Methods of education independent. Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech

The following main ways of forming independent parts of speech are presented in Russian:

Noun

1. prefix, in which nouns are formed from nouns: city® suburb,
2. suffixal, in which nouns are formed from
- nouns: table® table-ic,
- adjectives: blue® blue-ev-a, blue- Æ ,
- verbs: run away® run-rel-I , run- Æ ,
- numerals: one hundred® hundred-n-i , two ® twins,
- adverbs: together ® accomplice, Why® why-chk-ah,
3. prefix-suffix, in which nouns are formed from
- nouns: window® under-window-nick,
- verbs: serve® co-serve,
- adjectives: polar ® for-polar-j-e,
4. addition, including with reduction: forest + steppe ® forest(o)steppe, Moscow State University ® Moscow State University,
5. Truncate: specialist ® specialist,
6. substantiation, in which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager(substantive participles, as already mentioned, can be considered suffixal derivatives of verbs),
7. addition with suffixation: Earth + do® land (e) business.

Adjective

1. prefix, in which adjectives are formed from adjectives: huge® pre-huge,
2. suffixal, forming adjectives from
- adjectives: blue® blue-eyed,
- nouns: autumn® autumn-n-th,
- verbs: read® reader-ln-th,
- numerals: two ® double,
- adverbs: inside ® interior,
3. prefixed-suffixal: shore® coastal-n-th,
4. addition: Russian + English ® Russian-English;
5. addition with suffixation: crooked+ side ® crooked(o)side- Æ - uy

numeral

Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1. suffix: two® twenty, five® fifteen-fifteen , two ® dv-oj-e,
2. addition: three + one hundred ® three hundred;

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes none, not, something- and suffixes - then, either, something:Who® no-one, no-one , somebody, anybody, anyone;

1. prefix - from verbs: run away® pro-run,
2. suffix, in which verbs are formed from
- verbs: reread® reread, wash® wash ,
- adjectives: red® red-e-t, prominent® visible-e-t-xia,
- nouns: partisan® partisan-and-t, crowd® crowd-and-t-Xia,
- numerals: two® double-and-th (‘to divide in two’),
- interjection: Oh® ah-ah-th,
3. prefixed-suffixal, with which verbs are formed from
- nouns: shadow ® for-shadow-and-t , bankrupt® about-bankrupt-and-t-sya,
- adjectives: straight ® you-straight-and-be ,
- numerals: three® u-tro-i-t,
- verbs: be in love® under-love-iva-th, jump® ras-jump-Xia, call® re-name-iva-th-sya;
4. addition: work+ arrange ® labor (o) to arrange,
5. addition with the addition of a word-forming morpheme: world + create® y-world (o) create;

1. prefix - from adverbs: for a long time® not-long, How® somehow,
2. suffixal, with which adverbs are formed from
- nouns: winter® winter-oh,
- adjectives: good® good-oh,
- numerals: three® thrice,
- verbs: lie® lie-a,
- adverbs: Fine® good, How® somehow ,
3. prefixed-suffixal, with which adverbs are formed from
- adjectives: new® in a new way, old® from-a-long-a,
- nouns: top® up,
- numerals: two® in two,
- verbs: catching up® catch-up, gallop¬ jump Æ
- adverbs: for a long time® for a long time,
4. addition with suffixation: past+ walk® in passing.

Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech

The following main ways of forming independent parts of speech are presented in Russian:

Noun

1. prefixal, in which nouns are formed from nouns: city ​​→ suburb,

2. suffixal, in which nouns are formed from

Nouns: table → table-ik,

Adjectives: blue → syn-ev-a, blue-Ø,

Verbs: run away → running-relative-I , run-Ø,

Numerals: one hundred → a hundred , two → twins,

Adverbs: together → accomplice, why → why-chk-ah,

3. prefixed-suffixal, in which nouns are formed from

Nouns: window → windowsill,

Verbs: serve → colleague,

Adjectives: polar → for-polar-j-e,

4. addition, including with the abbreviation: forest + steppe → forest(o)steppe, Moscow State University → Moscow State University,

5. truncation: specialist → specialist,

6. substantiation, at which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager(substantive participles, as already mentioned, can be considered suffixal derivatives of verbs),

7. addition with suffix: Earth + do → land (e) business.

Adjective

1. prefixal, in which adjectives are formed from adjectives: huge → pre-huge,

2. suffixal, forming adjectives from

Adjectives: blue → blue-yenky-y,

Nouns: autumn → autumn,

Numerals: two → double,

Adverbs: inside → interior,

3. prefixed-suffixal: shore → near-shore-n-th,

4. addition: Russian + English → Russian-English;

5. addition with suffix: crooked+ side → crooked(o)side-Ø- uy

numeral

Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:

1. suffixal: two → twenty, five → fifteen , two → dv-oj-e,

2. addition: three + one hundred → three hundred;

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes none, not, something and suffixes - then, either, something: who → no-one, no-one , somebody, anybody, anyone;

Verb

1. prefixal- from verbs: run → pro-run,

2. suffixal, in which verbs are formed from

Adjectives: red → blush, prominent → visible,

Nouns: partisan → partisan-i-t, crowd → crowd,

Numerals: two → two-and-th ("divide in two"),

Interjection: ah → ah-ah-ah,

3. prefixed-suffixal, with which verbs are formed from

Nouns: shadow → for-shadow-and-t , bankrupt → go bankrupt,

Adjectives: straight → you-straight-and-be ,

Numerals: three → u-three-and-be,

Verbs: be in love → dislike, jump → ras-jump-sya, call → re-called-iva-th-sya;

4. addition: work+ arrange → labor (o) to arrange,

5. addition with the addition of a word-forming morpheme: world + create → u-world (o) to create;

Adverb

1. prefixal- from adverbs: long → not for long, how → somehow

2. suffixal

Nouns: winter → winter-oh,

Adjectives: good → Fine,

Numerals: three → tr-everyday,

Verbs: lie down → lie-a,

Adverbs: Fine → good, how → somehow ,

3. prefixed-suffixal, with which adverbs are formed from

Adjectives: new → in a new way old → from a long time ago

Nouns: top → up,

Numerals: two → in two,

Verbs: catching up → in catch-up, jump → in-jump-Ø

Adverbs: long → for a long time

4. addition with suffix: past+ walk → in passing.

Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another

The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.

We have already called education nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them ( ice cream manager) - substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantivation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun, the suffix - utsch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics there is a description of the formation of such words by suffixation: manager ← manage, manager - "the one who manages."

The transition from other parts of speech formed many adverbs. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking

Nouns ( at home in spring),

adjectives ( in vain, out in the open),

gerund ( sitting, lying),

Numerals ( twice).

It must be understood that the transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the current state of the language (from a synchronic point of view), all these words are formed using a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous to the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the formative suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example:

winter-oh ← winter, lying-a ← lie, empty-y ← empty.

The transition process is active during the formation of service words. For example, the following groups can be called pretexts, formed by the transition from other parts of speech:

denominated: in view, in the form, during, on account of, on account of,

Verbs: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,

adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.

At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in the context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around(adverb) - I walked around the house(pretext). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relation, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success.(preposition) - We left, thanking the hosts for their hospitality.(germs). As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, in the course of, by, about, in the course of; V modern language these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: as, in the field, with the help of, in favor of. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of the noun: selective compatibility ( in the role of someone - in the function of what), the ability to accept the definition ( act in the dubious role of appeaser). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.

From point of view state of the art language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:

1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-I ← exclude,

2) prefixed-suffixal - from nouns: in-time-i ← time,

3) addition - from prepositions: due to ← due to + due.

The material concerning the formation of words of one part of speech from words of another part of speech clearly shows the necessity and ways of distinguishing between historical and synchronic derivativeness.

Word-building analysis of the word

Word-formation analysis is carried out according to the following scheme:

1. Put the word under study in the initial form (for participle and gerund participle - infinitive).

2. To the word under study, select a motivating word (words) that is closest in form and related in meaning to the word under study; explain the meaning of a derivative word through the meaning of the generating word (words); highlight the researched and producing (producing) bases.

3. In the word under study, highlight the means of word formation, if the word is formed by a prefix and / or a suffix.

4. Indicate the way of word formation.

5. Indicate the processes accompanying word formation, if any:

alternating vowels and consonants

Truncation of the generating base,

interfixation,

When parsing word-formation, it is necessary to pay attention to the following.

Firstly, word formation and form formation should not be confused. So, it is impossible to describe the past tense of the verb, participle or gerund as words formed from the infinitive (for example, read, reading, reading from read). In this case, we are dealing with forms of the same verb, that is, with the same word. It is to avoid errors of this kind that the word under study is first put in its initial form.

The generating stem must also be in the initial form (for example, windowsill← window, but not * under the window), the only exceptions are cases of fusion ( crazy ← crazy) and substantivation ( student n. ← student incl.).

Secondly, during word-formation analysis, it is necessary to correctly determine the generating stem - the closest motivating stem in form. An analysis will be erroneous in which the initial non-derivative word of the word-formation chain will be indicated as the generating basis, and not the direct generating word of the word under study. So, for example, for the word steamboat its producing basis will be the word steamer not words steam And walk. Means of word formation steamboat- suffix - n-, way - suffixation.

Third, one should not clutter up the word-formation analysis with a complete morphemic analysis of the word under study. Extra operations indicate a misunderstanding of the task of word-formation parsing and its difference from morphemic parsing. In the word under study, only the stem and the morpheme (morphemes) that are directly involved in word formation should be singled out.

In rare cases, the word under study may be at the same level of derivation from two different stems, for example: sadly ← funny / sad. In these cases, one speaks of the double motivation of the given word. It can also be described as a prefix derivative of the word funny, and as a suffixal derivative of the word sad.

Here are a few examples word-formation parsing:

1) excess

excess ← superfluous ; excess - "something in excess" ;

the process that accompanies word formation is the truncation of the PN stem.

2) rushed about- verb form rush about

to rush about ← to rush about; to rush about - “to start rushing about”,

way of word formation - prefix.

3) care

care- noun form care

care-Ø ← leave; leaving - "when they leave, the same as leaving",

way of word formation - suffixation,

Truncation of the PS base,

alternation d'/d.

4) snow scooters- noun form snow scooter

snow (o) catØ ← snow + ride, snow scooter - “what they ride in the snow”,

way of word formation - addition with suffixation,

processes accompanying word formation:

Interfixation

Truncation of the PN of the stem of the verb.

Reflection of the morphemic composition of the word and its word-formation relations in dictionaries

There are special private (aspect) dictionaries that reflect the morphemic composition of the word and its derivational derivation. These dictionaries are private (aspect) linguistic dictionaries.

To work with the morpheme composition of a word, there are dictionaries that describe the compatibility and meaning of the sea (A. I. Kuznetsova, T. F. Efremova “Dictionary of Russian language morphemes”, T. F. Efremova “Explanatory dictionary of word-forming units of the Russian language”).

Word-building relationships between words are reflected in word-building dictionaries, the most complete of which is A. N. Tikhonov's "Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language" in 2 volumes.

In these dictionaries, non-derivative words are arranged alphabetically, to which word-formation chains are built, taking into account all derivatives of this non-derivative stem. A non-derivative word with all its derivatives is called a derivational nest. As an example, let's take the derivational nest of the word funny:

Comprehensive information about the word is contained, for example, in the "Dictionary-reference book on the Russian language: spelling, pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphemic, grammar, word frequency" by A. N. Tikhonova, E. N. Tikhonova, S. A. Tikhonova .

There are also versions of morphemic and word-formation dictionaries adapted specifically for schoolchildren, for example, A. N. Tikhonov’s School Word-Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language, M. T. Baranova’s School Dictionary of the Russian Language Word Formation, Z. A. Potihi, dictionaries presented in school textbooks.

Part 3. Lexicology and lexicography

Lexicology and lexicography

Lexicology - a branch of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (lexicon) and the entire lexical system (lexicon) of the language.

Lexicography- theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

The word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word

Word- This is a linguistic unit that serves to designate (name) objects and signs (actions, relationships, qualities, quantities).

Under meaning words understand the reflection in the word of the realities of reality (objects, features, relationships, processes, etc.). The main function of the word is naming the realities of reality (the so-called nominative function). But the word not only names, but also generalizes: calling table objects of different sizes, shapes, purposes, we digress from individual features specific objects and focus on their main features, reflecting not everything, but only essential features realities that make it possible to distinguish one phenomenon from another (for example, objects called the word table, from objects called the word stool). The meaning of a word may include emotional-evaluative components. So, for example, the words book And little book they call the same object, but the second word also has an additional emotional-evaluative component of the meaning - it expresses a dismissive assessment of the speaker.

The meanings of words are recorded in explanatory dictionaries.

Dictionary- a book containing a list of words or other language units (morphemes, phrases, phraseological units) placed in a certain order, most often alphabetically. Dictionaries are encyclopedic and linguistic.

Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the object of extralinguistic reality and try to present maximum amount features of this object.

Linguistic dictionaries describe linguistic units. Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into two groups: explanatory, describing the lexical meaning of words (in passing also reflecting its spelling, stress, part of speech, individual grammatical forms), and aspect, describing words in terms of their spelling (spelling), pronunciation (orthoepic), morphemic composition (morphemic), word-forming derivatives (word-forming), grammatical forms(grammatical), origin (etymological, foreign words), as well as in terms of their relationship with other words (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, compatibility, etc.).

single and multiple words. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Portable Value Types

Words are unambiguous(having the same lexical meaning) and polysemantic(having multiple meanings).

Most of the terms, some names of tools, professions, varieties of trees, etc. are unambiguous words. For example, the words stool, sugar bowl, huge, suffix.

A large number of words have several (two or more) meanings. So, for example, for the word head V explanatory dictionary S. I. Ozhegova gives 6 meanings:

1) part of the human or animal body,

2) mind, reason ( He is a man with a head),

3) a person as a carrier of ideas ( He's the head!),

4) the front of something ( column head, train),

5) livestock count unit ( herd of 100 heads),

6) a food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).

All meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected (although sometimes not all at once).

IN polysemantic word the main (original, primary) meaning of the word and the meanings derived from it are distinguished. New meanings arise in the word as a result of the transfer of the name (the outer shell of the word - sound and letter sequence) from one object of reality to other objects.

There are two types of name transfer: 1) by similarity (metaphor), 2) by adjacency - the real connection of objects (metonymy).

Let us characterize these types of transfer.

Transfer by similarity(metaphor).

Something similar to each other objects begin to be called one word.

Similarities between objects can be

1) external:

a) form: road tape, pot-bellied teapot;

b) color: copper hair, collect chanterelles,;

c) location: gulf throat, mountain range;

d) size, quantity: sea ​​of ​​tears, mountain of things;

e) degree of density: wall of rain, jelly roads;

e) degree of mobility: quick mind, the car is crawling;

g) the nature of the sound: rain drumming, creaky voice;

2) functional: car wipers, marriage shackles;

3) in human perception: cold look, sour face,

Move by adjacency(metonymy).

Two phenomena that are really connected with each other (spatially, situationally, logically, etc.) receive one name, are called one word. The connection of phenomena is:

1) spatial - a room and people in it: the class was late, the audience applauded;

2) temporary - action and subject - the result of this action: deluxe edition, tool kit;

3) logical:

a) the action and the place of this action: entry, stop;

b) the action and the people producing it: defense, attack(defenders, attackers);

c) material and product made from this material: wear gold, furs; win gold, silver, bronze;

A variation of this type of transfer is the transfer of the name from part to whole and from whole to part (synecdoche):

1) from part to whole: an extra mouth has been added to the family(= person), a herd of one hundred head of cattle(= animals), hotel room(= room), first violin, first racket;

2) from whole to part: neighbors bought a car(= car); But machine a whole class of mechanisms is also called: washing, sewing, and other machines.

The degree of figurativeness and prevalence in the language of different figurative meanings by origin is different.

Some figurative usages are not used by us in speech and exist only in the text of a certain author. These are individual (author's) metaphors and metonymy: car copper guts(I. Ilf and E. Petrov), apple cheekbone(Yu. Olesha). Their figurativeness is maximum, the use is connected only with the author's text; these figurative meanings are not reflected in dictionaries.

Other metaphors and metonyms are common, they are not “tied” to a specific text and are used by native speakers in different situations (usually in colloquial speech): forest wall, sea of ​​tears, screen star, saw(scold). Their figurativeness is less than that of the authors, but is clearly felt by native speakers; they are reflected in the dictionary and have a litter portable.

The third type of figurative meanings is characterized by the fact that their figurativeness is not felt (in linguistics they are called "dry"): chair leg, mushroom cap, tractor tracks, the sun has set, the clock is ticking. These meanings are basic, dictionary names certain subject, sign or action: figurative in origin, they are direct in terms of functioning in the modern language and do not have marks in the dictionary portable.

Thus, a word can have several direct meanings - the original and figurative ones that are figurative in origin ("dry").

Consider as an example the structure of the meanings of the above word head: 1) part of the body of a person or animal, 2) mind, reason ( He is a man with a head), 3) a person as a carrier of ideas ( He's the head!), 4) the front of something ( column head, train), 5) livestock count unit ( herd of 100 heads), 6) a food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).

The original and direct meaning of this word is 'part of the body of a person or animal' (in linguistics, the sign '' denotes the meaning of a language unit).

Based on the similarity (metaphorical transfer), the meanings 4 and 6 are formed: “the front of something” (similarity in location) and “a food product in the form of a ball, cone” (similarity in shape). Moreover, both of these meanings are also direct and are used in a neutral style of speech. On the basis of adjacency (metonymic transfer), on the basis of the original meaning, a figurative meaning 2 "mind, reason" is formed. On the basis of meaning 2, a figurative meaning 3 “a person as a bearer of ideas” is formed - the name of the whole in part (synecdoche). Based on 1 initial value formed direct meaning 5 "a unit of livestock count" - also a transfer from part to whole (synecdoche). Thus, the word head tongue : brieftheoreticalwellForschoolchildren"(phonetics, lexicology, morphology, syntax). Litnevskaya I.E. For example, here are the details...

Litnevskaya E. I.

Noun

When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.

Affixal ways of forming nouns

1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.

The following prefixes are used to form nouns: non- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) и некоторые другие.

2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.

The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes -ik (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) и многих других.

From adjectives, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) и некоторых других.

For suffix word formation nouns from verbs are characterized by the following suffixes: -nij (to sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) и другие.

When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred< сотня).

From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (generally< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка).

3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.

When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица).

When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-...-j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).

Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in a prefixed-suffixal way, for example: co-...-(v)ec (serve< сослуживец).

Non-affixal ways of forming nouns

1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviations: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ.

2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам.

3. When nouns are formed, substantivation is active, in which adjectives and participles pass into nouns: ice cream, manager, tip (we are talking about those words that are perceived by native speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle, used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the person who entered).

mixed ways

Nouns are formed by addition with suffixation. The most commonly used suffixes are -ets (earth + do< земледел-ец), -ник (тепло + обменивать < теплообменник), -тель (море + плавать < мореплаватель), -# (вино + делать < винодел).

Adjective

Adjectives in Russian are formed by prefixed, suffixal, prefixed-suffixal methods, addition, including fusion.

Affixal ways of forming adjectives

1. In the prefixed way, adjectives are formed from adjectives; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words of this part of speech. In this case, the following prefixes are used: non- (cheerful< невеселый), пре- (огромный < преогромный), раз- (веселый < развеселый), анти- (научный < антинаучный), противо- (естественный < противоестественный), сверх- (быстрый < сверхбыстрый), архи- (сложный < архисложный), супер- (модный < супермодный).

2. The suffix method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numerals and adverbs.

When forming adjectives from adjectives, the suffixes -onk- / -enk- (blue< син-еньк-ий, плохой < плохонький), -ущ- (большой < большущий), -енн- (высокий < высоченный), -оват-/-еват- (белый < беловатый, синий < синеватый).

When forming adjectives from nouns, suffixes -n- are used (autumn< осенний), -ан- (песок < песчаный), -ин- (тополь < тополиный, мама < мамин), -ий (лиса < лисий), -ов (отец < отцов), -ск- (море < морской), -ист- (лес < лесистый), -чат- (пузырь < пузырчатый), -лив- (дождь < дождливый).

From verbs, adjectives are formed using the suffixes -n- (to cut< резной), -чив- (улыбаться < улыбчивый), -лив- (въедаться < въедливый), -ист- (поджарить < поджаристый), -к- (пылать < пылкий), -л- (гнить < гнилой).

When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, the suffixes -n- and -enn- are used (two< двойной, вчера < вчерашний, внутри < внутренний).

3. In the prefix-suffix way, adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs.

When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: bez-...-n- (ticket< безбилетный), внутри-...-н- (школа < внутришкольный), вне-...-н- (класс < внеклассный), на-...-н- (стол < настольный), после-...-н- (война < послевоенный), до-...-н- (война < довоенный), противо-...-н- (удар < противоударный), без-...-(- (усы < безусый).

The same prefixes can be combined with the suffixes -enn- (leaves< безлиственный), -ов- (сеть < внутрисетевой), -ск- (завод < внутризаводской).

When forming from verbs, combinations of non-...-n- (break< неразрывный), без-...-н- (возвратить < безвозвратный), не-...-м- (исцелить < неисцелимый).

Non-affixal ways of word formation

1. Of the non-affixal ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyrical + epic< лир(о)-эпический, засуха + устойчивый < засух(о)устойчивый. При образовании прилагательных сложением обязательно используется интерфикс.

2. Only when forming adjectives, such a method of word formation as fusion is used: quickly + soluble< быстрорастворимый, с ума сшедший < сумасшедший. Отличие сращения от сложения заключается в том, что словосочетание при объединении в одно слово не претерпевает никаких изменений, за исключением того, что в производном прилагательном может быть установлено единое ударение (о возможной интерпретации этого способа см. примечание в разделе "Средства и способы словообразования").

mixed ways

When forming adjectives, addition with suffixation is possible, while the suffixes -n- and -(-: railway< железн(о)дорож-н-ый, кривой + бок < крив(о)бокий.

numeral

Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:

1) suffix: two< дв-адцать, пять < пят-надцать, три < тр-оj-е,

2) addition: three + one hundred< триста, двести + пятьдесят< двести пятьдесят.

Pronoun

Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes neither-, not-, something- and postfixes -something, -or, -something: who< никто, некто, кое-кто, кто-то, кто-либо, кто-нибудь.

Verb

Verbs are formed mainly by affixal methods (the most productive are prefixed and prefixed-suffixal); addition for verbs is uncharacteristic.

Affixal ways of forming verbs

1. In a prefixed way, verbs are formed from verbs. The number of verbal prefixes is very large, which is associated with the expression of the meanings of the result (species value), direction, quantitative and temporal modifications and the nature of the course of the action. We list the main verb prefixes: s- (do< сделать), на- (писать < написать), про- (читать < прочитать), о- (слепить < ослепить), в- (нести < внести), вы- (бежать < выбежать), от- (прыгнуть < отпрыгнуть), у- (лететь < улететь), за- (петь < запеть), до- (есть < доесть), про- (жить < прожить), при- (бежать < прибежать), недо- (выполнить < недовыполнить).

2. In the suffix way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.

From verbs perfect look verbs are formed imperfect form using suffixes -iva / -yva, -va and -a: reread< перечитывать, подкормить < подкармливать, напеть < напевать, решить < решать.

When forming verbs from nouns, the suffixes -i- (salt< солить), -а- (плотник < плотничать), -е- (пот < потеть), -нича- (лентяй < лентяйничать), -ова- (форма < формовать), -ствова- (адвокат < вокатствовать).

To form verbs from adjectives, the suffixes -and- (white< белить), -е- (белый < белеть), -ова- (пустой < пустовать), -ича- (подлый < подличать).

From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- (two< двоить "разделять надвое").

From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed by the suffix -a-, and if the generating stem ends in a vowel, the interfix consonant is used: you< вы(к)ать, ах < ахать, мяу < мяу(к)ать.

3. In the postfixal way, verbs are formed from verbs with the meaning of recurrence: wash< мыться, встречать< встречаться.

4. The prefix-suffix method is used in the formation of verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numerals.

Verbs formed from verbs receive the meaning of the imperfect form along with the designation of the intensity of the action. For this, the following combination of the species suffix -iva- / -yva- with prefixes on- (crack< потрескивать), при- (петь < припевать), на- (свистеть < насвистывать), под- (петь < подпевать), недо- (любить < недолюбливать).

From nouns, verbs are formed by a suffix and in combination with prefixes for- (shadow< затенить), об- (лес < облесить), при- (земля < приземлить). Приставка обез- употребляется в сочетании с суффиксами -и- (рыба < обезрыбить "лишить рыбы") и -е- (рыба < обезрыбеть "лишиться рыбы").

From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and prefixes -u- (dense< уплотнить), о- (благородный < облагородить), вы- (прямой < выпрямить) и некоторых других.

From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -and- and prefixes y- (three< утроить), с- (двое < сдвоить).

5. Verbs can be formed in the prefix-postfixal way from verbs. The postfix -sya / -ss is combined with prefixes v- (think< вдуматься), за- (думать < задуматься), на- (гулять < нагуляться), рас- (прыгать < распрыгаться), до- (звонить < дозвониться) и некоторыми другими.

6. In the suffixal-postfixal way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives with the help of suffixes -and- (crowd< толпиться) и -е- (видный < виднеться).

7. Verbs can be formed in a prefixed-suffixal-postfixal way: bankrupt< о-банкрот-и-ть-ся, звонить < пере-зван-ива-ть-ся.

Non-affixal ways in the formation of verbs are used extremely rarely. So, for example, the following words are formed by addition: work + arrange< труд(о)устроить, сам + воспламениться < сам(о)воспламениться.

Mixed ways when circumcising a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: world + create< у-мир(о)творить.

Adverb

The adverb is formed mainly by affixal methods, among which the prefix-suffixal is the most productive.

Affixal ways of forming adverbs

1. In the prefixed way, adverbs are formed from adverbs. Most often, prefixes are used in this case, non- (for a long time< недолго), во- (вне < вовне), за- (темно < затемно), до- (ныне < доныне), на- (всегда < навсегда), по- (ныне < поныне), от- (ныне < отныне), кое- (как < кое-как), ни- (где < нигде).

2. In the suffix way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.

Adverbs formed from nouns contain suffixes homonymous to the endings of the noun (see about this in the section "Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another"). These are suffixes -om (evening< вечером, -ой/-ою (весна < весной / весною), -ами (времена < временами).

Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives with suffixes -о/-е (cheerful< весело, неуклюжий < неуклюже), -и (дружеский < дружески), -ком (пеший < пешком).

To form adverbs from numerals, the suffix -zhdy and its modifications (two< дважды, три < трижды).

When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes -mya are used (stand< стоймя), -ом (волочь < волоком), -ю (ощупать < ощупью).

Adverbs can be formed by suffixing and from adverbs, while using suffixes: -ovato (early< рановато), -енько/-онько (часто < частенько) и некоторые другие.

3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfix method is used, in which postfixes -to are added to pronominal adverbs (where< где-то), -либо (куда < куда-либо), -нибудь (зачем < зачем-нибудь).

4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.

When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: in-...-u (dry< всухомятку), в-...-((даль < вдаль), на-...-у (встеча < навстречу), на-...- (показ < напоказ), в-...-у (верх < вверху), в-...-е (начало < вначале), в-...-и (даль < вдали), на-...-у (верх < наверху), с-...-у (бок < сбоку) и другие.

The greatest number of combinations is presented in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: in-...-th / -him (new< по-новому, прежний < по-прежнему), по-...-и (охотничий < по-охотничьи), из-...-а (давний < издавна), до-...-а (белый < добела), с-...-а (новый < снова), в-...-о (правый < вправо), на-...-о (белый < набело), по-...-у (пустой < попусту), в-...-ую (пустой < впустую), в-...-и (близкий < вблизи), с-...-у (молодой < молоду).

Adverbs can be formed in the prefix-suffix way from numerals, while the following prefixes and suffixes are used: in-/in-...-s/-s (third< в-третьих, второй < во-вторых), в-...-ом/-ем (двое < вдвоем, пятеро < впятером), в-...-о/-е (десятеро < вдесятеро), на-...-о/-е (двое < надвое).

From verbs, adverbs are formed by affixes -...-((jump< вскачь), в-...-ку (догонять < вдогонку).От наречий наречия образуются при помощи по-...-у (долго < подолгу), по-...-ку (нарочно < понарошку).

Non-affixal ways of formation of adverbs are not presented.

Mixed methods are represented insignificantly. So, some adverbs are formed by addition with suffixation, for example: past + walk< мимоходом.

Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another

The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.

We have already called the formation of nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them (ice cream, manager) - substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantivation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun, the suffix -usch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as a suffixation: head-yush-th (manage, manager - "the one who manages").

Many adverbs were formed by transition from other parts of speech. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking

Nouns (at home, in spring),

Adjectives (in vain, openly),

Participles (sitting, lying down),

Numerals (twice).

The transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language, all these words are formed with the help of a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous with the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the form-forming suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example: winter-oh / winter, lie-a / lie, in- empty-y / empty. The transition process is active during the formation of service words. So, for example, we can name the following groups of prepositions formed by the transition from other parts of speech:

Denominative: in view of, in the form of, during, at the expense of, about,

Verbal: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,

Adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.

At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around (adverb) - I walked around the house (preposition). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relationship, not an action, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success (preposition) - We left thanks to the hosts for hospitality (germ).

As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, during, by, about, as far as; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of a noun: selective compatibility (in the role of someone - in the function of something), the ability to accept a definition (to act in the dubious role of a peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.

From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:

1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-I > exclude,

2) prefixed-suffixal - from nouns: in-time > time,

3) addition - from prepositions: because of > from + for.

We know from experience in teaching and learning languages ​​that some languages ​​are easier to learn, while others are more difficult. Meanwhile, the concept of simplicity/complexity of a language has not yet been reflected in science.

The current state of the Russian language is characterized by unusually active processes of borrowing vast layers of vocabulary related to various areas of our life: economics, politics, sports, art, etc.

The subject of our study were adjectives denoting a person in appearance in connection with his physical features, recorded in the Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary (1981-1991).

Scheme of word-formation parsing of a word.

Normalization of the sound side of speech creates conditions for its further improvement. The formation of morphological generalizations is the most important element of this process. On this basis, the most significant tasks are solved

We want to remind you that the rule itself essentially consists of two: you can talk about writing one or two letters "n" in adjectives formed from nouns (this is one rule), or you can check verbal adjectives and participles.

Typological restructuring in English led to a change in the technique of encoding information - analytical technique has become dominant. As a result, the analytical method of creating nominative units is firmly entrenched in lexeme formation.

Experienced array of texts. Processing technique.

During inflection in the stems of nouns and verbs, regular and irregular changes are observed associated with fluent vowels in the stems of nouns and verbs.

Morphological causatives, i.e. causative verbs formed by affixing non-causative stems are found in many natural languages. Undoubtedly, the primacy in this respect belongs to the languages ​​of the agglutinating type.

Adjective. Endings of adjectives. Suffixes of adjectives. Spelling of complex adjectives. Classes of adjectives. Coordination of adjectives with nouns.

It is no coincidence that these notes on parts of speech begin with the above lines belonging to the English mathematician and writer Lewis Carroll (translated by Dina Orlovskaya) and the Russian linguist academician L.V. Shcherba, respectively.

The word-formation model, according to which nouns are formed in our modern language with the help of the suffix -ist- male, is very productive.

In this article, we would like to clarify for ourselves and for other translators the question of how the culture and the individual translator develop an idea of ​​what and how should be transmitted from culture to culture.

The state and development of Russian word formation is manifested in the rate of replenishment of the lexical system with the help of new derivative words, in the ratio of one's own and borrowed, in linguistic creativity.

Deictic adverbs in Spanish represent a very branched and peculiar system of means of spatial localization of objects and actions.

Word formation is called both the process of forming derivative words, and the section of linguistics, which studies the derivation, means and methods of word formation.

The spelling code of 1956, having eliminated inconsistencies in a number of spellings, made certain clarifications and changes to the spelling rules, left unchanged such rules that can be simplified and streamlined.

What do we mean by "declension". Substantive declension. Features of the change in singular. Substantive declension. Features of change in the plural.

In language, there is no one-to-one correspondence between meaning and the way it is expressed. The process of word formation (formation of words) is only a part of the process of formation of derivative nominations, which are not only single-word.

Noun

When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.

Affixal ways of forming nouns

1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.

The following prefixes are used to form nouns: not- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) and some others.

2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.

The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes - ik (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) and many others.

From adjectives, nouns are formed using suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) and some others.

The following suffixes are typical for suffixal word formation of nouns from verbs: -nij (sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) and others.

When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -n (one hundred< сотня).

From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (together< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка) .

3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.

When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица) .

When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-...-j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).

Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in the prefix-suffix way, for example: co-...- (in) ets (serve< сослуживец) .

Non-affixal ways of forming nouns

1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including with contraction: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ .

2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам .

3. When forming nouns, substantivation is active, in which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager, tip(we are talking about those words that are perceived by speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the incoming).

Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech

Litnevskaya E. I.

Noun

When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.

Affixal ways of forming nouns

1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.

The following prefixes are used to form nouns: non- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) и некоторые другие.

2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.

The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes -ik (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) и многих других.

From adjectives, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) и некоторых других.

The following suffixes are typical for suffix word-formation of nouns from verbs: -нj (to sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) и другие.

When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred< сотня).

From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (generally< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка).

3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.

When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица).

When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-...-j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).

Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in a prefixed-suffixal way, for example: co-...-(v)ec (serve< сослуживец).

Non-affixal ways of forming nouns

1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviations: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ.

2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам.

3. When nouns are formed, substantivation is active, in which adjectives and participles pass into nouns: ice cream, manager, tip (we are talking about those words that are perceived by native speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle, used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the person who entered).

mixed ways

Nouns are formed by addition with suffixation. The most commonly used suffixes are -ets (earth + do< земледел-ец), -ник (тепло + обменивать < теплообменник), -тель (море + плавать < мореплаватель), -# (вино + делать < винодел).

Adjective

Adjectives in Russian are formed by prefixed, suffixal, prefixed-suffixal methods, addition, including fusion.

Affixal ways of forming adjectives

1. In the prefixed way, adjectives are formed from adjectives; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words of this part of speech. In this case, the following prefixes are used: non- (cheerful< невеселый), пре- (огромный < преогромный), раз- (веселый < развеселый), анти- (научный < антинаучный), противо- (естественный < противоестественный), сверх- (быстрый < сверхбыстрый), архи- (сложный < архисложный), супер- (модный < супермодный).