlivened cultural life in the USSR?
a) regular meetings of figures of the Central Committee and culture
b) opening of the Moscow Film Festival
c) holding international exhibitions
6. Which of the following is a sign of a "thaw"
a) the emergence of anti-Stalinist works of literature
b) the beginning of rehabilitation
c) weakening the role of the communist party
d) expansion of international contacts of the intelligentsia
7. When was the first one launched artificial satellite?
8. When was the test ban treaty signed? nuclear weapons in three areas?
9. Why was there an increase in the influence of CCC R in 00 N?
a) there was a weakening of the role of the United States
b) the appearance of ballistic missiles in the USSR
c) support Soviet Union anti-colonial movement.
10. During his resignation, Khrushchev was accused of:
a) in voluntarism
b) in the reduction of the army
c) in debunking the "cult of personality"
11. The successes of the social policy of the USSR can be considered:
a) housing construction
b) reduction of tariff rates in production
c) free education
d) adoption of the law on pensions
