Antonymy is the opposite of language units in a semantic sense. Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that are opposite in meaning. For example:
He didn't love badly dressed. Tired. Sick. Old. Ugly. awkward. Shy. sad. They interfered with his energetic advancement. They irritated his visual perception of the world. However, if he had delved into himself, he would still have found that he needed them, as a background against which he should stand out - immaculately dressed, Always ready to fight for myself, healthy, young, Beautiful, dexterous, shameless who does not allow himself such a luxury of the poor as sadness - Igor Seleznev ( E. Evtushenko).
In this passage, adjectives are clearly contrasted in meaning. sick — healthy, old — young, ugly — Beautiful, awkward — dexterous, shy — shameless, adverbs Badly — impeccably(dressed), less opposed tired and the phrase ready to fight. The division and connection of the phenomena of the surrounding reality by contrast is one of the common operations of human logic. Therefore, when considering antonymy, much attention is paid to some logical concepts, primarily the concept of opposites. The latter is understood primarily as the opposition between the phenomena of the real world: from philosophical categories to everyday objects, their signs and actions. For clarity, we give an excerpt from the novel by E. Yevtushenko "Berry Places".
No matter how hard she [wife] tried, Seleznev Sr."everything is bad sat." I had to endlessly alter it, and it cost her a lot of nerves, because it was almost impossible to drag her husband into the atelier. On Seleznev Jr. everything was sitting like poured. Seleznev Sr. still has not got rid of the terrible, in her opinion, habit of smoking Belomor Canal. Seleznev -Jr smoked only american cigarettes. Seleznev -senior could not learn a single phrase from Russian-English phrasebook. Seleznev Jr. spoke brilliant English and good French. Seleznev Sr. did not study no sports. Seleznev Jr. played tennis, skiing and water skiing, He practiced figure skating and karate. Seleznev Sr. endlessly reread the same book - "War and Peace". Seleznev- Jr read " Tropic of Cancer" Henry Miller in the original.
The whole presentation in the above passage is based on the opposition of persons, objects, their signs and actions. In most cases, these oppositions are expressed by syntactic constructions: Seleznev -senior— Seleznev- Jr; didn't sit well — sat like a glove; could not learn a single phrase from the Russian-English phrasebook — spoke brilliant English etc. But in one case - in the appendix to the surname - the opposition is expressed by antonyms: senior —Jr.
The opposite can be embedded in the inner content of one and the same phenomenon and be found in external forms its existence, also expressed by syntactic constructions and antonyms. For example:
- 1) I took life into myself. I knew her in struggles and labors. And let old age come. I drank sagebrush And honey — not fresh drink (Ya. Rylenkov). Different types of drinks are mentioned here, the names of which in one case are contrasted according to the taste of drinks and are expressed by antonyms ( sagebrush And honey), and in another case - by the presence of general taste qualities in drinks (words wormwood and honey- phrase unleavened drink);
- 2) Frowningly said to the waiter: "A portion of ham," adding: - leaner..." The waiters had already studied it and carried it fatter(E. Yevtushenko);
- 3) Article 105. Compound And disconnection multiple claims. 1. The plaintiff has the right to combine in one statement of claim several claims related to each other ( Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation). In examples 2 and 3, the opposite inherent different types subject ( lean And oily ham) and different types of procedural actions ( compound And disconnection claims), is expressed only by antonyms.
The opposition expressed by antonyms can be of two kinds, which is determined by the presence or absence of a middle link between the two extreme points of the corresponding concepts.
In some cases, such a link exists, for example: the wind can be not only weak, strong, but also moderate) between cold And hot tea possible warm; among loving And hating anything meet indifferent; stood out among the peasants poor, fists, and middle peasants. In most cases, there is no intermediate link between antonyms: false — truthful, Russophiles — Russophobes, main — secondary, be proud — be ashamed, Earth — sky.
Antonyms are divided into full and partial (conditional). Antonyms are called complete if they denote opposites in their extreme manifestation, regardless of whether there are intermediate links between them or not.
Partial antonyms name objects, their signs or actions that are not at the extreme positions of their logical opposition, but are only conditionally opposed. For example, in grammar use the terms: letter And sound, vocalism And consonantism, vowels And consonants, subject And rhema. These terms cannot be recognized as antonyms in the full sense of the word, i.e. naming concepts in their extreme opposition.
Rather, they are words denoting concepts that are conditionally opposed to each other, in this case, within the framework of the description of the language system.
Antonyms are divided depending on the morphemic composition:
■ antonyms - words of different roots: repressed - rehabilitated, destroy - restore, cooling - warming, left - right, own - strangers;
■ antonyms - single-root words:
- - formed with the help of prefixes opposite in meaning: import - export, arm - disarm, ascend - enter, win - lose, tie - untie;
- - formed from another word with the help of a prefix that gives the word the opposite meaning: moral — immoral, Russian — anti-Russian, spot — cashless, humanization — dehumanization, entrepreneurship — pseudo-entrepreneurship(creation of a commercial organization without the intention to carry out entrepreneurial activity), visiting — travel restrictions;
- - formed from a common generating word by means of suffixes opposite in meaning. Home: cottage — domino; hand: pen — hands.
IN Lately the number of antonyms among compound terms, in particular legal ones, increases noticeably. Some of them have a middle link located between the extreme points of manifestation of antonymy:
- 1) along with the concept Joint-Stock Company- a commercial organization, the authorized capital of which is divided into a certain number of shares, there are opposing concepts - a joint-stock company whose members may alienate their shares without the consent of other shareholders, and - a joint-stock company, whose shares are distributed only among its founders;
- 2) apart from the concept contest, contrasting concepts are used closed competition— a competition in which only Russian subjects of foreign trade activity can take part, and open competition — a competition in which any subjects of foreign trade activity can take part;
- 3) in addition to the concept organization introduced antonymous concepts commercial organization- an organization that pursues profit as the main goal of its activities, and non-profit organization- an organization that does not have as its main goal the extraction of profit and does not distribute the profit received among the participants;
- 4) term resort served as the basis for the creation of antonymous compound terms local resort And federal resort, as well as, as it were, a middle term regional resort.
However, most compound terms - antonyms do not have a middle link. For example:
- 1) lease contract vehicle without a crew- an agreement for the provision by the lessor to the lessee of a vehicle for payment for temporary possession and use without the provision of services for its management and its technical operation and vehicle rental agreement with crew- an agreement for the provision by the lessor to the lessee of a vehicle for payment for temporary possession and use with the provision of services on its own for managing it and for its technical operation;
- 2) association of commercial organizations And association of non-profit organizations;
- 3) separate citizen(in particular foreign citizen and stateless person) as a subject of civil law and entity - an organization that owns, manages or manages separate property and is liable for all obligations with this property, can acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights on its own behalf, bear obligations, be a plaintiff and defendant in court.
The presence of such antonymic pairs as vehicle rental agreement without a crew — Withcrew , does not imply that other compound terms that include a prepositional substantive phrase necessarily have antonymous compound terms with a prepositional substantive phrase that is opposite in meaning.
For example, it has recently become very relevant in our country limited liability company- an economic company founded by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares of the sizes determined by the constituent documents; the participants of the company are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, within the value of their contributions. But this does not mean that there is a term limited liability company, whose participants are fully responsible for its obligations and for possible losses. For such societies, other names are used: public corporation, closed joint stock company and etc.
There are known cases of competition between some antonymic pairs in the 1990s.
After the collapse Soviet Union at the borders Russian Federation a kind of new foreign country arose (new independent states - Ukraine, Georgia, Kazakhstan, etc.) in comparison with the already existing, old, always taking place. This process is reflected in official documents. Thus, the "Programme of measures to support compatriots abroad" (1996) provided for the involvement of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in solving the problems of compatriots abroad, including those Russian republics whose titular population makes up a significant part in the countries new And traditional for Russia abroad. This and only this antonymous pair in this case is consistently used throughout the document as official terms.
However, this antonymous pair new — traditional abroad did not gain a foothold in use, did not enter into the speech practice of the population either at the official or at the household level. Thus, in the commentary to the "Programme of Measures" ( S. Karkhanin. Ros. newspaper) for the generalized naming of the countries included in the Commonwealth Independent States, not used new, A near abroad: almost main problem for Russians in near abroad Today, education has become in their native language.
At the same time, the antonymic pair near-far abroad has been widely used, and at all levels: In foreign policy Russia can be divided into two main directions. The first is relations with the former Soviet republics, the so-called neighboring countries , the second is relations with the so-called far abroad.
There are linguistic, speech, contextual antonyms. Language antonyms belong language system, i.e. are well-known and commonly used: repressed — rehabilitated, moral — immoral, Near Abroad — far abroad etc.
Speech antonyms are those that occur in the speech of certain persons, but have not become public domain. For example: Brezhnev's suit, designed by Igmand, was not only unfashionable, he was, you can say, antifashion (AiF. 1999). Adjective antifashion, probably invented by the author; in any case, it is not recorded in any dictionary.
Contextual ones are close to speech antonyms - these are words that are not antonyms, if taken separately, but acquire signs of antonymy in a certain verbal series. For example:
1) The conversation ultimately concerned new things.
Did you buy the cloth from Gasner?
- This? What do you! From Bucharest... Look closely, what color!
- The color is very pleasant, but ... they say it is no longer in fashion. Here is black! Well, that one never goes out of style... Verified!
If the material was black, then in the mouth of an envious person from "verified" he turned into "bored" And "beaten" (Y. Kolesnikov); 2) And power at and mafia sometimes / close in nature: / They stubbornly among themselves / Leading the fight against crime V. Orlov); 3) It didn’t even stop that the neighborhood of two Vladimirs - Baptist And atheist- this is nonsense in every sense: political, moral and historical ( B. Oleinik).
Of course, words taken out of context verified — bored, beaten; power — mafia; Baptist — atheist are not antonyms.
A variety of antonyms includes the so-called conversives - pairs of words that express the reverse relationship in the original and derived statements. For example: school students sent parcel fighters special forces. — Fighters special forces got mail from school students. The subject of the first utterance ( students) and its destination object ( fighters) change roles in the second utterance, where the subject becomes fighters, and the object - the source of something - students. Such relations between subject and object, expressed lexically - in converse words, resemble similar relations in active and passive turns of speech. Wed: The graduate student summarizes the article. — Article outlined graduate student. Here the conversion is expressed by the forms of the verb - transitive ( outlines) and return ( outlined).
There is another group of antonyms - euphemisms - words that express the opposite meaning in a softened way. Usually euphemisms are formed by adding the prefix Not- to the original word Beautiful — ugly, But ugly; thrifty — wasteful, But careless; noble(Human) - short, But base.
Antonyms usually act as a pair, although one of them can sometimes be opposed by two or more lexical units at the same time. For example: hot Cold (ice); rude — polite (courteous, delicate); dirty, owl. V. pollute — clean, owl. V. clean out (clean up). The words in brackets are antonyms.
If a word has many meanings, then each of its meanings can be included in a special antonymic pair. For example:
- 1) noun protection in the meaning of "protection from hostile actions" opposes attack, and the noun protection in the meaning of "defending party in litigation" — accusation;
- 2) the adjective is light, "performed without much difficulty", opposite difficult, and the adjective easy, "insignificant in weight", - heavy.
Antonymia as artistic technique(antithesis) often used in literary works, helping to create a contrast of images, to emphasize the opposition of signs, actions, which makes statements more emotional and memorable. Here is one phrase from E. Yevtushenko, where a whole chain of antonymic pairs is strung: Apart from funny And sad , besides vile And good , besides life And of death there is still world infinity on earth.
Of the antonymic dictionaries, the most famous are two:
Lvov M. R. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. About 2000 antonymic pairs. M., 1978.
Lvov M. R. School dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. M., 1980.
§ 129. Antonyms (from Grsch. anti-"against" and oputa -"name") are usually defined as "words opposite in meaning", "words having opposite meanings", "words with opposite meanings to each other", "words diametrically opposed in conceptual meaning". At the same time, the semantic correlation of antonymous words is often emphasized: "Antonyms are words different meanings which express opposite, but correlative concepts with each other. "When defining the concept of antonyms, attention is sometimes drawn to their belonging to the same part of speech (cf.:" ANTONYMS ... - words of the same part of speech that have opposite values").
Semantic relations between words expressing opposite meanings, i.e. which are antonyms are called antonymic relations, antonymic opposition, or antonymy. "ANTONYMY - a type of semantic relations of lexical units that have opposite meanings ( antonyms)...". The combination of words related by antonyms is called antonymous pair(antonymic row), or antonymic opposition.
Antonymic relations between words are possible provided that these words express a qualitative feature. Antonyms can be "words that have a qualitative feature in their meaning and therefore are capable of being opposed to each other as opposite in meaning." A qualitative sign can be expressed in words that "designate phenomena that have qualitative, quantitative, temporal and spatial significance." Most often, a qualitative feature is expressed by adjectives, so antonymy is most common among adjectives, for example: white - black, close – distant, big – small, tall – low, long – short, expensive – cheap, soft – rough, early - late, strong – weak, old – young. Less commonly, antonyms are found among other parts of speech - nouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, for example: day - night, winter - summer, good – evil, start – end, south - north; lie down - get up, fall - rise, observe – violate; ahead – back, fast – slowly, early – late; V – from, under – above.Нс form antonymic pairs of words or separate lexico-semantic variants of words with specific meanings that do not have evaluative semantics, for example, nouns meadow, forest, field, lake, road, house, table(at least in direct, nominative meanings), adjectives blue, purple, wooden, Verbs draw, examine and many others.
§ 130. Polysemantic words enter into antonymic relations in their individual meanings (lexico-semantic variants), therefore they can form antonymic pairs with different words; cf., for example: old(reaching old age) young(underage, not yet old) and old(long used) - new(first created or made, appeared or emerged recently). At the same time, different polysemantic words may be in antonymic relations not in all their meanings, but only in one or several of them. For example, a noun day forms an antonymic pair with the word night only in the first, nominative meaning: day(part of the day from sunrise to sunset, between morning and evening) - night(part of the day from sunset to sunrise, between evening and morning). Obviously, in such cases one can speak of partial antonyms, or partial antonymy. Sometimes antonymic nars also form such polysemantic words that are opposed to each other in all lexical meanings. Yes, but data explanatory dictionaries, antonymous nouns north And south opposed to each other in all three lexical meanings: north(1. One of the four cardinal directions and a direction opposed to the south ... 2. The area lying in this direction ... 3. The area with a cold, harsh climate, cold edges) - south(1. One of the four cardinal points and a direction opposite to the north ... 2. The area lying in this direction ... 3. The area with a warm, hot climate, warm edges). Such words can be called, respectively, full antonyms, and the relationship between them complete antonymy. Full antonyms are, of course, all single-valued words that form antonymic pairs.
§ 131. Like synonyms, antonyms differ in structure, i.e. are divided into heterogeneous And single root, sometimes called grammatical, or lexico-grammatical. In heterogeneous antonyms, the opposite of meaning is expressed by root morphemes, which is especially pronounced in non-derivative antonymous words (see examples above). In single-root antonyms, this function is performed by certain derivational means. In Russian, these are mainly prefix morphemes (cf., for example: Friend – enemy, revolution – counter-revolution, expensive - inexpensive, handsome - ugly, young – middle-aged, strong - powerless, finite - endless, above-ground - underground, make – take out, close – open, assemble - disassemble). Sometimes (very rarely) word-building suffixes or inflections are used as such means (cf.: house – house, hand - hand, husband - wife and some others).
§ 132. As noted above, polysemantic antonymous words are usually opposed to each other in separate lexical meanings, in separate lexico-semantic variants. According to the definition of L. A. Novikov, "the lexico-semantic version of the word acts as an elementary unit of antonymy, opposition." Among the lexico-semantic variants of the same polysemantic word there may be variants with opposite semantics, i.e. in antonymic relations with each other, for example: priceless -"very valuable, above any price" and (obsolete) "not valuable, of little value"; definite- "firmly established" and "some, this or that"; blow out- "by blowing, extinguish, for example, a candle" and "ignite, put into action (about a blast furnace)"; listen- "perceive by ear, listen" and (colloquial) "not perceive by ear, not hear, skip"; probably (probably) - "true, exactly, undoubtedly" and "apparently, probably, in all probability"; obviously- has the same meaning. Such a phenomenon is called intra-word antonymy, or enantiosemy(from Greek. enantios- "opposite" and sema- "sign"). Intra-word antonymy (enantiosemy) can be defined as the semantic opposition of lexico-semantic variants of a polysemantic word. According to the definition of L. A. Novikov, this is "the opposite of meanings within the same word .., which finds external expression in the context, in the nature of the syntactic and lexical connections of the word (in its different, opposite meanings) with other words ...". The lexico-semantic variants of a polysemantic word that are in antonymic relations are called enantiosemes, or antonyms-enantiosemes. They can also be called intra-word antonyms.
§ 133. Antonymic words, the opposite of the meanings of which are fixed in the vocabulary of the language, are called ordinary, or language, general language. These include all words with opposite meanings, which are recorded in normative dictionaries (their detailed description is given above). Usual antonyms are contrasted with occasional antonyms, which are usually called speech, less often - contextual, contextual speech, situational, author's, individual, individual stylistic. Occasional (speech) antonyms are words that in themselves, out of context, are not antonyms, but in speech, in a certain context, acquire opposite meanings characteristic of antonyms. Some examples: "Salary [from the secretary of the head of the institution] secretarial, and the clothes foreign"(from the TV show); "Table for pure trays" and "Table for used trays" (from the inscriptions in the dining rooms). Especially often speech antonyms are used in fiction with a view to achieving artistic expressiveness(cf .: "The yellow tallow candle smoked equally during palace Petersburg nobleman, and in hut village deacon "(L. Leonov. Road to the Ocean);" Shining with happiness, the youngest of the sisters, Tonya, with her long legs has not yet young woman and no longer girl... ran out of the house to meet them "(A. Fadeev. Young Guard);" He fiercely wanted exist, And we wanted live and we will live" (A. Surkov. Payback).
IN literary texts as speech antonyms, words that are usual synonyms are often used, which serves as one of the means of creating an artistic effect. Consider, for example, the use of synonymous words fisherman And angler in opposite meanings in the following dialogue from K. Fedin's novel "An Extraordinary Summer": "[Dorogomilov] - ... You can earn money ... by fishing. [Anochka] - Then you will fisherman but not fisherman." Other examples: "And Uli's eyes were big, dark brown - not eyes, A eyes, with long eyelashes, black mysterious pupils ... "(A. Fadeev. Young Guard); "- ... Grandfathers lived without doctors, they healed the wounds themselves. What do I have wounds? So, injured.."(B. Gorbatov. Unconquered); "Not seen, A seen captain of an American corvette..." (I. A. Goncharov. Frigate "Pallada"); "Oblomov... heard and not heard how the dry cough of the old woman sounded .., saw and not seen, how the hostess and Akulina went to the market ... "(I. A. Goncharov. Oblomov).
§ 134. Such phenomena as antithesis and oxymoron (oxymoron) are closely related to antonymy. Antithesis(from Greek. antithesis- "opposition") is defined as a turn of speech, expression, stylistic figure, built on a sharp opposition of antonymous words. Sometimes this phenomenon is also called the term "contrast". Antithesis is used "to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, images." Examples: "Learning - light, ignorance - dark"(proverb); "Days And nights"(title of the story by K. Simonov); " live And dead"(novel by K. Simonov). an oxymoron(from Greek. oxymoron- letters. "witty-stupid") is a combination of words with antonymous meanings that express "logically incompatible concepts that sharply contradict in meaning and mutually exclude each other." Some examples: ringing silence, eloquent silence, pessimistic optimism, diachronic synchrony (linguistic term), "Living Dead"(title of the play by L. N. Tolstoy), " An optimistic tragedy(name of the play by V. Vishnevsky).
ABOUT vocabulary The child is well spoken by his knowledge of synonyms and antonyms. And with those, and with others, as a rule, children are not good enough. But there is nothing complicated in this. There is such a children's game of antonyms - "Opposites". One calls the word, the second selects an antonym for it. This game enjoys great attention from animators for children and even adults, and it is a frequent entertainment at holiday parties. So you can play antonyms with your child, and he will remember these words and show off his knowledge not only at the holiday, but also in his future compositions.
For starters, antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning. Dictionaries of antonyms are huge, sometimes even an adult does not know the meaning of some words in them, let alone the meaning of the opposite ... On this page we have collected for you only simple antonyms for in simple words, level elementary school subject to memorization by students of grades 1,2,3,4.
Brief dictionary of antonyms:
neat - slovenly
antonym - synonym
White black
turn pale - blush, darken
to shine - to twinkle, to dim
close - distant
rich man - poor man
big small
fast - slow
century - moment
correct - wrong
cheerful - sad, sad, boring
windy - windless
old - new
Turn on, turn off
inside Outside
question answer
east - west, west (sea)
sunrise - sunset
enter - exit
high Low
extinguish - kindle
smooth - rough
vowel - consonant
deep - shallow
speak - be silent
hungry - full
city - village, village
bitter - sweet
hot Cold
warm - cool
dirt - purity
dirty - clean
do - mess around
day Night
dialogue - monologue
good evil
friend - enemy
hefty - frail
go - stop
heat - cold
hard - soft
closed - sociable
healthy - sick
green - mature, ripe
winter summer
sincere - hypocritical
truth - delusion, deceit
source - mouth
strong - fragile
sour - sweet
lazy - hard worker
superfluous - necessary
dexterous - clumsy
go to bed - get up
love - hate
to freeze - to warm up
peace - war, quarrel
many - few
mighty - weak
wet - dry
wise - stupid
soft - hard
hope - despair
deliberate - unintentional
imperturbable - unbalanced
uncomplicated - sly
new - old
plentiful - scarce
defend - attack
educated - ignorant
upset - comfort
sharp - blunt
courageous - cowardly, cowardly
frank - secretive
open close
obvious - doubtful
plus - minus
victory - defeat
hang up - take down
useful - harmful
put - take
benefit - harm
help - hinder
true False
truthful - false
picky - unpretentious
pleasant - repulsive
empty - full
fluffy - smooth
joy - sadness, sadness
difference - similarity
agile - slow
determined - unsure
timid - bold
Motherland, fatherland - foreign land
light - darkness, darkness
dawn - dusk
north - south, south (sea)
laugh - cry
save - destroy
sleep - stay awake
start - finish
full - hungry
hard - soft
dark - light
cramped - spacious
thick - thin
thin - thick
work - rest
difficult - easy
grieve - rejoice
assure - dissuade
gloomy - friendly
move away - approach
narrow - wide
intentional - unintentional
stubborn - obstinate
success - failure
sympathetic - indifferent
negligent - conscientious
brave - cowardly
frequent - rare
honest - mean
wide narrow
generous - miserly
bright - dim
furious - meek
clear - overcast, rainy
Antonyms(Greek αντί- - against + όνομα - name) - these are words of one part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: "truth" - "false", "good" - "evil", " to speak - to be silent.
The lexical units of the vocabulary of a language turn out to be closely related not only on the basis of their associative connection by similarity or contiguity as lexico-semantic variants of a polysemantic word. Most of the words of the language do not contain a feature capable of opposition, therefore, antonymic relations are impossible for them, however, in a figurative sense, they can acquire an antonym. Thus, in contextual antonymy, antonymic relations of words with a direct meaning are possible, and then these pairs of words carry an emphatic load and perform a special stylistic function.
Antonyms are possible for such words, the meanings of which contain opposite qualitative shades, but the meanings are always based on a common feature (weight, height, feeling, time of day, etc.). Also, only words belonging to the same grammatical or stylistic category can be opposed. Consequently, words belonging to different parts of speech or lexical levels cannot become linguistic antonyms.
There are no proper names, pronouns, numeral antonyms.
1Typology of antonymic relations
2Antonyms in poetry
3See Also
4Notes
5Literature
Typology of antonymic relations
Antonyms according to the type of concepts expressed:
contrastive correlates - such opposites that mutually complement each other to the whole, without transitional links; they are in relation to the privative opposition. Examples: bad - good, false - true, alive - dead.
counter correlates - antonyms expressing polar opposites within one essence in the presence of transitional links - internal gradation; they are in relation to the gradual opposition. Examples: black (- gray -) white, old (- elderly - middle-aged -) young, large (- medium -) small.
vector correlates - antonyms expressing different directions of actions, signs, social phenomena etc. Examples: enter - exit, descend - rise, light - extinguish, revolution - counter-revolution.
Converses are words that describe the same situation from the point of view of different participants. Examples: buy - sell, husband - wife, teach - learn, lose - win, lose - find, young - old.
enantiosemy - the presence of opposite meanings in the structure of the word. Examples: to lend money to someone - to borrow money from someone, to surround with tea - to treat and not to treat.
pragmatic - words that are regularly opposed in the practice of their use, in contexts (pragmatics - "action"). Examples: soul - body, mind - heart, earth - sky.
By structure, antonyms are:
heterogeneous (forward - backward);
single root - are formed with the help of prefixes that are opposite in meaning: enter - exit, or with the help of a prefix added to the original word (monopoly - antimonopoly).
From the point of view of language and speech, antonyms are divided into:
linguistic (usual) - antonyms that exist in the language system (rich - poor);
contextual (contextual, speech, occasional) - antonyms that occur in a specific context (to check for the presence of this type, it is necessary to reduce them to a language pair) - (gold - copper half, that is, expensive - cheap). They often appear in proverbs.
From the point of view of action, antonyms are:
proportionate - action and reaction (get up - go to bed, get rich - get poorer);
disproportionate - action and lack of action (in the broad sense) (ignite - extinguish, think - think over).
Antonyms- these are words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning.
Word antonym came from the Greek anty- against + onyma- Name.
Antonyms allow you to see objects, phenomena, signs in contrast.
Example:
hot ↔ cold, loud ↔ quiet, walk ↔ stand, far ↔ close
Not all words have antonyms. Words that denote specific objects (table, desk, goat) usually do not have antonyms.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word can have different antonyms.
Example:
soft (fresh) bread ↔ stale bread; soft (smooth) movements ↔ sharp movements; mild (warm) climate ↔ harsh climate.
Most antonyms are words of different roots. But they also meet single-root antonyms.
The opposite meaning in such cases is created using negative prefixes Not-,without-,anti-,counter- and etc.
Example:
experienced - inexperienced, familiar - unfamiliar, tasty - tasteless, military - anti-war, revolution - counter-revolution
Antonyms are widely used by writers and poets to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Example:
You rich, I am very poor; You novelist, I poet; You rouge, like poppies, I'm like death, and skinny and pale. (A. Pushkin)
This technique (the use of antonyms in a literary text) is called antithesis.
Phoneme(ancient Greek φώνημα - “sound”) - the minimum semantic-distinctive unit of the language - (Linguistic unit of speech). The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language (morphemes and words):
when you replace one phoneme with another, you get another word (<д>ohm -<т>ohm);
changing the order of the phonemes will also result in another word (<сон> - <нос>);
deleting a phoneme will also result in another word (t<р>he is the tone).
The term "phoneme" in a close modern sense was introduced by the Polish-Russian linguists N. V. Krushevsky and I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, who worked in Kazan (after the early death of Krushevsky, Baudouin de Courtenay pointed to its priority).
The phoneme as an abstract unit of language corresponds to the sound of speech as a concrete unit in which the phoneme is materially realized. Strictly speaking, the sounds of speech are infinitely varied; sufficiently accurate physical analysis can show that one person never pronounces the same sound in the same way (for example, shock [а́]). However, as long as all these pronunciation options allow you to correctly identify and distinguish words, the sound [а́] in all its variants will be a realization of the same phoneme<а>.
The phoneme is the object of study of phonology. This concept plays an important role in solving such practical problems as the development of alphabets, spelling principles, etc.
The minimal unit of sign languages was formerly called the hirema.
